Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.5 The Taiwanese Context .1 Country Profile
2.5.3 Mildly Mentally Impaired Students in Taiwanese Secondary Education
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senior vocational secondary education, and 0.64% on special education schools (Ministry of Education, 2007). The literacy rate in Taiwan was 97.91% in 2009 (Government Information Office, 2010).
An overview of the Taiwanese education system can be found in Appendix A.
2.5.3 Mildly Mentally Impaired Students in Taiwanese Secondary Education
History of special education
Taiwanese students who are mildly mentally impaired are educated, depending on the educational stage, in inclusive and exclusive settings with special education support.
Taiwan‟s special education history can be roughly divided into the following stages (Ministry of Education, 2010):
- The foundation stage (before 1962). The first special education school was a Christian school for the visually impaired in Tainan which opened in 1889. More schools for the visually and hearing impaired opened their doors throughout the country in the following years.
- The experimentation stage (1962 – 1983). Some regular schools began offering special education on an experimental basis. In Taipei, a class for mentally challenged was started at a regular elementary school. Primary and junior secondary schools in other cities followed by opening classes for the physically challenged, the speech impaired, and the gifted.
- The legislation stage (1984 – 1996). The Special Education Act was enacted in 1984, establishing standards that regulate the promotion of special education to safeguard students‟ rights and interests. Efforts were focused on diagnosis and evaluation of special needs students, placement of students in the communities they were based, and promotion
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- The development stage (1997 - 2007). The Special Education Act was amended in 1997.
This amendment covered the profession of special education administrative personnel, ensured the funding for special education, established educational systems, curricular and teaching flexibility, minimized limitations, and provided relevant professional services.
In 2001, a “12-Year Educational Placement Plan” was implemented to help disabled students enrol in a senior (vocational) high school near them without having to take an entrance exam. This plan also provides for an individualized education.
- The refinement stage (2008 – present). A Five-Year Plan for the Development of Special Education and a concurrent action plan for the education of gifted students have been in effect since 2008. This plan will be further covered at the end of this section.
Special education funding
According to Article 9 of The Special Education Act, the central government of Taiwan devotes 4.5% of the whole education budget to special education (Ministry of Education, 2009). An additional 5% of the whole local government education budget is put aside for special education.
Special education in Taiwanese culture
While people in Taiwan “have viewed education with deep respect for centuries…this respect has not always carried over to the education of students with disabilities” (Kang et al., 2002, p. 12). Historically, as mentioned earlier, Chinese society placed a heavy emphasis on standard examinations. Regardless of people‟s position or social status in life, they could advance through their own efforts. Major limitations, however, could be a person‟s desire, discipline, or intellect. High expectations and great emphasis on a child‟s academic performance has resulted in most of the Chinese public having negative attitudes toward
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children with disabilities because of their actual or potential poor academic performance (Kang et al., 2002). Parents may feel responsible for the “disability” or “handicap” in the child and this may compel them to shelter their child from outside interference as much as possible as “[i]t may be considered to be a serious “loss of face” or “failure of the family”
when an outsider or stranger discovers the offspring with disabilities” (Kang et al., 2002, p.
14). However, Kang et al (2002) also argue that a distinction should be made between more traditional Chinese families and nuclear families in urban areas. Urban families tend to adopt more modern values and lifestyles than traditional families which means that urban families are more likely to seek outside support.
Mildly mentally impaired student population
In 2009, the percentage of all special needs students compared to the total student population in nine-compulsory education (primary and lower secondary levels) was 2.5% (教 育部統計處，2010a). This percentage at the upper secondary level was 2.5% as well. In the same year, there were 20,909 mentally impaired students attending regular primary and lower secondary education schools, representing 0.8% of the total nine-year compulsory education population (教育部，2009b). At the upper secondary education level, there were 7,311 mentally impaired students, which was 0.2% of the total upper secondary education student population, studying in regular vocational schools (although in a self-contained special education program within these regular education schools). While the government does not specify levels of mental impairment, it is mainly the mildly mentally impaired who study at regular schools. Some moderately impaired students are also mainstreamed but usually, together with the severely and profoundly mentally impaired, they are educated in special schools.
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Definition of mildly mentally impaired students
In Taiwan, according to article 3 of the Disabled and Gifted Student Assessment Standard, a mentally impaired student has a delayed intellectual development and has serious difficulties in studying and adapting to the daily life environment (教育部，2009a).
Furthermore,
1. intellectual functioning is significantly lower or, according to individual intelligence tests, two standard deviations below the average, and
2. the student has, compared to peers, visible difficulties with self-care, movement, communication, social sentiment, academic studies etc.
A mildly mentally impaired student‟s intellectual functioning is between two to three
standard deviations below the average (陳麗如，2005). The IQ equivalent of the intelligence test results are, for WISC III children or adult tests an IQ of 55 to 69 or, for the Binet test, an IQ of 52 to 67 . The psychological age is between nine to twelve years of age, and upon finishing special education, the person is expected to be able to live partly independently and perform semi-skilled or single-skilled work.
Taiwan’s inclusive education movement
Taiwan has followed the worldwide trend of including special needs students in regular education. “As an echo of the worldwide movement of inclusive education and because of the conviction of inclusive ideas, special education in Taiwan is moving toward a goal of inclusion, though not necessarily full inclusion” (Wu, 2007, p. 76). The Special Education Act amendments of 1997 and 2001 strived to create a long term goal of a zero-reject, barriers free, and an inclusive educational environment. However, “[t]he idea of inclusion has been widely acknowledged and accepted by the public, whereas the idea of full inclusion is still in doubt by most people, including special education teachers” (Wu, 2007, p.
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90). The principle of the „Least Restrictive Environment‟ is adhered to when placing disabled students (Wu, 2007). The Special Education Act stipulates that students be placed in
appropriate schools with the premises of satisfying the students‟ learning requirements. The appropriateness of this placement is annually reassessed by local government agencies.
Educational programs for mildly mentally impaired students Compulsory education
Currently, special education services start at the pre-primary level. Placement of special needs students in Taiwan currently includes special education schools, special education classes at regular schools, resource classes, regular classes, circuit guidance and assistance, home education and bedside education. According to the early intervention principle, mildly mentally impaired students receive special education services as soon as they are diagnosed as having this kind of impairment. At the compulsory education stage (primary and lower secondary education), this population of students normally attend regular education classes while receiving additional services from the resource program. Resource program classes provide services to students with mild mental impairment, (to a limited extent) moderate mental impairment, learning disability, language disorders, weak sight, mild hearing impairment, emotional disorders, behavioural disorders, attention deficit disorders, physical impairments etc. However, the main population of primary and junior secondary education resource rooms are students with mild disabilities (孟瑛如，2006). Apart from the resource room programs, a number of mildly mentally impaired students are also educated in special education classes in the compulsory education stage. However, following the
principle of inclusion, the government strives to place mildly mentally impaired students as much as possible in regular education school resource room programs.
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Taiwanese resource room programs can be divided into the following three general systems (孟瑛如，2006):
1. Single category programs: One particular special needs group is targeted, such as the learning disabled, hearing impaired, speech impaired etc.
2. Cross-categorical programs: Two or more special needs groups are taught at the same time.
3. Non-categorical programs: Also called integrated resource programs. Admittance to this kind of program is not limited to only special needs categories. Any student who needs [special education] counselling services can be served.
Mildly mentally impaired students in compulsory education mostly attend a mix of regular classes combined with non-categorical resource room classes at the junior secondary
education level. The nine-year integrated curriculum also applies to students receiving extra services in these resource classes although the difficulty level is adjusted according to the individual student‟s situation. These students normally receive these resource class services during regular class hours. How this is arranged, differs per school. Some schools opt to have the student skip regular education classes such as physical education or arts, while other schools choose to „pull‟ these students out of a regular education‟s academic classes such as science class.
Resource rooms, apart from especially remote schools, normally have at least two or three qualified teachers who make use of the facilities, equipment and resources to provide individualized education, diagnostic services and counselling (孟瑛如，2006). Furthermore, they also provide regular classroom teachers with diagnostic services and special education counselling support. In this way, special needs students still have the opportunity to attend regular classes while receiving additional support in the resource room. The maximum time a special needs student is allowed to attend resource room classes is half of the total number of
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hours a student receives education. If a special needs student requires more additional support than the allowed time, this student should be referred to a self-contained special program.
The term „resource‟ here refers to two aspects: (1) equipment, facilities, and educational resources (e.g. computers, visual aids, disability facilities etc.) and (2) human resources (resource room teachers, expert groups, social workers etc.) (孟瑛如，2006).
Furthermore, every student attending classes in the resource room has an Individualized Educational Program (IEP). The IEP refers to special education or other related programs developed through professional teamwork to accommodate the needs of individual special needs students (Ministry of Education, 2003). It connects the regular class teachers, expert groups, parents, and resource room teachers. Students themselves may also be invited to participate in the team, and parents of the students concerned may invite other individuals if necessary.
Regular class teachers and resource classroom teachers need to regularly meet to enable a tight collaboration between the two parties while communication between parents and school staff should also be maintained on a more or less regular basis. According to the Enforcement Rules to the Act of Special Education, the IEP shall be developed by the school within one month after the semester begins and shall be subjected to review and conducted at least once per semester (Ministry of Education, 2003). Students are furthermore assisted in transitions from preschool to elementary school, from elementary school to junior high school, from junior high school to senior (vocational) high school, as well as from senior (vocational) high school to university or the post-school environment. At these stages the IEP has an additional function, that of an Individual transition plan (ITP). More detailed
regulations concerning IEPs and ITPs will be provided in Chapter 4.
Resource room support services relevant for students with mild mental impairment
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1. Cognition and school work: Provide students with concrete experiences, exercise opportunities, adjustment of homework difficulty level, multi-sensory learning, and guidance in learning strategies.
2. Communication: Assists in language training, provide auxiliary communication tools, and opportunities to practice spoken language or express oneself.
3. Ability to act: Arrange a disability free physics room and conform to the principles of reachability, accessibility, and practicality.
4. Emotional and interpersonal relationships: Arrange mental counselling or medical treatment.
Furthermore, as part of the individualizing of education, teaching materials can also be modified to better suit the individual needs of the student.
The teaching methods in the resource room can be as follows (孟瑛如，2006):
1. Small group teaching. Create small groups of three to six students of the same grade, with similar learning styles, or at similar education levels.
2. Coordinated teaching. During classes, two teachers simultaneously teach a certain group of students. One teacher proceeds with the total teaching activities while the other teacher assists in giving individual guidance according to a student‟s specific needs.
3. Individualized teaching. This method is aimed at a student with special teaching needs or a student who cannot continue in the afore-mentioned small learning groups.
Although resource programs are similar nationwide, they can vary throughout Taiwan as the city and county governments are in charge of the program‟s administration.
Upper secondary education
In 1994, certain regular vocational schools began setting up experimental special education classes in various vocational departments, enrolling junior high school graduates
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who were mildly mentally impaired. Since 2001, all physically or mentally impaired junior high school graduates have been able to receive secondary education or secondary vocational education. According to the Vocational Education Act, the Special Education Act, and various other rules and regulations, mildly mentally impaired students are able to attend senior vocational secondary education at a so-called comprehensive vocational program (綜 合職能科). This three-year, self-contained, course in upper secondary education is especially aimed at serving students with a mild (and to a limited extent, moderate) mental impairment.
Students could have multiple disabilities, but the main indicator for admittance should be mental impairment. These comprehensive vocational programs are situated in regular senior vocational secondary education schools.
The main purpose of the course is to develop personal, social, and occupational adaptation ability in order to be able to become independent citizens (教育部，2000).
Subsequently, the following goals have been developed:
- To train the students‟ body and mind, enrich their life intelligence, develop healthy personalities, and increase personal and family life adjustment ability.
- To understand the living environment, adjust to societal change, expand interpersonal relations, and cultivate school and community living adjustment ability.
- To understand the employment environment, cultivate work ethics, establish work skills, and to promote work and society service adjustment ability.
Before being admitted to a comprehensive vocational program, students need to sit an exam especially designed for students with mild mental impairment (教育部，2010b). This exam is split up into two parts and both count for fifty percent of the total. The first part covers functional academic subjects such as Chinese, math, English, common knowledge etc.
The other part of the exam tests a student‟s operational and motor skills. Daily activities such
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as pouring tea, opening locks, moving things, etc. are performed by the student and problem solving abilities are also determined.
The comprehensive vocational course consists of six domains which can be further divided into a general education part and a vocational education part. The general education part covers (1) social adaptation, (2) functional languages, (3) functional mathematics, (4) living education, and (5) leisure education while the (6) vocational education part is divided into five fields: service industry, agriculture, housekeeping, business, and industrial labour.
Which vocational subjects are offered differs per school and often schools specialize in one or more specific fields. Over the three year course, the percentage of subjects and their contents are as follows (教育部，2000):
- Personal living (25% to 35% of total courses): the ability to take care of oneself in daily life, including practical language, functional math, communication, etiquette, living science and technology, health and recreation, financial management, arts, autonomous living, problem solving, career planning etc.
- Social living (25% to 35%): group and self relations ability, including interpersonal relationships, societal adjustment, law and government education, ethics and morality, protection of resources, ecological care, national identity etc.
- Occupational living (35% to 45%): future work ability, including professional skills, positional skills, basic skills, and work ethics
As to the vocational courses in the comprehensive vocational program, the students explore various industries in the first year of the three year program. In the second grade, vocational skills are emphasized. In the final grade, internships are the main method of vocational learning. Apart from studying in school, students also visit worksites, learn on the job at a company, or follow an internship at a company. This is arranged as follows:
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Figure 2.2 Comprehensive Vocational Department vocational exploration (Source: 教育部，2000)
At the core of the upper secondary education curriculum is the transition to the post-school environment (教育部，2000).
The education of the mildly mentally impaired at the upper secondary education level is based on eight principles (教育部，2000):
1. Suitability. As the mildly mentally impaired are slower to develop in such areas as motor skills, social skills, and language skills, the curricular contents and level of difficulty should be adjusted to their special needs.
2. Development. The curriculum and educational program should open up a student‟s potential and aim for a suitable development so the student can become a completely independent, social individual within society.
3. Comprehensiveness. Vocational skill learning should integrate general academic education subjects such as reading, writing, calculating etc. as well as consider an individual‟s civilian, family, and recreational life.
4. Continuity. Emphasize the vertical connection with the lower secondary education First Grade Senior High
Second Grade Senior High
Third Grade Senior High
Training Orientational Worksite visits
(4 to 8 times every semester)
On the job learning
(1 to 2 times every semester) or Internship
(every week half day to full day) Internship
(first semester, once to twice a week)
(second semester, twice to four times a week)
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content. Furthermore, employment cultivation, employment knowledge selection, employment readiness should be well-arranged and sequenced in the curriculum so as to provide a practical transition.
5. Functionality. In order to cultivate a student‟s occupational skills the curriculum needs to serve as an orientation which can determine a student‟s learning characteristics. The curriculum outline should conform to these occupational needs.
6. Flexibility. The mildly mentally impaired possibly have multiple disorders such as emotional disorders, behavioural disorders etc. Therefore, as students‟ personal
characteristics can be diverse, the curricular content and implementation method need to be flexible so as to benefit the student‟s individual growth and development of potential.
7. Daily life oriented. The curricular contents need to emphasize daily routines training in order for the student to be able to adapt to societal and occupational living, develop good living habits, and become an independent, autonomous individual.
8. Community oriented. The community is an important resource for special education.
Connecting the community‟s characteristics with the curricular contents helps education achieve its purpose and will shape community identity and provide support.
In planning the curriculum, emphasis is put on the fact that the schools plan in accordance with a student‟s aspirations, interests, ability, and needs (教育部，2000).
Simultaneously, consideration should be given to the characteristics of the community, school development, teaching staff qualifications, etc.
Assessment of a student‟s knowledge at the comprehensive vocational program level is done through observations, oral tests, written tests, examinations, work samples, homework
Assessment of a student‟s knowledge at the comprehensive vocational program level is done through observations, oral tests, written tests, examinations, work samples, homework