The purpose of this first chapter is to introduce the background of the study, the purpose of the study, the research questions, and the study‘s significance. Additionally, definitions, of the various terms, utilized, throughout the study, are provided in this chapter.
Background of the Study
Seneca, one of Rome‘s most renowned Stoic philosophers, once said, ―As the soil, however rich it may be, cannot be productive without cultivation, so the mind, without culture, can never produce good fruit‖ (as cited in Labonte, 2011, p.13). Seneca suggests that without labor, even the best, of crops, can never be cultivated; likewise, without culture, the mind can never fully develop. Culture is ever present in all societies. Evidently, all humans need to be aware of culture and the significance it plays in their overall well-being.
Culture is a broad term, which has been used, for centuries. Throughout the years, the meaning, of the term, has evolved quite tremendously. Culture was once referred to as ―Tending the soil,‖ and then ―Refinement of mind, taste, and manners‖. Today, according to anthropologist Clifford Geertz, culture is ―The fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their experience and guide their action,‖ and that culture is an ordered system of meaning and of symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place‖ (Geertz, 1973, p.3). Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) provide an often cited text, where they define culture as ―The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category, of people, from others‖ (p. 4). Today, when culture is spoken of, it is used to describe a set of shared beliefs, customs, and symbols belonging to a particular group of people. Thus, an action is not cultural, unless it is common among a group.
By now, it is no secret that the world is becoming increasingly global. Clearly, the exchange of resources and various goods, from one country to another, requires human
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interaction. People from diverse echelons of society, cultures, and countries, interact with each other, in the exchange process. Zhao & Wildermeersch (2008) state, ―Internationalization is one of the most important and fast growing driving forces for higher education in the new century‖
(p.2). They believe that by incorporating an intercultural/international approach into the teaching and other functions of the institution then the entire environment of the institution shifts to that of an international one whereby it is aligned with international protocols, and its national as well as international standards are strengthened. Thus, it is evident that schools are welcoming internationalization, because of the many benefits it offers them. More and more universities worldwide are seeking accreditation, for this puts them on the international forefront, and they are able to build their reputation, as a world renowned institution and recruit international students. Perhaps the main reason, though, for recruiting international students, is to foster cross cultural understanding. Still, it must be noted that the internationalization, of higher education, does not guarantee positive intercultural interaction.
It seems reasonable to assume that governments and universities alike, from around the world, are promoting cultural diversity in order to equip students with the necessary skills which will enable them to successfully cope in a multicultural society. One such government, which has welcomed a vast majority, of international students, is the government of the United States.
Altbach (2004) states, ―With its 586,000 international students, the United States is currently by far the largest host country and home to more than a quarter, of the world‘s foreign students (p.2).
It is true that the more international students a university hosts, in its international programs, the more it is recognized for its number of students. However, studies have shown that international students do not just fill seats–they also make significant contributions to the host country‘s overall global competitiveness. In essence, they increase the number of highly skilled people in key disciplines (Altbach, 2004).
Although it hosts perhaps the most international students, the United States is not the only country interested in or participating, in the promotion, of international students, at its universities. Ryan (2005) boasts that Australian universities are honored to host students, from diverse educational, social, cultural, and political backgrounds. Such diversity brings about great potential, for learning from all parties, and university policies in and around Australia claim to
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foster a global approach, as a key aspect, to their teaching and research. Curtain University, which is located in Australia, claims to have more than 10, 000 international students enrolled, at their university. The university is said to offer a unique cross-cultural experience, in which students become part of an international network that provides social and academic support, for a lifetime (www.about.curtin.edu.au).
Similarly, on the National Taiwan University Office of International Affairs website, it states, ―The immediate goal is to enroll 1,500 plus international degree-seeking students, by 2010‖
(www.ntnu.edu.tw/oia). In an effort to become internationally recognized and accredited, Taiwanese Universities have been offering a number of scholarships as well as study abroad opportunities to citizens of countries around the world. Taiwan‘s official government website states, ―In surveys sponsored by the Ministry of Education, international students cited scholarship availability and academic resources and quality as major factors behind their decision to study in Taiwan. Other reasons included Taiwan‘s rich and colorful culture as well as better job prospects when they return home‖ (www.taiwan.gov.tw).
In terms of Taiwanese scholarships offered to international students, two main bodies that offer a significant number of scholarships yearly for foreigners to study in Taiwan are Taiwan ICDF (International Cooperation and Development Fund) and MOFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Taiwan. In January of 2011, the government of St. Lucia posted, on its website, a call for Taiwan ICDF and MOFA scholarship applicants. The post goes as follows, ―The Taiwan Scholarship program, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and the ―ICDF Scholarship Program‖ organized by International Cooperation and Development Fund is designed to enhance the educational exchanges between St. Lucia and Taiwan and provide an opportunity for people, who would like to experience a different culture and study abroad for a bachelor‘s master‘s or PhD degree‖ (www.stlucia.gov.lc).
When various universities websites whom a vast amount of scholarship recipients are placed at are looked at, its office of international affairs (OIA) claims to offer support for the interaction between locals and foreigners. For example, National Taiwan Normal University OIA office states, ―The OIA is dedicated to increasing the opportunities for students to be in contact
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with other cultures through our academic curricula, study abroad plans, faculty and student exchange programs and international scholars‘ visits on campus‖ (www.oia.ntnu.edu.tw).
Thus, it is evident that both universities and the government of Taiwan alike have the interest, of interaction, between international students and locals at the core of their endeavours to host international students, in Taiwan. However, there seems to be a gap in what is hoped for by these agencies and what is actually achieved. Despite the vast amount of literature, on intercultural communication between international students and host country nationals there is little known about the actual contact experience (Ellison & Powers, 1994). The contact hypothesis holds that increase contact of unlike groups leads to positive results in terms of communication and interaction. However, such contact and interaction processes are not well examined in practice, and it is unclear whether such favorable outcomes are always achieved.
The Espoused theory holds that there is a divide between what people think and what they actually do. That which people think or claim to believe can be referred to as the espoused theory, and that which they actually do can be referred to as the theory in practice. According to Argyris and Schon (1974), people have mental maps that guide their actions, rather than the theories they explicitly espouse. Hence, they hold certain beliefs, but these mental maps cause them to produce a different behavior. Thus, when faced with a given situation, the theory in action comes up, and people do things that go against what they claim to believe. Alarmingly enough, most people are unaware of this. The reason this is looked at in this study is because many a scholar claim to be proponents of intercultural communication. However, when placed in an intercultural setting, their behavior towards the idea might change. Under the scope of the contact theory, which will be used as the theoretical framework in this study, it is assumed that ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension can be reduced, if people are constantly in contact with one another.
Contact is said to be the connecting factor in allowing individuals, who are different, to get to know each other better and in them having tolerance for each other. All this is expected to lead to improved relations between unlike groups (Amir, 1969; Amir & Ben-Ari, 1985; Nesdale & Todd, 1998; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2000). Thus, it is reasonable to state that when intercultural communication is looked at amongst students of different backgrounds, it is often times assumed that students will overcome differences by having constant contact or association with one
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another. Being in a diverse classroom, or any other diverse setting, positive intergroup contact is almost always expected to take place.
In this study, uncovering concrete information, not just assumptions, about the frequency and amount of contact between the two groups can provide tremendous insight into the everyday interactions and nature of intercultural contact of international and host students. In addition, readers will better understand the type of intercultural contact that is occurring between the groups, of students, as opposed to accepting that ideal contact that is presumed to be happening.
Although ideal contact is often presumed to be happening, among people from different cultures, the nature of intercultural interactional contact is yet to be fully examined. Thus, there is no specific detail as to what occurs during intercultural interaction (Halualani et al, 2003, p.5).
Undoubtedly then, in the case of Taiwan, a large amount of international students enrol in classes, but the extent to which intercultural communication or interaction, on a whole, takes place between the local Taiwanese students and international students seem to be unknown. Thus, the lack of knowledge in regards to the interaction between the two groups creates a loss of productivity. This study then explored the extent of the interaction between local Taiwanese students and international students, particularly in terms of the intercultural communication experiences of international and Taiwanese students studying in a culturally diverse environment in Taiwan as well as the difficulties faced and the strategies employed in the process of intercultural communication.
Statement of the Problem
When the fact that various universities from around the world are increasingly recruiting international students is taken into account, it must be acknowledged that these universities need to become multicultural in more than one respect. Thus, they need to be open, welcoming, and especially tolerant, to students coming from different cultures (Little, 2008). Such universities must include a well-rounded learning approach, in the courses offered and the different programs.
Multicultural universities also need to create a social as well as academic environment, whereby students from diverse cultures can learn together (Little, 2008).
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The multicultural university is a place where students of various cultural backgrounds are presumed to interact, with one another (Halualani, Chitgopekar, Morrison, & Dodge, 2004;
Jackman & Crane 1986). Such a context has been identified as one, of the last settings that house individuals, from diverse backgrounds, together in one place. Multicultural universities should foster a spirit of inclusivity and ensure that students coming from diverse backgrounds are accepted and treated fairly. However, despite the efforts of the multicultural university to integrate international students into its curricula and make its curricula an international one the international students still face difficulties adjusting to the norms prescribed by the host country university and the host country nationals. Evidently, the internationalization of higher education does not particularly result in interculturality (Bash, 2009).
Celis & Wildemeersch (2002, p. 5) state, ―Once international students enter the university,
‗gaps‘ between them and local students are likely to be highlighted‖. International students are required to adjust to not only the academic standards but also the cultural assumptions of the vast majority in order to excel, yet the practices of the institutions are not expected to change (Celis &
Wildemeersch, 2002). It is critical, however, for international students to not only adapt to the host country‘s way of life and education system; they should also take an altogether different approach and try to broaden their way of thinking and become tolerant of different points of view.
This can only take place through interaction with their host country counterparts. Thus, a huge importance should be put on contact between local and international students. Since international students come in contact with their local classmates on a daily basis, this is a good starting ground, for them to begin to submerge themselves, in their new environment.
Under the scope of the contact hypothesis, it is believed that more and more personal contact between the members of different ethnic or racial groups will reduce prejudiced opinions and discriminatory actions between the two. These contact situations can occur in one of two ways. It can be planned, whereby groups are somewhat forced to interact with each other, or it can be unplanned, whereby spontaneous interaction takes place. The Psychology of Ethnic and Cultural Conflict holds that the more interaction people from different culture, language, beliefs, skin color, or nationality have then the least likely they are to have negative stereotypes of each other. Thus, intergroup relations are improved and people become more willing to treat each
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other as equals (Forbes, 1997). In essence, more contact results in less cultural conflicts. It is a given, however, that this type of interaction, which is desired between the parties involved, does not always take place. In regards to intercultural communication of students of different backgrounds or local and international students, it is a common assumption that the more the students of these different groups interact, the more they are expected to get along. Being in a diverse classroom, or any other diverse setting, positive intergroup contact is almost always expected to take place, whether it is planned by professors demanding that the two groups work together or unplanned whereby the two groups take the initiative to communicate with each other.
Purposes of the Study
This study aimed to uncover information about the frequency and amount of contact taking place between international and local Taiwanese students and provide tremendous insight into the everyday interactions and nature of intercultural contact of international and host students in Taiwan. Additionally, readers will be geared with the necessary information to better understand the intercultural contact that is actually occurring between the groups of instead of merely speculating.
Again, although ideal contact is often presumed to be happening among people from different cultures, the nature of intercultural interactional contact is yet to be fully examined.
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the intercultural interaction, between local Taiwanese students and international students. This purpose was realized through interviewing both local students and international students alike as well as reviewing relevant documents on the subject matter. It also aimed to examine the extent to which the objectives of the government of Taiwan and the previously mentioned scholarship donors are achieved in terms of internationalization of Taiwanese universities and fostering the interaction of local and foreign students. Additionally, the study also aimed to shed light on the difficulties faced by both local Taiwanese and international students in terms of studying in a culturally diverse environment.
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Questions of the Study
Based on the intention to examine the interaction between local Taiwanese and international students, this research aimed to answer the following questions:
1. What are the intercultural communication experiences of Taiwanese and international students studying in a culturally diverse environment, in Taiwan?
2. What are the difficulties faced and the strategies employed in the process of intercultural communication by students studying in a culturally diverse environment?
Significance of the Study
In the past, it was said that most research regarding international students studying abroad had been conducted from the viewpoint of the acculturating group (e.g. international students) with little information about the perspectives of host students or those within the receiving community (Ward, 2001). Evidently, studies were always being conducted on international students studying abroad or adjusting to life abroad but seldom studies would take the local students‘ reaction to their international classmates or foreign counterparts into account. Similarly, studies examining intercultural communications between international and host country students have been conducted, many times before. However, most of them have been carried out in a western setting and it is known that western practices may not be applied to the East, because of large cultural differences.
Hence, there existed and still exist to some degree a shortage of research done regarding host country nationals reaction to international students, studying amongst them, despite the fact that in recent years significant attention has being drawn to intergroup relations and multicultural attitudes. There also exist a shortage of research done in the East exploring intercultural communication, of international and host country students. Thus, this study will contribute to the existing body of researches conducted on international students studying abroad as well provide
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new knowledge to the limited studies on intercultural communication between local Taiwanese students and international students. Unlike previous studies, which failed to take both the acculturating and the host country groups into consideration, both groups will be equally weighed here, as this study will explore the interaction between both international and local Taiwanese students (Taiwan being the eastern country of interest).
Furthermore, the findings of the study revealed aspects of intercultural communication that the Government of Taiwan as well as Taiwan ICDF, MOFA and universities within Taiwan, who offer international programs, should take into consideration in regards to internationalizing Taiwanese universities and providing room for cultural exchange.
Definition of Terms Culture
Culture is concerned with the development of coherent viewpoints, which bring a cumulative effect to otherwise isolated experiences of a group, making them feel special yet allowing others to have a parallel experience (Veltman, 1997, p.1).
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Communication is a symbolic process in which people from different cultures creates shared meanings (Lustig & Koester, 2003, p. 51). In this study, the term particularly means communication between people from different national cultures.
The contact hypothesis in its simplest form argues that the greater the contact between individuals from antagonistic social groups (defined by language, culture, skin color, nationality, etc.), the greater will be the undermining of stereotypes that are the basis for prejudice and discrimination (Forbes, 1997, p.2). The contact hypothesis assumes that prejudice as well as intergroup conflict can be reduced if people are in constant contact with one another, because
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this contact will cause them to be better acquainted with each other, thus resulting in improved relations.
International Students
According to (UIS, 2009) international students can be defined according to the
According to (UIS, 2009) international students can be defined according to the