The first chapter provides an overall understanding of this study. It contains: a background of the research study, theoretical framework, the importance and problem statement, objectives of the study, research questions and significance. Also definitions of the important terms used in this study.
Background of the Study
The twentieth century has been called “the age of communication”. Globalization is increasing rapidly. Thus, speaking English has become important as it is considered one of the great world languages (Wallace, 1991). According to the website “The statistical Portal”, around 1,500 million people speak English worldwide and only 375 million are native speakers (The statistical portal, 2014). In fact, the English language is becoming more common nowadays and learning English goes beyond academic purposes. For instance, we read books, listen to music, do business, and interact with people from foreign countries, where, although English is not the first language, it is the common language we use to communicate.
Globalization gives us the possibility to study and work anywhere in the world, with the only requirement of being able to speak English and communicate in a professional manner.
In non-English speaking countries, specifically in Asian countries the Government is generating new educative plans to motivate their citizens to learn English, and an example of these countries is Taiwan ROC. The Taiwanese Government is taking action to improve the English ability of its citizens making reforms to their curricula (Wang, 2008). The academic demand Taiwanese students ‘face in their schools is high: test-oriented pedagogy, high pressure in examinations, and competition among students. All these aspects together are pulling factors for Taiwanese students to get enrolled in the different supplementary schools, short-term, cram schools, or also known as ‘buxibans’ across the country.
In fact, cram schools are now very attached to the culture and life style of Taiwanese people. According to the short term tutorial information management system, in their website http://bsb.edu.tw/ their statistics show that in the last ten years (from 2006-2015) the number of cram school has increased from 3261 to 4848. The increasing of cram schools in Taiwan is steady, in fact cram schools are considered now a trend in the business industry in the country.
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For some this even can be seen as a business venture, and a very profitable one (De La Cruz-Yeh, 2011). However, cram schools have also the mission of preparing the students for language tests, and to make kids more academically competitive. Whether the reasons to open a cram school are, more EFL teachers are needed. Furthermore, acquiring and retaining efficient EFL teachers, that possess the characteristics that are crucial to perform adequately becomes fundamental. And these observations, lead us to the importance of professional development for teachers, working in cram schools.
EFL teachers working in cram schools experience a number of activities in the construction of their professional development. These experiences include: formal learning and informal learning activities. One important and often practiced activity within formal learning is training. This activity, enables and aligns EFL teachers with the requisites established by the educative authorities. In Taiwan EFL teachers who are native English speakers (NES), are requested to have the TESOL or TEFL certification. On the other hand, Taiwanese locals, who pursuit to work as teachers need to pass a proficiency exam, 360 hours of training, and 40 credits provided by an university in Taiwan. Although these requirements are for working in public schools, these are not required for working in cram schools, since the hiring process is more flexible (De La Cruz Yeh, 2011).
Another aspect of professional development is informal learning, this type of learning is produced in a wide range of situations, most of the time the teacher is not even aware that learning is occurring, does not have any monetary cost and can be produced within the workplace among colleagues. Within the activities of informal learning we can mention: self-awareness, self-observation (Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001), teaching journals, action research (Cohen & Manion, 1985) and self-learning.
The importance of professional development lies on the teaching performance rather than the mere acquisition of knowledge. Since the majority of EFL the teachers in Taiwan are foreigners who have a bachelor in majors different than education or literature, generating professional development experiences for these EFL teachers, in the work place becomes fundamental. These experiences of professional development should aim to influence teachers
‘performance. Regarding teaching performance, this study wants to examine more in depth how this is demonstrated in three specific areas. These three dimensions were established by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001)
Classroom management: how the teacher controls the class.
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Students’ engagement: the actions that the teacher takes to engage his or her students in the class.
Instructional strategies: the methodology used to teach English to his or her students.
The three dimensions previously mentioned, serve also as indicators of teachers’ self-efficacy. In fact, another important aspect in this research was self-self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was included in this study because of the importance that has in the teachers’ motivations to work.
The precursor of the self-efficacy theory was, Bandura (1977), and after his research, many other research has come after. Self-efficacy is the capability to believe in oneself and to accomplish determined tasks successfully, especially influence their students learning outcomes (Bandura, 1977; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998).
Self-efficacy for teachers is associated to the belief that a teacher can take teaching risks (Pendergast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011). According to Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), the theory of self-efficacy itself offers important contributions for educators, and researchers, at the same time help us to grasp how the construction of teachers’ self-efficacy has tremendous benefits for teachers in their teaching performance.
EFL teachers working in Taiwanese cram schools, as mentioned before, due the fact that they have to deal with students who are exposed to high academic pressure, and also competition among classmates, it is necessary to learn from them what educative strategies they implement to help their students in the acquisition of a second language.
In order to do this we need to understand first, the process of how teachers acquire their teaching knowledge (experiences) and whether this experiences include or not self-efficacy sources, to finally relate this with their teaching performance (perceived outcomes). Therefore, this study aimed to understand the different activities experienced for EFL teachers in the construction of their professional development: informal and formal learning experiences. And its influence in teaching performance reflecting self-efficacy.
Statement of the Problem
According to the following statistics, teaching is not an easy task. Apparently, 50% of teachers leave the profession within the first 5 years. In the United States a total of 47,700 teachers left their jobs in 2011(as cited in Didau, 2013). The NASUWT survey in UK showed that 84% of teachers felt demoralized and deprofessionalized (Didau, 2013). In 2010 statistics revealed that over 404,600 fully trained teachers under the age of 60 were no longer teaching (Garner, 2010). This same article also added that thousands of new teachers are trained every
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year, and many of them leave within a few years of becoming qualified. In 2006, in a survey of Pre-K through 12th grade teachers conducted by the American Psychological Association (APA), teachers identified classroom management and instruction skills as top priorities for trainings. Discipline is one of the most serious obstacles for teachers (APA, 2006). Learning from teachers and listening to their stories will permit us to understand how they construct their professional development, what the perceived outcomes of the same are, and how when including self-efficacy within professional development this one is demonstrated in their daily performance.
Theoretical Framework
This research was based in the self-efficacy theory and teachers’ professional development, these aspects can be found in the social learning theory provided by Bandura (1977). Through this theory we can learn how teachers learn and also how they construct their efficacy. Thus, in this dissertation the first aspect of the theoretical framework is self-efficacy.
It is explained the sources of self-efficacy, the reflection of the same in teachers’ performance and finally how self-efficacy sources can be found in the different experiences that construct the professional development. The second aspect includes a brief mention of the activities for professional development of teachers, the way they learn and this also following the line from the social learning theory.
Self-efficacy literature explains that the main source of information about it is the social cognitive theory from Bandura. After he published his article, Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change (1977), large amounts of studies and literature has followed it (Capa, 2005 as cited in Abu-Tineh, Khasawneh, & Khalaileh, 2011). Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that a person has in his or her own capabilities to be able to perform certain tasks (Bandura, 1977), “self-efficacy determines how much effort a person will devote to an activity whether this activity is difficult or threatening, and how long they will persist in a task even when this is full of obstacles” (Bandura, 1977, p. 194).
According to Bandura (1977), when people are given appropriate skills and adequate incentives, their efficacy expectations are determinants of the activities they choose and how much effort they put in them (p. 194). Thus, it is necessary to pay attention to what are the experiences that teachers are exposed in their work place and daily life for increasing their self-efficacy. There are four sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and emotional and physical states.
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Sources of self-efficacy
Mastery experiences.
According to Bandura (1977), this a very influential source because it is based in the success or failure acquired from experiences. This concept is defined by the word: experience, which states that after repeating certain tasks the individual has a better idea of how to perform in that specific task. At the same time to mastery experiences is attributed resilience that is to persevere in the task no matter the difficulty of it (Bandura 1977 as cited in Estrada, 2013).
When teachers master certain tasks they feel more confident in their daily performance, citing Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998) said:
“The perception that a performance has been successful raises efficacy beliefs, which contributes to the expectation that performance will be proficient in the future. The perception that one’s performance has been a failure lowers efficacy beliefs, which contributes to the expectation that future performance will also be inept” (p. 211).
Thus, teachers are strongly influenced by their previous experiences, and the performance on those experiences.
Vicarious experiences.
“Seeing others perform threatening activities without adverse consequences can generate expectations in observers that they too will improve if they intensify and persist in their efforts” (Bandura, 1977, p. 197). That is, teachers learn new skills by seeing others.
However is important to keep in mind that the modeling behavior presented or observed should have tangible outcomes. Seeing other people success in a task generates a sense of confidence in the observer that he or she can also success in the same task.
Verbal persuasion.
“Verbal persuasion permits to improve the beliefs and increase the level of self-perception, besides, efficacy can be increased when others believe in our capabilities” (as cited in Estrada, 2013, p. 22). Feedback coming from supervisors and colleagues and even students, is an example of verbal persuasion, and although is considered that this source alone is not so strong as the others, in fact a persuasive comment or feedback can help teachers to succeed (Bandura, 1986 as cited inTschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998).
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Physical states.
All the emotions and physical responses from the body, when a person is developing a difficult or challenging task.
Indicators of Self-efficacy for EFL Teachers
Among all the reasons why this theory has become a trend in the past years is the fact that behavior may be predicted by studying self-efficacy. In addition, a teachers’ sense of self efficacy is considered a predictor of productive teaching practices (Abu-Tineh et al, 2011) Teacher’s self-efficacy empowers EFL teachers to manage classroom effectively (Chacon, 2005). It also brings didactic innovation to the classroom and adequate teaching methods to encourage students (Cousins & Walker, 1995; Guskey, 1998). Hence, this theory provides guidelines to teachers’ instructional behaviors.
More contributions to self-efficacy from other researchers, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) said the relation of teacher's expectations, the level of effort they put into preparation and delivery of instructions, their perseverance, commitment to work and confidence in their teaching practices are all associated with teachers’ efficacy. Thus, teachers’ self-efficacy plays a fundamental role in motivating teacher's to continue doing their work every day with excellence, and to overcome the obstacles presented in the teaching practice.
Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998), also added: “teachers with strong sense of self-efficacy are open to new ideas and more willing to experiment with new methods to better meet the needs of their students” (p. 223).
Self-efficacy and Professional Development of EFL Teachers
In this dissertation, the researcher based on the theory of social learning, and self-efficacy provided by Bandura (1977- 1997) besides, posterior contributions provided by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998, 2007) serve as a framework for this research, specifically the ways in how teachers learn and construct their professional development, also whether in the construction of their professional development sources of self-efficacy are included and demonstrated in their daily performance.
Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998), found that teachers with more experience and with higher levels of education demonstrate strong self-efficacy. Working experience can be placed in informal learning, and formal education can be placed in formal learning, both aspects are
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part of the professional development of teachers. Indeed self-efficacy sources can be found in professional development for teachers, “verbal persuasion in the form on professional development workshops, can provide provisional boost in teacher efficacy: however, if persuasion is not accompanied by the development of new skills that improve performance the impact may be fleeting” (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998, p. 238).
Also added that when teachers have the opportunity to participate in role play experiences with feedback from these experiences, teachers’ efficacy can be more impacted, because they are directly working with the mastery experiences. Support trainings and other activities in the workplace should increase the four sources of self-efficacy to support the teachers’ efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998).
Regarding the same aspect of professional development for teachers it is also said that teachers at the beginning of their careers observe other teachers and copy some of the experienced teachers’ practices (Lortie, 2002 as cited in Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) Professional development for teachers includes several practices that are formal: training and teaching certifications and informal which are: observation, feedback, sharing experiences, and self-learning to mention some of them. Then, having mentioned the two essential aspects of this dissertation the researcher is interested in gain a deeper knowledge of how these two aspects work together and are reflected in teachers’ performance for EFL teachers working in Taiwanese cram schools.
Purposes of the Study
1. To identify the different activities within formal and informal learning that construct the professional development of EFL teachers in Taiwan.
2. To learn the perceived outcomes of formal and informal learning experiences for EFL teachers in Taiwan.
3. To describe the influence of professional development on teaching’ performance, reflecting self-efficacy, specifically in three main dimensions: classroom management, instructional practices and students’ engagement.
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Questions of the Study
1. What are the different formal and informal learning activities that EFL teachers in Taiwan experience to enhance their professional development?
2. How do teachers perceive the outcomes of formal and informal learning activities experienced in their professional development?
3. How does teachers’ professional development influence their teaching’ performance, reflecting self-efficacy, specifically demonstrated in the three dimensions: classroom management, instructional practices, and students’ engagement?
Significance of the Study
First, this study attempted to respond questions such as the experiences that EFL teachers in Taiwan have been exposed to in their professional development, the perceived outcomes of professional development experiences for EFL teachers, and how professional development influences teaching performance within the classroom specifically : classroom management, student engagement, and instructional strategies (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Learning about these aspects, permitted to inform supervisors from cram schools to value the importance of professional development in their staff because of its reflection in teachers’ performance.
Second, this study attempted to inform EFL supervisors in cram schools about the perceived outcomes of professional development, and the current professional development experiences that EFL teachers in Taiwan are exposed in the different cram schools in Taiwan or even previous experiences within their countries of origin.
Third, to inform training designers about the process of professional development for EFL teachers, and the impact of the same in teachers’ performance.
Fourth, to contribute to the research field adding a little to what is known about professional development in Taiwan, sense of self efficacy, and their teaching performance reflecting self-efficacy.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined according to their usage in the study:
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Professional Development for Teachers
This is considered as a vital aspect to increase teachers’ knowledge and enhance teaching skills in order to apply it in their teaching practices (Smith & O’Day, 1991 as cited in Desimone, Porter, Garet, Kwan, & Birman, 2002).
Formal Learning
Is planned learning that derives from activities within a structured learning setting. (Malcolm, Hodkinson, & Colley, 2003).
Training
Professional preparation of teachers, usually through formal course work and practice teaching, provides credits and diploma of participation to the participants.
Informal Learning
This type of learning does not have a prescribed learning framework, the presence of a designed teacher or trainer, an award, qualification or credit that demonstrate the learning acquired.
Usually the teacher decides what to learn in order to immediately apply it at work (Cross, 2007).
Teachers’ Performance
In this research teaching performance will be defined using the three following dimensions provided by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (1998) in their study of teachers’ sense of self-efficacy:
Students Engagement.
Refers to the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism and passion that students shown when they are learning or being taught
Classroom Management.
The expression of how the teacher and students work together to make learning happen Instructional Strategies.
Instructional strategies include all approaches that a teacher may take to actively engage students in learning
Teachers’ Self-efficacy
The belief a teacher has in his or her capacity to performance successfully in different tasks and scenarios (Bandura, 1977-1997)
Three of the four sources of self-efficacy proposed by Bandura (1977), are studied in this research:
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Mastery Experiences.
The source also known as mastery experience has been identified as one of the most powerful sources of efficacy information (Bandura, 1977).
Vicarious Experiences.
According to Bandura (1977), this is when observing others success in a determine task, the observer feels more capable to success as well, the same principle applies for failure in the task
Verbal Persuasion.
Social persuasion can contribute to the success achieved through corrective performance also considered feedback (Bandura, 1997)
Physical States.
The responses of the body or reactions when performing a determined challenging task
EFL Teacher
: a person who teaches English as a foreign language in non-English speaking countries.11