Expatriate Spouses
Organizations are utilizing different types of employees in their staffing profiles. Recent research also suggests the rise of short term international assignments as substitutes to long-term traditional expatriate assignments (Konopaske &Werner, 2005). Despite this, many organizations continue to utilize, long-term traditional expatriate assignments in their international operations (Cho, Hutchings & Marchant, 2013). Traditional expatriate assignments are unlikely to disappear in spite of the recent changes. The typical overseas assignment sees a male employee relocating and bringing his wife and children with him (Halsberger, 2010). Therefore, families and spouses are an important aspect of the international assignment. Due to this change of lifestyle, the expatriate spouse is also known as the accompanying or trailing spouse since she gives up her home, social network , and sometimes career to follow the interest of her husband’s career (Teague, 2015).
Expatriates’ spouses face numerous challenges when relocating and adapting to a new culture. With the expatriate occupied with work, the family’s cultural adaptation is often left to the accompanying wife (Kupka & Cathro, 2007). If the spouse does not adapt effectively; they will be ineffective in assisting with other family members’ adjustment, or the expatriate’s adjustment (Bikos et al., 2007). If the spouse is not being a positive influence, it can not only compromise the wellbeing of the family, but it can also jeopardize the success of the assignment. This will ultimately bring negative consequences for the sponsoring company (Osman & Rockstuhl, 2008).
Despite the importance and impact of spouses in international assignments, many organizations fail to prepare expatriates and spouses for their international assignments. Many organizations are insensitive to family issues, thus resulting in stress for families who are relocating without the adequate support from the organization (Harvey et al., 2009). Many organizations also fail to acknowledge the challenges and difficulties faced by expatriate spouses.
These challenges and difficulties have been ignored by many organizations.
However, research has been conducted in this field, since it is known that spouse adjustment has a great impact on expatriates’ adjustment (Takeuchi, Lepak, Marinova & Yun,
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2007). Researchers have identified some of the changes expatriate spouses have to go through. For example, their standard of living may be a few steps up or a few steps down from the standard of living in their home countries (Teague, 2015). Spouses might also want have to adjust their roles since some of them have been employed in their home countries and now find themselves as housewives in other cases, housewives join the workforce upon becoming expatriates (Van Der Zee, Ali, & Salomé, 2005). Bikos et al. (2009) found that the spouses who had a role shift and became housewives had a need to reform their sense of self; this made their adaptation process more challenging. However, this was not the case for the spouses who were able to transfer their careers to the host country; this made the adaptation process easier.
Researchers have suggested different interventions to help spouses adjust effectively into the host country. They contend that effective organizational support can play an essential part in the adaptation process of expatriate spouses. Three types of organizational support have been identified: practical, professional and social. Practical support refers to: pre-assignment visits to the host location, furniture storage, tax advice, home-sale assistance, language courses, cross-cultural training and immigration paperwork. Professional support includes: job search, career counselling, resume preparation, and work permit assistance. Finally, social support is:
introductions to other expatriates, memberships in sports and social clubs, and information about and access to expatriate forums and spouse networking groups (Mcnulty, 2012). Even though most organizations provide practical support, many fail to provide social and professional support;
therefore, this continues to be an ongoing issue.
Companies need to take spouses’ adaptation under consideration, since it has been proved that the accompanying spouse has a marked impact on the overall success of the international assignment (Lauring & Selmer, 2010). Even though the body of literature in this area is increasing, more research is needed in the field of experiential learning and cultural intelligence. Also, research that can apply to a specific setting eg. Taiwan, is needed.
The Experiential Learning Process
The experiential learning theory was developed by David Kolb, an American educational theorist in the 1970s. This theory relies heavily on the work of famous educators and psychologists such as: John Dewey, Kurt Levin, Paulo Freire, Jean Piaget and others. Kolb relied on the work of his predecessors to develop a holistic model of the experiential learning process of adult
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development (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). This theory is built on six basic propositions that are shared by these scholars.
The first proposition is that learning is best conceived as a process not in terms of outcomes.
This approach is different than behaviorist theories or idealist education approaches. Experiential learning does not view ideas as fixed and immutable like the previous approaches, but rather it views ideas as elements of thought that are formed and re-formed through experience (Kolb, 2015).
Viewing learning as an outcome in experiential learning can be equal to non-learning, since the experiential learning theory views learning as a process not a product.
The second proposition is that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience.
Knowledge comes from and is tested out in the experiences of the learner. This has important educational implications, but it also implies that all learning is relearning (Kolb, 2015). The third proposition is that the process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world. This means that conflict differences and disagreements are what drive the learning process. In the process of learning, individuals have to move back and forth between different ways of thinking, feeling, reflecting and acting.
The fourth proposition is that learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.
Experiential learning is not a small educational process, but rather, a holistic process describing the central process of human adaptation to the social and physical environment. Learning is not in a single realm of human functioning, like cognition or perception. According to Kolb (2015) it involves the functions of the whole organism (thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving).
Learning is the major process of the human adaptation and this process is broader than the one associated with the school classroom.
The fifth proposition is that learning involves transactions between the person and the environment. This seems an obvious proposition but it has been misinterpreted for several reasons.
One is the tendency to view the person’s relationship with the environment as one way, thus placing more emphasis on how the environment shapes behavior and not on how the behavior shapes reality. Learning is an active self-directed process that can be applied into everyday life (Kolb, 2015).
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The last proposition is that learning is a process of creating knowledge. Knowledge is the result of the transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge. The creation of knowledge occurs at all levels, from scientific research to the child’s discovery that a rubber ball bounces. Social knowledge is created and recreated in the personal knowledge of the learner (Kolb
&Kolb, 2005).
The experiential learning process can be described as a four stage cycle that includes four adaptive learning modes. These are: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. This process is an idealized learning cycle where the learner touches all of “the bases” (experiencing, reflecting, thinking and acting) (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). These model is divided in two different dialectics: (1) concrete experience/abstract conceptualization and (2) active experimentation/reflective observation. These are two opposed adaptive orientations. The abstract/concrete dimension represents two opposed processes of grasping experience and making meaning of the world, either through reliance on conceptual interpretation or through symbolic representation. Kolb (2015) calls this process comprehension.
On the other hand, the reliance on immediate experience is called apprehension. The active/
reflective dimension is one of transformation. It also represents two opposing ways of transforming the grasp and experience. It can be transformed through internal reflection processes called intention or through the external manipulation of the world, which is called extension. Since there are two different ways of taking hold of experience and two different ways of transforming it, the result is four elementary forms of knowledge.
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Figure 2.1. Dimensions Underlying the Process of Experiential Learning (adapted from Kolb, 2015)
Experience grasped through apprehension and that is transformed via intention results in divergent knowledge. Experience grasped through comprehension and transformed through intention results in assimilative knowledge. Similarly, experience that is grasped through comprehension and transformed through extension results in convergent knowledge and experience that is grasped via apprehension and transformed through extension results in accommodative knowledge (Kolb, 2015).
The basic concept behind experiential is that learning requires the grasping of experience and the transformation of this experience. The simple perception of experience is not enough for learning, something must be done with it. The experience must be reflected on, and concepts made.
In the same way, transformation is not enough for learning because transformation needs to occur due to an experience.
Kolb & Kolb (2005a) recently introduced a new concept to the experiential learning theory.
This concept is called “Learning Space”. It was introduced in order to elaborate on the dynamic
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nature of learning style and its formation. It is based on Kurt Lewin’s theory and the concept of life space. This means that the person and the environment are interdependent variables. Life space includes all of the facts that might have an influence on a person’s behavior these factors are interdependent. Experiential Learning theory defines learning space through the dialectic forces of action/reflection and experiencing/conceptualizing. This creates a two dimensional map in the region of learning space.
The experiential learning theory also includes individual differences in learning styles.
These differences can be found in the preferences for using different phases of the learning cycle.
Heredity, life experiences and demands of the current environment allow individuals to develop a preferred way of learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005a). The four basic approaches to learning included in the theory are: diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating. These approaches were identified using the learning style inventory (LSI) to assess the differences in learning styles.
The convergent learning style relies on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. The focus of this approach is problem solving, decision making and practical application of ideas. Individuals who learn this way prefer dealing with technical tasks, rather than with social situations or interactions.
The divergent learning style on the other hand, relies on concrete experience and reflective observation. Individuals who possess this learning style have the strength of awareness of meaning and values. This orientation focuses on adaptation by observation rather than action. Individuals who prefer this learning style are interested in people and are feeling-oriented.
The assimilating learning style relies on abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. The focus of this approach is inductive reasoning and the ability to create theoretical models. Individuals who learn this way are less focused on people and more concerned on with ideas and abstract concepts.
The accommodative style relies on concrete experience and active experimentation. The focus of this orientation relies in doing things and carrying out plans. People with this approach tend to solve problems with a trial-and error intuitive manner. These individuals rely heavily on other people for information rather than their own analytic ability (Kolb, 2015).
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More recent research has been conducted to advance the theory and practice of experiential learning. Since it is a holistic theory it includes research in different fields. The Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography includes 1876 entries (Kolb & Kolb, 2005b). These entries are in the fields of management, education, psychology, nursing, accounting, law etc. In 1991 Hickcox extensively reviewed the origins of the experiential learning theory using a qualitative approach.
She concluded that 61.7 % of the studies supported the experiential learning theory, 16.1% showed mixed support and 22.2 % did not support it. Therefore, it is a reliable theory with which to explore learning.
Experiential Learning and Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Yamazaki and Kayes (2004) argue that expatriates and their spouses learn to manage across cultures without formal education on cross-cultural skills; they believe that cross-cultural learning fits naturally under a general category of experiential learning.
The experiential learning theory is one of the most prevalent theories of how managers learn from experience (Kayes, 2002). The theory has been influential in more than 1,800 studies in the last 30 years (Kolb & Kolb, 2004). There are unique aspects of the experiential learning theory that makes it useful to include in the relationship with cross-cultural learning and adaptation.
First, the experiential learning theory includes a comprehensive sets of skills that include valuing, thinking, deciding, and acting; some of these skills are necessary in cross-cultural learning and adaptation. Second, the humanistic values of experiential learning offer an ethical approach to learning. These values are difference, self-development and self-actualization. These values emphasize the ability to learn and develop in cross-cultural situations and contexts. Therefore, they place the expatriate and spouse at the center of the cross-cultural learning process (Yamazaki &
Kayes, 2004). Finally the experiential learning theory has been subject to extensive empirical validation. Using different measures of learning styles, skills and development the experiential learning theory offers one of the few empirically verifiable learning theories.
Kolb’s theory and its extensions challenge other learning models that do not translate across cultures. For example, behavioral models respond to stimuli and cognitive theories involve the mental processing of information (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007). Researchers have concluded that both the behaviorist and cognitive theory are inappropriate to study cross-cultural adaptation and
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learning (Black &Mendenhall, 1991). An experiential approach is more appropriate because as Kolb (1984) stated, learning goes beyond descriptions of socialization, or change or describing an adaptation process to the environment. It involves the functions of the whole organism (thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving). An experiential approach is also useful because it can also help explain how people learn across cultures. Learning styles that dominate in another country can differ from those in a different culture. Studies have indicated that there exist learning style differences from country to country ( Katz 1988; Yuen & Lee 1994; Auyeung & Sands, 1996).
Empirical data also calls for an experiential approach to study global leader’s learning and development (Yee et al., 2009). Most empirical research on international assignments focuses on expatriates’ performance and adjustment (Bhaskar Shrinivas et al., 2005). There is a need to focus on the learning process, instead of on the outcomes. Yee, Van Dyne and Ang (2009) believe that the growing emphasis on experiential approaches to study global leaders’ development is due to the importance given to international experience. Global leaders find international assignments beneficial for their personal and professional development (Carpenter, Sanders & Gregersen, 2001). This is supported by Kolb’s experiential learning theory that views learning as a cyclical process. These studies on international experience have focused on expatriates, not on their spouses.
Gupta, Banerjee and Gaur (2012) examined the existing expatriate spouse adjustment studies. Several gaps were identified in these studies. First, these studies focused on organizational support issues, and not on the antecedents of the expatriate assignment adjustment. Second, they did not include accounts of the spouses’ personalities or an important learning experiences.
Furthermore, these studies did not include an experiential learning approach. Consequently, Kolb’s experiential approach is suitable to study expatriates spouses adaptation and learning.
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Cultural Intelligence
The term cultural intelligence (CQ) was first introduced by Earley and Ang (2003). This term refers to the “ability to adapt across cultures, and it reflects a person’s capability to gather, interpret, and act upon radically different cues to function effectively across cultural settings or in multicultural situations” (p.59). Early and Ang (2003) argue that the most complex formulation of intelligence is the one that includes both an internal and external perspective of intelligence. The cultural intelligence theory draws from the work of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, Sternberg’s theory of triarchic intelligences, and Ceci’s bioecological theory of intelligence. These models build on different subfields of intelligence (biological, molar mental, psychometric, behavioral, and contextual).
Cultural intelligence is also focused on the relationship of individuals and the environment.
This theory includes an intraindividual perspective of intelligence including the functions of metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behavior on a daily basis. Context has a crucial importance in cultural intelligence, since cultural intelligence focuses on the ability to adapt to new cultural contexts. Therefore, cultural intelligence includes both internal and external views of intelligence; that also includes behaviors, as the individual adapts to his or her new cultural environment (Early & Ang, 2003).
This theory argues that very different skills are needed for adaptation across cultures since familiar references are absent in different cultural contexts. A person with high social or cognitive intelligence is able to react and act appropriately to another person because their cultural context is similar. Nonetheless, in a new culture where familiar cues are absent; there is no frame to be relied on. This is where cultural intelligence comes into play, since the person must develop a new frame of understanding with the information available in the environment, even though he or she may not have a perfect understanding of the local culture (Early & Ang, 2003).Some behaviors might be necessary to respond appropriately to new cultures; however, these behaviors might not be part of a person’s frame of reference. A culturally intelligent person is able to acquire a new set of behaviors according to the demands of the environment. Early and Ang (2003) believe that CQ requires both action and intention. The action has to be implemented, not just planned.
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Early and Ang’s (2003) cultural intelligence model includes both emic and etic constructs and processes which exist in a cultural setting. An emic construct has its basis in a culture and it is appreciated within its context. The emic construct cannot be appreciated out of its context; it can only be appreciated within its cultural context. On the other hand, the etic constructs are universal.
They exist across cultures and its characteristics are universal, for example, marriage or mourning the loss of a loved one. This discussion of etics and emics relates to cultural intelligence since there are several universal aspects pertaining to CQ. One example is how much a person is willing to engage in his or her environment proactively to adapt. Other aspects of cultural intelligence are emic because CQ can be broken down into context and individual specific features. Therefore, CQ includes both emic and etic aspects that are presented in a hierarchical manner.
Cultural intelligence consists of four facets: cognitive, motivational, behavioral and metacognitive:
Figure 2.2. Facets of Cultural Intelligence (Adapted from Early & Ang, 2003)
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The cognitive facet of cultural intelligence includes knowledge of the social environment and information handling. It refers to how people store and retrieve information that is relevant to cultural interactions. Social information processing is important in the cognitive facet of CQ.
Inductive and analogical reasoning are also important since new cultural situations require a person to step beyond their existing knowledge to fully understand what is happening around them. A person with high CQ must inductively create a map of the social situation to function effectively.
According to Early and Ang (2003) the cognitive perspective of cultural intelligence can be
According to Early and Ang (2003) the cognitive perspective of cultural intelligence can be