Chapter 2. Historical Overview
2.1 European Union treaties and the rise of euroscepticism
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2.1 European Union treaties and the rise of euroscepticism
It can be stated that the EU is a special creation that must constantly move forward, develop, and make Europe a better place to live. If it stops, this may signal the beginning of the end for this politico-economic union.
Table 2.1 The development of the EU's structures
Year Treaty/Agreement Aim
1951 Paris Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC)
1957 Rome Treaty Creation of the European Economic Community
1985 Schengen Agreement Formation of Europe's borderless Schengen Area 1986 Single European Act Establishing the Single Market
1992 Maastricht Treaty Creation and introduction of the euro as a common European currency
1997 Amsterdam Treaty Increase of power of the European Parliament and works on foreign and security policy
2001 Nice Treaty Preparation of the eastward expansion
2007 Lisbon Treaty Formation of the EU as it is at the moment
Source: Staab Andreas, The European Union explained, Indiana University Press, 2011
Undoubtedly, the Paris Treaty can be labeled as the beginning of the European Union.
Signed in 1951 by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands (also called as “The Six”), the treaty aimed to sustain economic stability (based on the coal and steel production) and peace. Many International Political Economy and International Relations researchers strongly believe that countries that have economic ties with each other are less likely to enter into war with one another. This could not be more accurate. Since 1951, the states forming the EU have never been in military conflicts with other member nations.
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Six years later, the political leaders of the European Coal and Steel Community decided to expand the economic opportunities and signed the Rome Treaty in 1957. This resulted in the creation of the European Economic Community.
The Community shall be based upon a customs union covering the exchange of all goods and comprising both the prohibition, as between Member States, of customs duties on importation and exportation and all charges with equivalent effect and the adoption of a common customs tariff in their relations with third countries.
15The Rome Treaty was a milestone in transforming the whole European Community and marked the beginning of the “ever closer union”. On 14 June 1985, one of the most important agreements was signed by Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands – the Schengen Agreement. Their objective was to allow for the free movement of citizens within the European continent while abolishing passport and border controls. The agreement was implemented in 1995, and since that time, 26 member states have joined the Schengen area. Nowadays, many Europeans take great advantage of this system and consider it to be one of the biggest achievements of the EU. On the other hand, the agreement became one of the main “enemies” of hard eurosceptic political parties in Europe.
The next stage in the development of the EU was the Single European Act, signed in 1986 which created a crucial EU Single Market. From that moment on, all the member states could enjoy the free movement of goods, capital, services, and people, commonly known as the “four freedoms”. All 28 member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway (European Economic Area), and Switzerland (bilateral treaties) boast the largest GDP in the world and a 20% global share in exports and import.16 It goes without saying, the creation of the EU Single Market is considered to
15 CVCE, “Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (Rome, 25 March 1957).”
16 European Commission, “The European Union Explained: Internal Market,” (2014).
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be one of the three greatest accomplishments of the EU.
In February 1992, member states decided to move forward and attempt to integrate European countries even more than the Schengen Agreement and Single European act already had.
Twelve EU countries decided to sign the Maastricht Treaty introducing a single European currency – the euro. Nowadays, 19 EU member states use euro as their national currency (eurozone), 9 countries such as Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, etc. use it in terms of monetary agreements, and Kosovo and Montenegro use it unilaterally. Moreover, they established the three pillars of the EU:
European Community (EC), the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). Many European leaders showed a desire to extend the potential of the EU in the fields of foreign, military, criminal and justice policy in order to strengthen the EU's position in the world. Subsequently, member states signed the Amsterdam Treaty in 1997, which extended European Parliament power over the areas mentioned in the Maastricht Treaty while focusing more on the rights of European citizens.
The next big step for the EU was the Nice Treaty of 2001. The main objective of this particular agreement was to prepare, transform and reform the EU's structures and institutions for the biggest enlargement in its history. Accession of the eight former Eastern Block and Yugoslavia countries and two Mediterranean islands forced the current EU to adapt to many extreme changes brought by these less developed countries. To shape the EU as it is now, 28 member states had to sign the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007 (so far the last EU treaty). With regard to the treaty's main objectives, it established a constitution of Europe by giving “more power for the European Parliament, change of voting procedures in the Council, citizens' initiative, a permanent president of the European Council, a new High Representative for Foreign Affairs, a new EU diplomatic service.17
Based on the treaties and agreements signed by EU representatives over the past 60 years, one might conclude that they have stayed true to the idea of establishing an “ever closer union”.
17 European Union, “EU treaties.”
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Undoubtedly, Schengen area, Single Market, and the euro were the greatest contributions to that project. Many EU leaders strongly believe that Europeans need to wait a long time before another treaty is signed. In their opinions, the EU has reached the point where having a closer union than it does right now may derive more harm than benefit.
The question to which the author wishes to respond in this part of the thesis, concerns the connection between the EU's treaties and the emergence of euroscepticism, as well as the relevance of the two-level games theory in forming the EU's structure. As was mentioned at the beginning of this section, the EU is a special creation that must constantly move forward, develop, and make Europe a better place to live. By singing treaties and agreements, European politicians have created a special union that has not been achieved in any other region around the world. It is not difficult to imagine that such a “federalization” of Europe does have its opposition. Strictly speaking, many eurosceptic figures criticized many of the treaties because they contributed to the democratic deficit.
Before 1985, the term euroscepticism did not even exist. It emerged when the European Commission decided to pursue the project of an “ever closer union” through the signing of the Schengen agreement, Maastricht Treaty, Nice Treaty etc. The development of euroscepticism is inherently linked to the development of the EU itself. If we look at the main points opposed by eurosceptic parties, we then realize that these all concern the ideas implemented after 1985.
The project of an “ever closer union” is impossible without the signatures of all member states. To ratify agreements, each EU country must accept and follow the conditions outlined in the documents. Reaching a compromise has always been an extremely difficult task since there has been increasingly more states with differing interests and attitudes that have joined the EU. As the two-level games theory says, the government must attain the win-set agreement by satisfying its voters on both the international and domestic levels. The best examples to illustrate the success of such negotiation are the Schengen agreement and the Maastricht Treaty. The eurosceptic United Kingdom has never expressed its desire to join the Schengen area nor the monetary union. The
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British Prime Minister had no other option than to negotiate with the European Commission regarding conditions to satisfy both parties. As a result, some countries in the EU can occasionally agree on the opt-outs from treaties and agreements implemented by the EU. Subsequently, the UK and Ireland are not the part of the Schengen area, the UK and Denmark are not in the monetary union, etc. This example shows how the two-level games theory turned out to be a success in helping eurosceptic countries ratify EU treaties and agreements.