This chapter begins by giving a description of the actions for development of staff, specifically formal training, including teaching certifications and degrees. Informal learning within the workplace is also included. Finally aspects regarding the influence of self-efficacy on performance are included.
Professional Development for Teachers
In last years, teachers have been exposed to different activities in order to enhance their professional development, this with the finality to carry out the demands of education in the present time. Teachers are encouraged to be engaged to perform adequately and to improve themselves constantly. Another important aspect is that within the work place teachers are requested to practice active learning where discussing with other teachers, planning and practicing becomes essential, and where observing other teachers in action is something normal and helpful to teachers to learn new practices (Desimone et al, 2002).
In fact, EFL teachers are exposed to several activities in order to enhance their professional development, these activities are from formal learning and informal learning.
Formal learning includes: training and educative programs such as maters and bachelor’s degree in education (resource centers, and conference and college courses). On the other hand informal learning, includes activities such as: self-learning among colleagues, sharing experiences, and unscheduled meetings. Other activities experienced for teachers are:
mentoring, and teacher networks.
In the teaching field after some surveys and consensus for teachers, some researchers have said that “high quality” professional development should include particular aspects or education that focus in the following areas: ‘how the students learn, active learning, teachers’
leadership, and team work (Desimone et al, 2002). Professional development, and more specifically informal learning, has certain characteristics, for example this type of learning is considered more experimental, and includes reflection and constant action (Marsick, 1999).
In previous research, teachers mentioned the certificates acquired in educative institutions are very useful for them. In fact, EFL teachers consider these kind of learning experiences positive, in the construction of their professional development. Formal learning is associated with the participation in summer institutes, where teachers enjoy and work in
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formulating new ideas, also have the chance to participate in hands-on experiences. In these training experiences teachers had the chance to apply and practice what they learned, instead of only listening to someone give them a lecture about teaching (Little, 1993).
Little (1993), also mentioned that professional development regardless formal or informal, offers 6 principles that should be analyzed more in detail by researchers:
1. Professional development offers meaningful intellectual, social, and emotional ideas with colleagues in and out of teaching: teachers are activate learners who go beyond “hands-on” experiences.
2. Professional development pays special attention to the teachers’ environment and working experience: Professional development is something flexible and adaptable to the teachers’ reality. Teachers of English work in different contexts, countries and have different cultural backgrounds.
3. Professional development generates fellowship among teachers and commitment to the institution. Specifically informal learning which includes sharing knowledge among colleagues.
4. Professional development places classroom practice as a vital experience: teachers who are enrolled in schools or academic centers are encouraged to have a sort of classroom practice.
5. Professional development prepares teachers to apply the techniques learned: the whole purpose of acquiring information is to be able to share it and apply it in a daily basis.
6. Professional development is often associated with the interest of institutions and teachers to learn (Little, p.138-139).
Finally, there are other activities included within the professional development of EFL teachers, these activities, are mostly related with the interaction among colleagues, and are often practiced within the work place. To mention three of these practices are: intern visitation and peer networks, through this practice teachers can visit other locations and see other teachers in action, besides they can expand their network. The second activity is, observation from supervisors: teachers are observed from time to time, while teaching and provided posterior feedback. And lastly off-site training is mentioned, that is: teachers go on a trip to other location
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and receive a short-term training, this is one practice is common for teachers in America (Elmore & Burney, 1996).
Professional Development, for EFL teachers provides a number of positive benefits, in fact teachers feel that professional development enables them to teach more confidently and more efficiently. This could be a reason why teachers are very interested in keep updating their knowledge through professional development practices. Richards and Farrell (2005), in their publication “professional development for Language teachers” (p.9-10) mentioned some important areas of professional development for EFL teachers. These are briefly mentioned below:
Subject matter knowledge : in this area can be mentioned, TESOL certification, and other knowledge that enables teachers to enhance their grammar, phonetics, teaching, and other skills required to work as an EFL teacher.
Pedagogical expertise: which is the development of skills for teaching in different contexts and with different kind of students.
Self-awareness: to permit the teacher to know his or her weaknesses and strengths, and works to improve himself or herself.
Understanding of learners: knowledge of the different ways in which students learn English.
Understanding of curriculum and materials: learning how does curriculum works and how materials are used in the teaching of contents in the class.
Career advancement: the knowledge that enables teacher to advance professionally.
All the mentioned aspects, are the different areas for professional development of EFL teachers, and paying a lot of attention to these aspects permits to the teachers to know in which specific areas to work on, to improve themselves.
Formal Learning
In recent years, a repeated theme in the language teaching sphere is the need for ongoing teacher education. Specifically, experiences for in-service trainings are crucial for the teachers’ development, and for the long-term success at work (Richards & Farrell, 2005). On this research when we refer to formal training, it includes all the educative aspects for teachers
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that will permit them to acquire a specific number of credits, diploma, or any other document to prove a training was received within a specific number of hours or time. Formal training is received within the bachelor and master programs in education, or teaching certifications such as TEFL and TESOL.
EFL teachers are encouraged to receive a pre-service training to learn the basic tasks for the occupational roles that they will perform within the cram school. The importance of this kind of training, as mentioned before, is that instructs the teacher regarding the curricula, and administrative aspects of the educative institutions, and helps them to adjust well, in the new working environment. Whenever during the in-service period changes in the curricula or new practices or teaching methodologies occur, then in- service training is required. Training involves applying new practices while being assessed by a supervisor or coordinator. After the observing the teachers’ performance during the training, objective comments are provided to the teacher to produce certain positive changes in their actions. Richards and Farrell (2005), provide some goals from a training perspective. Below three of them are mentioned, and considered fundamental for every English teacher for daily use:
Learning how to use effective strategies in teaching practices.
Adapting the text book to match with the reality or current situation of the students.
Learning how to use group activities in a lesson (Richards & Farrell, 2005, p.5).
Moreover, trainings have been developed in Taiwan for many years. One example of these is the training to implement the use of information and communication technology (ICT training). The project: “Establishing ICT Literacy Standards for Primary and Secondary Teachers”, for all pre-service primary and secondary teachers, was implemented with the purpose of enhancing teaching skills by using: ICT instructional planning, teaching assessment and classroom management. By the end of 2011, it was expected 90% of the teachers would have implemented these practices (MOE, 2008 as cited in Chang, Chien, Chang, & Lin, 2012).
The mentioned training, despite being an example of pre-service training, and not specifically for teachers of teachers of English as foreign language, permits us to know one of the many trainings developed in Taiwan within the formal learning education for EFL Teachers.
In-service training, is sometimes a delicate issue because the programs and activities implemented and the delivery of the same must be directly focused to influence the
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performance of the English teachers, these goals are set by the Ministry of Education in the respective country of service, the educative organization and even the teacher himself or herself.
Again, putting a lot of attention and being detail oriented in the development of the training is important to guarantee the efficiency of the same.
Another example from formal trainings developed in Taiwan is the in-service training where the researcher Wang (2008), participated and shared the experience in the dissertation
“Teaching English to Young Learners in Taiwan: Issues Relating to Teaching, Teacher education, Teacher Materials and Teacher perspectives” he interviewed 25 teachers who attended to a four month in service training in Kaohsiung designed for teachers in primary schools.
Wang (2008), wrote:
None of them believed that their understanding of language teaching methodology was sufficient at the beginning of the training program. All of them noted that the lessons they observed as part of their training program were pointless and that the teaching materials were often unsuitable and, or used inappropriately. (p. 3)
The experience previously mentioned differs in the idea of training which for some authors involves presenting and modeling skills, and also enabling the teachers with situations where they can perform and enhance the skills acquired (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Because of its impact, training can be considered an activity to enhance the professional development of EFL teachers. The importance that teachers assign to including training as the activities for their professional development may vary from person to person. However training will always provide a good number of benefits for teachers and cram schools.
Among the benefits for both English teachers and educative organizations can be mentioned: increase the motivation of the teachers who participate in the training, and in the application of the same in their daily work activities. More concrete benefits from training are:
expertise, subject matter knowledge, understand programs and curriculum, and career advancement. For the educative organization among its benefits can be found: Institutional development, career development and enhancing the level of students learning (Richards &
Farrell, 2005).
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Informal Learning in Teachers’ Education
Research about informal learning has been constantly increasing in the last years (Marks, 1999). Informal learning is usually associated with the learning produced by the interaction with work colleagues, friends, and even everyday experiences. This also involves every aspect within the person, and is not only related to activities but communities as well.
This means the person is a participant, someone who is involved in the daily activities and procedures, to enhance their knowledge and mastery of the same (Lave & Wenger, 1991, as cited in Smith, 1999). Informal learning, is then, activities experienced by people who want to develop some professional knowledge or skills first motivated by some situation in their workplace (Coffer, 2000; Lohman, 2000, as cited in Loham, 2006). Examples of often activities practiced by teachers in elementary schools are: talking with other teachers, observing other teachers while teaching a class, scanning professional magazines and journals, share materials and resources, and trial and error reflecting actions (Lohman, 2006).
Informal learning, can also be acquired in common situations within the work place, for example when there are changes in the staff, when there is a new design for the lesson plans, and when there is the necessity to implement a new activity and the in-service teacher does not have any experience at all. Although these aspects remind us somehow of a necessity for training, in the case when informal learning occurs, as mentioned before not any accreditation or diploma will be provided. Only the necessary knowledge to be applied for a specific situation. Therefore, this learning is often considered unplanned (Eraut, 2004). And unplanned, because it is produced from the necessity to perform according to the expectations of supervisors, students and even the teacher himself - herself.
In the process of acquiring the new learning, interaction with colleagues, friends, and experts occurred, and most of the time, when the new learning was acquired thorough a casual conversation, the final outcome was the solution of a particular issue. To all the previously mentioned, it can be added that informal learning in some cases includes self-instruction (Shank, 2013). Self-instruction is a very effective strategy, because teachers focus only on what they really want and need to learn (Mocker & Spear, 1982). Besides, with the increase in the use of the internet, self-learning is becoming popular, for instance, there are universities that offer course materials to those who are not their students and are prepared on the basis of self-directed principles (Project Easy, 2014).
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Within the workplace, informal learning occurs when a teacher asks for help or advice from other expert teachers and peers. Besides this, the simple act of communicating with each other, having meetings to discuss issues from school, and even those unscheduled meetings that occur in-between the work routine and breaks, are aspects that generate informal learning.
Informal learning is a continuous process and includes the following aspects:
Implicit: which defined is ‘the acquisition of knowledge independently of conscious attempts to learn, and in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was taught (Reber, 1993).
Unintended: Teachers are not enrolled in specific formal training programs within the educative organization, but they are just interested into learn new strategies or solutions to solve presented challenges and unknown situations within the work place.
Opportunistic: informal learning has many probabilities to occur, due the capacity to take place in pretty much any activity. This could be: through observation, a quick explanation from a colleague, from reading an article from a journal, and any source who permits to close the gap between the lack of knowledge and performing.
Unstructured: informal learning does not have a syllabus or structure of the same, therefore the one interested in gaining the knowledge is the one who goes through it.
Absence of a teacher: Because this kind of learning is not taught in an institution or academy and does not provide any diploma, the absence of teachers means there is no specific person hired to coach or mentor the teachers’ staff in the learning of a specific skill or knowledge required.
Because of the importance of formal learning and informal learning, these experiences and activities for the EFL teachers’ within educative organizations should be provided, this benefits not only EFL teachers but also the school, through the performance of the teachers (Richards & Farrell, 2005). Besides, promoting teachers learning for their professional development should include both formal training and informal learning. At the same time formal learning and informal learning could be seen as a complex activity which focuses on the nature of the teachers’ beliefs and thinking, as a result these factors will influence their teaching practices and learning (Richards & Farrell, 2005).
According to (Loham, 2000) most of the learning that teachers are exposed to, occurs in their workplace but also includes short workshops from time to time. These workshops are
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not to acquire any certification, but to enhance skills. And because it is informal the learning approach was more associated to sharing and exchanging ideas among teachers. Also self-efficacy is considered to be an influence of job and working behavior and informal learning among teachers (Woerkom, Nijhof, & Loek, 2002).
Teachers’ Performance
Teachers show their performance through different practices within the classroom through the capacity they have to engage their students in the class content, create and maintain a positive class environment and be able to convey their class content in a clear and easy way.
Also Borko and Putnam’s (1997), stated that professional development has influence in teachers’ instructional methods and as a result in students’ learning. For some teachers acquiring teachers’ experience, is crucial for performing according to the expectations, and this is because teaching requires different skills, and some skills come only from the daily experience at work (Murnane & Phillips, 1981). Some researchers also mentioned the differences in the performance of novice and experienced language teachers, and how they perceive and understand what they do. Experienced EFL teachers demonstrate the following characteristics (Tsui, 2003, as cited in Richards & Farrell, 2005, p.7-8).
More intuitive judgment because of experience.
Interest in inquiry and solving teaching problems.
A real concern for students' learning.
Importance of accomplishing objectives and aligning the class content to the achievement of these objectives.
Better understanding and use of language learning strategies.
Greater fluidity and automaticity in teaching.
Classroom Management
Classroom management, often related to discipline, is a priority in a teacher’s agenda (American Psychological Association, 2014 [APA]). Classroom management has two distinct purposes: establish and sustain an orderly environment to make possible students engagement, and also enhance students' social and moral growth (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). More literature provides some specific aspects that teachers should follow in order to prevent situations such as disruptive behavior in class. The American Psychological Association, in
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their web site: http://www.apa.org mentioned some of the aspects teachers should consider for classroom management:
Establish procedures for teaching expected positive behaviors.
Establish procedures for discouraging problem behaviors.
Establish a system to monitor students.
Prepare lessons with enough time of anticipation.
Ensure the class content matches with the student.
Classroom management is important among EFL teachers, since keeping the control of the class is a delicate issue (Moskowits & Hayman, 1976). For some teachers the situation is really frustrating, so much that they decided to leave their jobs, claiming indiscipline of their students as one of the principal reasons to quit (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1986). In addition, the current situation of teachers is not as favorable as before. Some factors that affect their daily work and to mention some of these:
An increasing number of students who come to school with several behavioral problems.
Some teachers lack of training on classroom management techniques.
Some teachers misinterpret being “good” means being “permissive” (Canter &
Canter, 1976, as cited in Kaliska, 2002).
The mentioned factors are part of the current teaching situation. This should not, however, discourage EFL teachers in their work. Besides, teachers can do great efforts in order to create a positive class environment, not necessarily by being extremely demanding, but by being flexible and pleasant with their students. Despite the fact that working with students who are from the elementary level is hard, more effort is needed and more attention paid to the techniques implemented within the classroom EFL Teachers have a great challenge in this aspect.
Yet, not only do teachers have a hard time, the students as well, no matter where they are from, nor their economic status, going to class is always something difficult for some of them. Nowadays some students arrive at school with more in their backpacks than notebooks, they also carry with family issues, fear, frustrations and other negative emotions and feelings that are reflected in their behavior (Kaliska, 2002). This generates a difficult situation for
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teachers because they should be aware of the problematic and generate strategies to help their students to solve their issues first, since this might be affecting their development in class.
teachers because they should be aware of the problematic and generate strategies to help their students to solve their issues first, since this might be affecting their development in class.