Research Approach
A qualitative approach was utilized in this study. Qualitative researchers are interested in studying things in their natural settings and attempting to make sense of them, and interpreting phenomena by the meaning individuals give to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Qualitative research possess the following characteristics: the focus is on the process, understanding and meaning; the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis, and the process is inductive and richly descriptive (Merriam, 2015).
The focus of qualitative research is understanding the phenomena from the participant’s perspective not from the researcher’s perspective. Patton (2002) stated that the purpose of qualitative research is to understand how people make sense of their lives and trace the process.
The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection in all forms of qualitative research. In qualitative research, the researcher can expand his or her understanding through verbal and nonverbal communication. The researcher can summarize the information and process the data;
he or she can also check accuracy with participants and explore unexpected responses. The researcher has to be aware of biases and subjectivities so as to monitor them when collecting or interpreting data. The qualitative research process is inductive since most of the time, researchers choose this approach because there is a lack of theory to support or explain the phenomena. This means that researchers collect data to build concepts and hypotheses rather than simply testing hypothesis. The findings are inductively derived from the data and presented in forms of themes and categories (Merriam, 2015).
Qualitative research is also richly descriptive. It is common to find descriptions of the context, the participants and the other activities of interest. Qualitative research also includes quotes that contribute to the descriptive nature of the research. Words and pictures are used instead of numbers (Merriam, 2009).
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), qualitative research also includes a variety of methods, for example: case studies, personal experience, life stories, introspection, interviews,
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artifacts, observation, cultural texts, production, and visual texts and even problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives.
Mertens (2005, p.233) also listed some research questions for which qualitative methods would be appropriate:
1. The focus of the research is on the process, implementation, or development of a program or its participants.
2. The program emphasizes individualized outcomes
3. Detailed in-depth information is needed about certain clients or programs.
4. The focus is on diversity among, idiosyncrasies of, and unique qualities exhibited by individuals.
5. The intent is to understand the program theory-that is, the staff members' (and participants') beliefs as to the nature of the problem they are addressing and how their actions will lead to desired outcomes.
Creswell (2007, p.6) believes that there is no consensus on how to classify qualitative research; he believes there are “baffling numbers of choices or approaches “to qualitative research.
This study relies on the “basic qualitative research” approach. According to Merriam (2015), this is one of the most common types of qualitative research. In this kind of research, the data is collected through interviews, observations or document analysis. The kind of observation and interview questions depend on the study’s research framework. The data analysis involves finding patterns, recurrent codes and themes. This approach was adopted to explore this study’s research questions which are: (1) What concrete experiences in the experiential learning process are significant contributors to the spouses’ cultural adaptation in Taiwan? (2) How is spouses’
CQ influenced by the experiential learning process in Taiwan? Interview questions were designed to explore these research questions. Specifically, to explore the spouses experiential learning process and cultural intelligence. The observation method was also important to explore the spouses’ cultural experiences in Taiwan. The researcher also relied on narratives to understand the spouses’ experience in Taiwan. The main idea behind narrative analysis is that stories are windows into cultural and social meanings (Patton, 2002). This approach is useful to answering some
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central questions: What does this story reveal about the person and the world from which it came?
and how can the story be interpreted to the life culture that created it?
A narrative approach allowed the researcher to explore relevant and meaningful experiences in the Latter Day Saints spouses’ lives. A categorical approach was specifically used to analyze their experiences. A categorical approach can be taken when the researcher is primarily interested in a phenomenon or problem shared by a group of people; categorical- content reading focuses on the content of narratives as manifested in different parts of the narrative despite of the context of the complete story (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach & Zilber, 1998). With this approach, the data can also be analyzed through categories, codes and themes.
Research Framework
This study’s research framework is composed of both the experiential learning cycle and cultural intelligence theories. In this framework, the level of CQ influences the active involvement in experiential learning (Yee, Dyne, & Ang, 2009). Similarly, concrete experiences, reflections, conceptualizations and active experimentations are expected to influence the expatriate spouses’
cultural intelligence. The framework itself is a cycle where experiential learning and cultural intelligence continually influence each other.
This framework includes previous international experience due to the experiential learning’s proposition that all learning is relearning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005a). Even though previous international experience is not the focus of this study, it is important to take it in consideration as an element that might influence the spouses’ experiential learning.
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory is one of the most influential theories on how individuals learn from experience and in the last 30 years it has influenced more than 1,800 studies (Kayes, 2002). The Experiential Learning Theory includes different measures of learning styles and skills and is one of the few empirically verifiable learning theories (Kolb & Kolb, 2004).
Kolb’s theory includes a number of skills that are important for cross-cultural learning; they are thinking, deciding, valuing, and acting (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2004). Experiential learning is a four-phase learning cycle which takes these skills into observation. The cycle describes how concrete experience (CE) is the base of observation and reflection (RO), and then the experience is assimilated into abstract conceptualization (AC). After AC the experience is transformed into
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active experimentation (AE) with the world. Active experimentation completes the cycle and allows the creation of new experiences (Kolb, 1984) Therefore, this theory was suitable to explore the spouses’ cultural learning and experiences in Taiwan.
The experiential learning theory includes different ways in which individuals grasp experience. Not only grasping it, but also transforming the experience. The Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses experienced different events during their cultural adaptation process in Taiwan.
This theory aided the researcher to examine the different stages of this learning process.
Cultural intelligence (CQ) is an individual’s capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings (Early & Ang, 2003). Yee, Dyne and Ang (2009) propose that CQ enhances the extent to which individuals are engaged in the experiential process. Kayes et al’s (2005) thesis also indicates that individuals must possess CQ abilities to manage the four stages of the experiential learning process. In this framework, experiential learning and CQ influence each other.
Cultural Intelligence (CQ) is composed of four dimensions: cognition, motivation, behavior and metacognition. Each of these dimensions is a capability and a complimentary way of conceptualizing individual-level intelligence (Ang, 2009). CQ is also focused on the relationship of individuals and the environment. It focuses on individuals’ abilities to adapt to different cultural contexts; therefore it includes both internal and external views of intelligence (Early & Ang, 2003).
The motivational facet of cultural intelligence is the level of interest, drive and energy to adapt cross-culturally (Livermore, 2015). This helped the researcher examine the motivation the Latter Day Saints spouses exhibited to adapt to the Taiwanese culture. The cognitive dimension of CQ refers to the cultural knowledge and understanding of how culture shapes people and the way they behave. It is basically the knowledge the spouses have or acquire about Taiwan and its culture.
The metacognitive facet of CQ is making sense of the culturally diverse experiences and planning accordingly; it is the ability to strategize when crossing cultures (Livermore, 2015). It includes the spouses’ reflections and strategies to adapt to a new culture. Finally, the behavioral facet of CQ includes the ability to act appropriately in different cross-cultural situations. These are the behaviors, whether verbal or non-verbal, that spouses learn or use when adapting to a new culture. The CQ theory allows the researcher to explore how the spouses’ intelligence in the four different facets is influenced by the experiential learning process and vice-versa.
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Figure 3.1. Research Framework (Experiential learning and Cultural intelligence)
Participants
The participants in this study were Latter Day Saint women between ages 23 to 56. These women are expatriates’ spouses who live in Taipei, Taiwan with their families as part of international assignments. These women attend the English speaking branch of the Church located in the Daan District. The majority of the participants are homemakers; and their main occupation is taking care of their families.
The participants were chosen using purposeful sampling. This means that the respondents should be chosen based on what they can contribute to the researcher’s understanding of the phenomenon. Generalization in a statistical sense is not the goal of qualitative research, therefore, probabilistic sample is not necessary or even justifiable in qualitative research (Merriam, 2009).
Rather, qualitative research focuses in depth on relatively small samples, even single cases; this yields insights and in depth understanding rather than empirical generalizations (Patton, 2002).
The criteria for selecting the participants in this study was the following: first, the participants had to be women who have lived in Taiwan with their expatriate husbands for a minimum of a year. Second, the participants had to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of
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Latter Day Saints. The researcher contacted the participants both face to face and by email to schedule an interview with them. Once the interview was scheduled, the researcher sent a reminder to each of the participants to confirm the appointment. The researcher was able to meet face to face with all the spouses to conduct the interviews.
The following table includes the participants’ characteristics, their age, nationality and countries they have lived in.
The role of the researcher as the primary data collection instrument should not be neglected and his or her personal values should be identified in qualitative studies (Creswell, 2009). As a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the researcher is familiar with the church’s culture and belief system. Despite this, efforts were made to ensure objectivity.
According to Patton (2002), being a member of the group being studied may sometimes be the only way of gaining access and obtaining reliable information. Therefore, no gatekeeper was needed in this study. Interview questions were developed to match the research framework and research questions. The interview was divided in two sections. The first section of the interview included questions related to the spouses’ experiential learning; the second section included questions related to cultural intelligence.
34 Questionnaire
Data was also collected using the cultural intelligence self- report scale. This instrument was developed by Van Dyne and Ang (2008) and it includes 20 items; its predictive validity has been supported by several studies (Kim & Van Dyne, 2012). Informant based measures of CQ are an important source of information about a person’s external manifestation of CQ and it reflects a person’s CQ reputation (Ang et al., 2015). The CQ self-report scale was given to the participants at least a week prior to the interview day. The questionnaire was returned to the researcher prior the day of the interview or the interview day. The questionnaire was not meant to have statistical significance but rather to serve as an instrument to explore the spouses self-reported CQ and furnish triangulation.
Interview
Interviewing is an effective way to develop an understanding of the complexities of human activities and behaviors in a specific domain and the process of conducting interviews has different forms and uses (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). An interview is not a value-neutral instrument for gathering data, but rather involves “active interactions between two or more people leading to negotiated contextually-based results” (Fontana & Frey, 2005, p. 698). Interviews can be used to collect data about persons, events, activities, feelings, motivations in order to discover what was experienced in the past and what is expected to be experienced in the future from the respondents.
In this study, interviewing was an important method of data collection.
Before the interview was conducted, the participants signed a consent form that included a brief description of the study. The consent form also stated that the participants’ identities would be kept confidential and that the interview data would be used for research purposes only. The data was collected using semi- structured interviews. In this kind of interview, the questions are more flexibly worded or the interview is a combination of more and less structured questions; it allows the researcher to respond to the information provided and to the respondent’s worldview, as well as to new ideas and topics that might emerge (Merriam, 2015). The interview questions were revised by two experts before collecting the data. The researcher previously contacted the participants and scheduled a face to face interview. The interviews lasted approximately between 30 to 60 minutes. The researcher probed further in order to achieve more clarity and encourage the participants to share stories of their life in Taiwan. The interviews were recorded and hand-written
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notes were taken during the interview process. The data was later transcribed for data analysis.
The data analysis began by identifying segments in the data that were responsive to the research questions (Merriam, 2009).
Data was also collected through participants’ narratives during the interview process.
According to Gertsen and Soderberg (2010) narratives deepen the understanding of the ways in which phenomena are constructed as part of the social reality of those who experience them. The narratives were collected during the interview process; they were recorded and later transcribed for analysis. A narrative approach allowed the researcher to explore concrete experiences that were significant to the spouses’ cultural adaptation in Taiwan. Using a categorical -content analysis the
researcher was able to identify categories and recurrent themes in the spouses’ narratives.
Observation
Prolonged engagement is a way to ensure the trustworthiness of a qualitative study by spending enough time in the research settings to understand the settings and to build trust with the participants (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Data was also collected using naturalistic observation; this kind of observation takes place in the field (Patton, 2002). As a member of the church, the
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researcher had access to events organized by the expatriate spouses. The researcher had the opportunity to observe the spouses at least on three events.
1. A Ceremony of Carols (this event was organized by the International Community Choir).
The choir is composed of both Taiwanese and foreign females; a number of Latter Day Saint spouses belong to the choir. The concert was held at Taipei American School and the money obtained from the concert was donated to charity.
2. Christmas Pageant (this event was organized by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints). The spouses and their families attended and participated in this musical that was presented to the community; any individual could attend; the admittance to the event was free of charge.
3. Sunday School (Every Sunday the participants attend a class to study the scriptures; the researcher was able to attend this class and observe the participants every Sunday.
Table 3.3.
Observation Schedule
Date Location Occasion Duration December 6, 2015 Jinhua Chapel Christmas Pageant 4 hours December 12, 2015 Taipei American School A Ceremony of Carols 2 hours Feb.28- Apr.10, 2016 Jinhua Chapel Sunday School 7 hours
In the consent form, previously given to the participants it was stated that further observation would take place as part of the research process. During the observation process field notes were taken to describe the setting and participants. Reflective comments were also included in the field notes. Reflective comments include the researcher’s feelings, reactions, interpretations and speculations (Merriam, 2009). Based on a list presented by several writers, the researcher chose to observe the following:
1. The physical setting
2. The participants (Who? Roles? Who is not there?)
37 3. Patterns of communication
4. Integration, engagement and participation in activities (Motivational CQ) 5. Interactions (Behavioral CQ)
6. Strategies (Metacognitive CQ)
7. Conversation -verbal and no-verbal behaviors - declarative knowledge (Cognitive CQ) 8. Researcher’s behavior (reflective comments, actions and thoughts) (Patton, 2002)
First-hand experience and observation of these events allowed the researcher to discover things that participants didn’t share in the interviews. For example, the interaction with each other and with their families were more apparent in field settings.
There are several advantages of direct contact and observation. First, through direct observation the researcher is able to better understand the context within which people interact.
Second, first- hand experience with the setting and people allows the researcher to be open, inductive and discovery-oriented, since there is less need to rely on prior conceptualizations of the setting. Finally, it allows the researcher to observe things that people in the setting might not be aware of (Patton, 2002).
38 Table 3.4. Observation Log Example
Date Occasion Observation
Dec. 6, 2015 Christmas Pageant Everyone is anxious and involved getting ready for the performance.
some spouses are participating in the choir others are part of the cast. They are communicating smoothly
since they are already familiar with one another. The cast is diverse with
participants from different parts of the world.
Dec. 12, 2015 A Ceremony of Carols Some of the spouses brought their kids to help them sell tickets and deliver the programs. It seems more like a family event. Both Taiwanese and foreign ladies are part of the choir, they seem to collaborate well with each other.
Mar. 21, 2016 Sunday School There are several newcomers today at church, some of the spouses ,
approached the new members and shared some of their experiences in Taiwan and welcomed them to the ward. Had a short conversation before the class started.
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Data Analysis
Data collection and data analysis are simultaneous activities in qualitative research;
analysis begins with the first interview and observation. Emerging insights direct the new phase of data collection and analysis (Merriam, 2009). During the data collection stage, the researcher was constantly reviewing each interview transcript and observation field-notes. While rereading and comparing the data a possible set of categories and themes emerged from the data. According to Patton (2002) once data collection finalizes, the researcher has two sources to draw from when organizing the analysis. First, the researcher reviews the questions that were generated during the design phase of the study and second, he or she reviews the insights and interpretations that emerged during data collection.
The data analysis approach used in this study is both inductive and comparative. It relies heavily on the comparative method of data analysis proposed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) to develop grounded theory. However, this inductive and comparative method has been used through qualitative research without building a grounded theory (Merriam, 2015). Building grounded theory was not the aim of this study. According to Patton (2002, p.480), theorizing about data can also be hindered by thinking that it is linear, rather than contextual, and there is a temptation to
“fall back on the linear assumptions of qualitative analysis.”
The main goal of the data analysis process is to find answers to the research questions.
The main goal of the data analysis process is to find answers to the research questions.