Latter Day Saints Expatriates’ Spouse Adaptation in Taiwan from an Experiential Learning and CQ Perspective

全文

(1)Latter Day Saints Expatriates’ Spouse Adaptation in Taiwan from an Experiential Learning and CQ Perspective. by. Gracia Maria Velasquez Melara. A Master’s Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2016.

(2) Latter Day Saints Expatriates’ Spouse Adaptation in Taiwan from an Experiential Learning and CQ Perspective. By. Gracia Maria Velasquez Melara. A Master’s Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Approved: ______________________________ Dr. Wei- Wen Chang In Charge of Major Work ______________________________ Dr. Yi-Chun Lin Committee Member _______________________________ Dr. Charles Trappey Committee Member _______________________________ Dr. Rosa Yeh Director of the Graduate Program Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2016.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First, I want to thank my heavenly father for the opportunity to complete my master’s thesis: I felt his hand and support guiding me through this process. I also want to thank my family and friends who have been supportive since the beginning of this journey. I want to acknowledge all my professors who assisted me and guided me through this process. Thank you for sharing your experience and knowledge with me. I also feel immensely grateful to the Taiwanese government and people. I’m thankful for their kindness and the opportunity to study in this beautiful country. Finally, I want to thank the participants of this study, for allowing me to enter into their lives and learn from their experiences. I also want to honor all of the strong women in the world who are an inspiration to me..

(4) ABSTRACT The forces of globalization have changed the world. Individuals live in a global arena that facilitates cross-cultural interactions. Increased mobility is required from expatriates and their families. Expatriated spouses often face a multitude of challenges. They face the disruption of their support network, income, role and self-esteem and personal identity matters (Kupka & Cathro, 2007).. This study addresses the unique challenges faced by Latter Day Saints (Mormon). expatriated spouses in Taiwan. It explores Latter Day Saints spouses’ learning, experiences and cultural adaptation in Taiwan using an experiential learning perspective. The purpose of this study is to explore the concrete experiences that are relevant to the spouses’ adaptation in Taiwan. Also, to examine Latter Day Saints expatriated spouses’ adaptation learning process and explore how this learning process influences their cultural intelligence. A qualitative approach and the use of narratives was utilized in this study. Twelve Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses were interviewed as a sample for this study. The interviews were transcribed and coded to obtain more insights. Prolonged engagement and persistent observation were also part of this study. Some of the main findings of this research were the experiential and emotional challenges faced by the spouses, also, positive experiences and the adaptation process. Other findings include how the spouse experienced the experiential learning cycle and cultural intelligence in Taiwan.. Keywords: Experiential learning, expatriate spouses, cultural intelligence, adaptation, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. I.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS. TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………II LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………….IV LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………V CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………1 Background of the Study………………………………………………………………………...1 Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………………....4 Research Questions and Purpose..................................................................................................5 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………………..6 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………………………...8. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………..10 Expatriate Spouses……………………………………………………………………………..10 The Experiential Learning Process…………………………………………………………….11 Experiential Learning and Cross-Cultural Adaptation………………………………………...16 Cultural Intelligence …………………………………………………………………………..18 Qualitative Research …………………………………………………………………………..22 Narrative Research …………………………………………………………………………….24 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints -History and Values ………………………..25. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN………………………………………….28 Research Approach…………………………………………………………………………….28 Research Framework…………………………………………………………………………..30 Participants…………………………………………………………………………………….32 Data Collection………………………………………………………………………………...33 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………..39 Research Procedure…………………………………………………………………………….42 Validity and Reliability………………………………………………………………………...44. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………………………………..47 Significant Contributors to Cultural Adaptation………………………………………………..47 Emotional Challenges…………………………………………………………………………..48 Postive Experiences…………………………………………………………………………….59. II.

(6) Experiential Challenges………………………………………………………………………...50 Adaptation……………………………………………………………………………………...52 Experiential Learning and CQ………………………………………………………………....55 Experiential learning ………………………………………………………………………….56 Cultural Intelligence…………………………………………………………………………...63 Additional Findings……………………………………………………………………………70 Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………………………..73 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………...75. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS………………………..80 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………….80 Implications…………………………………………………………………………………….81 Suggestions for Future Research……………………………………………………………….83 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………..84. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………..86 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND QUESTIONNAIRE………...94 APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORMS……………………………………………100 APPENDIX C: CODING LIST………………………………………………...102 APPENDIX D: ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE…………………………………..104 APPENDIX E: WORD FREQUENCY QUERY…………………………….....108 APPENDIX F: WORD CLOUD………………………………………………..109 APPENDIX G: PHOTOGRAPHS……………………………………………...110. III.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Participants’ Characteristics ………………………………………………………..33 Table 3.2 Interview Schedule …………………………………………………………………35 Table 3.3 Observation Schedule ………………………………………………………………36 Table 3.4 Observation Log Example ………………………………………………………….38 Table 4.1 CQ Self-report Questionnaire …………………………………………………...….74. IV.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES. Figure 2.1 Dimensions Underlying the Process of Experiential Learning (Kolb, 2015)……....14 Figure 2.2 Facets of Cultural Intelligence ……………………………………………………..19 Figure 3.1 Research Framework (Experiential learning and Cultural intelligence)…………....32 Figure 3.2 Nvivo Coding ………………………………………………………………………40 Figure 3.3 Nvivo Nodes (codes) example ……………………………………………………..41 Figure 3.4 Research Procedure ………………………………………………………………...43 Figure 4.1 Synthesis of Key Findings of Thematic Analysis (Research Question 1)………….47 Figure 4.2 Synthesis of Key Findings of Thematic Analysis (Research Question 2)………….55 Figure 4.3 Additional Findings ………………………………………………………………...70 Figure 4.4 Questionnaire Item Example………………………………………………………..73. V.

(9) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study This study addresses the unique challenges and experiences faced by Latter Day Saint expatriated spouses in Taiwan. The forces of globalization have changed the world; individuals live in a global arena that facilitates cross-cultural interactions. This is possible due to the emergence of new technologies and new forms of collaboration that cross geographical barriers. The dynamics of development of international enterprises and the changes in the business environment, induce corporations to flexibly adjust to new conditions. International and intercultural work has become the norm for most large corporations. There is also an increase of teams made up of individuals of different nationalities (Earley & Gibson 2002). To make things more challenging, managers are spending shorter periods of time in any single country, and they often are moved from one location to another, making country-specific knowledge less relevant (Earley & Peterson, 2004). Increased geographical mobility, cultural flexibility, and adaptability to different cultural conditions are often demanded from expatriates (Przytula, 2013). Each expatriate brings a different set of skills and experiences to the table. In their study, Kim, Kirkman and Chen (2006) found that various individual variables, such as personality traits, ability, skill, gender, prior international experience, local language fluency and marital status are important predictors of expatriate effectiveness in their international assignment. Marital status and spouses are important in expatriates’ international assignments. One survey found that 69 percent of expatriates are married, with spouses accompanying them 77 percent of the time (Hill, 2008). Spouses are an important aspect of the expatriates’ international assignment experience. A growing body of literature is focusing its attention on expatriates’ spouses. Theories on marital power suggest that spouses have a strong influence on the partner’s decision making process (Rahman & Rao, 2004). Spouses are of great significance to expatriates’ adaptation and completion of their international assignments. In her study, Tung (2007) found that the main reason for expatriates’ failure in European and US multinational companies is the inability of spouse to adjust. Therefore, expatriates’ spouses’ adaptation process is an issue that should be studied in more depth to manage global talent more effectively. However, current literature does not deal with expatriate spouses from specific religious communities as does this study.. 1.

(10) Expatriated spouses often face a multitude of challenges; they face the disruption of their support network, income, role and self-esteem and personal identity matters (Kupka & Cathro, 2007). Little attention has been paid to the lonely and painful experience spouses have to endure in a foreign culture. Spouses often become frustrated as they try to hire and supervise house hold help, and figure out where to buy household necessities, find churches, doctors, dentists, and electricians all without knowing the language or culture (McNulty, 2005). In order to avoid companies’ financial loses, expatriates have to adapt to new cultures and effectively complete their international assignments. This also involves the spouse ability to adjust to different cultures. Many interests are at jeopardy when expatriates are sent to complete international assignments. For instance, companies invest about $1.2 million for each overseas assignment, and the total cost of failed expatriate assignments is estimated to be between $2 and $2.5 billion (Jun & Gentry, 2005). Many organizations have ignored the issue of poor spouse adjustment in expatriates’ failure rates (Cole, 2011). Consequently, it is important to explore the issue of spouses’ adaptation process in more depth. The term cultural intelligence (CQ) was first introduced by Earley and Ang (2003) this approach refers to the “ability to adapt across cultures, and it reflects a person’s capability to gather, interpret, and act upon radically different cues to function effectively across cultural settings or in multicultural situations” (p.59). Cultural intelligence consists of four dimensions (1) cognition (2) motivation (3) Behavior and (4) Metacognition. Each of the four facets of cultural intelligence include more specific skills that can be measured and enhanced (Livermore, 2015). Yee, Van Dyne and Ang (2009) proposed that CQ should be considered as a set of learning capabilities, which specifically focus on how the four CQ dimensions enhance the likelihood that individuals will be actively engaged in the four stages of experiential learning. Studying expatriates’ spouses’ adaptation as a learning process, can help examine the impact this learning process has on the spouses’ cultural intelligence. Most research on cultural adaptation has focused on expatriates’ performance instead of their learning process. According to Yee, et al., (2009) the emphasis of expatriates’ and spouses cultural adaptation should be on learning effectiveness rather than on work effectiveness; they also believe that failure in international assignments can represent an excellent learning experience. This contrasts the. 2.

(11) traditional views of failure in international assignments (Hall, Zhu, & Yan, 2011). There is still a lack of conceptual and empirical research that focuses on the adjustment of expatriate spouses (Mohr & Klein, 2004).An experiential learning approach can aid to fill this gap. Yee, Dyne & Ang propose an empirical model that combines experiential learning and cultural intelligence to explore the adaptation process. The experiential learning theory views learning as a process not as an outcome and claims that all learning is relearning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005a). Therefore, it can be useful to examine the spouses’ cultural adaptation and learning process. A widely known adult learning theory is Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory. Kolb’s (2015) theory highlights the importance experience plays in affecting learning and change. This theory includes the work of prominent educators and scholars such as John Dewey, Kurt Levin, and Jean Piaget. Studying the spouses’ adaptation by using the experiential learning model allows the researcher to explore the adaptation learning process. This model “portrays two dialectically related modes of grasping experience— Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC)—and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience—Reflective Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE)” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005a, p.194). The main idea is that learning requires both grasping and transforming experience. Perceiving experience is not enough, something must be done with it. Similarly, transformation alone does not represent learning; there must be an experience to be acted upon (Kolb, 2015). This study does not focus on the influence adaptation has on performance, but instead on the learning process and concrete experiences that aid adaptation. Ultimately, this will help explore the impact this learning process has on spouses’ cultural intelligence. Very little research has been conducted on expatriates’ spouses’ adaptation in Taiwan. Chien and McClean (2011) believe that more research has to be conducted in order to generate knowledge in a Taiwan cultural-specific setting. Furthermore, as previously mentioned no research has been conducted on a specific religious denomination’s adaptation process in Taiwan in this case, Latter Day Saints. An extensive search was conducted on the international Journal of Mormon Studies database (2016) and no studies related to Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses were found. Additionally, a search was conducted on the BYU studies quarterly database (2016) and four articles related to expatriates were found, nevertheless, no research on Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses in Taiwan was found.. 3.

(12) This study explores the Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses’ adaptation process in Taiwan. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is a Christian church that was organized on April 6 of 1830 in Fayette, New York. It is a worldwide church that has organized branches in different countries including Taiwan. This gap in the literature makes this particular population suitable for research. There is a growing population of Latter Day Saints expatriates in Taiwan; this research can be of importance to them and their spouses. The purpose of this study is to explore the expatriated spouses’ adaptation learning process using Kolb’s experiential learning cycle. Also, this study will examine the impact the learning process has on the spouses’ cultural intelligence in terms of behavior, cognition, motivation and metacognition.. Problem Statement Research has found that the spouse and family members’ cross-cultural adaptation positively influences the expatriates’ overall cross cultural adjustment (Takeuchi, Yun & Tesluk 2002). Surveys have also found that a happy and supportive spouse is one of the important success criteria for both male and female expatriates (McNulty, 2005). Traditionally, expatriates were accompanied by their spouse who was a homemaker. Therefore, organizations didn’t consider the spouses’ adaptation to be their responsibility (Cole, 2011). Organizations have ignored the issue of poor spouse adaptation on the expatriates failure rates (Bauer & Taylor, 2011). A major change has occurred in today’s business environment since nowadays dual career couples are the norm and most wives work. The emergence of this new kind of couple enhances the relevance of the issue of spouses’ adaptation and learning. Even though more studies are being conducted on expatriated spouses nowadays, the majority of these studies are quantitative in nature and do not address adaptation as a learning process (McNulty, 2005). Those studies that address the issue with an experiential learning perspective focus on expatriates, not on their spouses. There is no systematic framework that explains why some spouses seem to learn more than others. According to Yee et al. (2009), learning varies because only some individuals engage in the entire experiential learning cycle. Since there is a lack of research on Latter Day Saints spouses, there is also a need to conduct research using an experiential learning perspective. Furthermore, there is a lack of research conducted on Latter Day Saint spouses’ adaptation which considers Taiwan as a specific setting. This gap in the literature makes this topic suitable for conducting further research. 4.

(13) According to Yamazaki and Kayes (2004), there is a lack of integrative framework for cross-cultural learning; this is troublesome because there is a list of skills that exist, but there is no knowledge of how they were acquired. The concept of learning from experience or previous international assignments seems natural but it has not yet been linked in the literature in a meaningful way. Using an experiential learning approach is vital in this study, because it will help highlight the role experience plays in affecting learning and change. Moreover, no research on Latter Day Saints expatriated spouses has integrated both experiential learning and cultural intelligence. CQ will help determine the extent to which individuals were involved in the experiential learning cycle and vice-versa. No Latter Day Saints expatriated spouses’ studies have considered the relationship between experiential learning and cultural intelligence. Additionally, a narrative approach to cultural encounters and concrete experiences may deepen the understanding of how these phenomena are part of the reality and daily life of those who experience them (Gertsen & Soderberg, 2010). There is a body of literature that addresses expatriates’ adaptation using a narrative approach. There are few studies that utilize a narrative approach to examine the spouses’ adaptation process (Plum, Achen, Draeby, & Jensen, 2008). Conducting a study, that uses narration to understand spouses’ learning and CQ, makes a contribution to the qualitative and narrative study literature.. Research Questions and Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the concrete experiences that are relevant to the spouses’ adaptation in Taiwan. Also, the study aims to examine Latter Day Saints expatriated spouses’ adaptation learning process and explore how this learning process influences their cultural intelligence. An experiential learning approach was used in this study. This helped the researcher explore concrete experiences, reflections, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation of the spouses in Taiwan. This specific focus led to the following research questions: 1. What concrete experiences in the experiential learning process are significant contributors to the spouses’ cultural adaptation in Taiwan? 2. How is spouses’ CQ influenced by the experiential learning process in Taiwan?. 5.

(14) Significance of the Study According to McNulty (2014), in the past two decades, different kinds of expatriates have emerged: more executive women, married couples with no children, single and unaccompanied people, same-sex partnerships, single parents, and younger expatriates assigned for career development purposes. Even though new forms of expatriation have emerged and companies are opting to send these different kinds of expatriates to international assignments; there is a general consensus that traditional expatriate assignments are unlikely to disappear (Collings et. al, 2009). Therefore, understanding and exploring spouses learning and adaptation will continue being an important issue to manage global talent. In addition, inexistent literature about Latter Day Saints expatriates’ spouses’ adaptation in Taiwan makes this issue significant. Researchers, educators, and managers have been concerned with identifying factors and processes supporting CQ development (Kim & Van Dyne, 2012). This study proposes an experiential learning approach as a process that informs cultural intelligence. This study makes a contribution by specifically focusing on Latter Day Saints expatriates spouses’ as a specific population. Since the literature focusing on Latter Day Saints spouses’ experiential learning in Taiwan is almost inexistent. It has been argued that cognitive and experiential education work best together (Tan & Chua, 2003). On the other hand, others believe that education approaches focusing on CQ development provide a significant improvement than those that are merely cognitive and experiential (Early & Peterson, 2004). Research that specifies factors and processes supporting the relationship between contact and CQ development is lacking. Furthermore, better understanding of how CQ can be developed through training and education is needed (Rosenblatt, Worthley & MacNab, 2013). This study integrates both experiential learning and cultural intelligence to explore the spouses’ adaptation and determine the impact this learning process has on cultural intelligence. Therefore, this study contributes to the field of experiential learning and cultural intelligence. This research also makes a contribution to the narrative literature. According to Gertsen and Soderberg (2010) a narrative approach provides insights into expatriates cultural encounters, their use of cultural intelligence and their cultural learning process. This research utilizes narratives. 6.

(15) to examine insights of Latter Day Saints expatriated spouses’ adaptation learning process and the relevant concrete experiences that aided this process. There is little existent published literature that examines the experience of Latter Day Saints expatriate spouses abroad. Due to the growth of the church worldwide, the number of Latter Day Saints working abroad is increasing (Toronto, 2006). Companies are in search of individuals who possess international experience. According to Levine (2014) International experience is also considered a valuable asset when assigning expatriates to different countries; since it enhances their marketability. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is a missionary Church and its members have the opportunity to serve missions and learn different languages in foreign countries. This international experience and exposure has qualified many Latter Day Saints to work as expatriates or in the Foreign Service. This research makes a contribution to Latter Day Saints expatriate family literature and is significant because nowadays, more Latter Day Saints are serving in international assignments. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints started its proselytizing work in Taiwan with the arrival of four missionaries in June 1956 (Stamps, 2002). Back then, the Latter Day Saints missionaries were the first foreigners some Taiwanese people met. The young missionaries gave the Taiwanese the opportunity to meet, interact, ask questions and get to know non-Taiwanese people (Stamp, 2002). In 1996, the church membership numbered twenty two thousand. Currently, the church has approximately fifty-seven thousand members and 105 congregations in Taiwan (Statistical Report, 2014). Many of the young men and women who served missions in Taiwan return as government employees, students or organizational expatriates (Stamp, 2002). These expatriates come accompanied by their spouses in the majority of cases. Most of the Latter Day Saints expatriates and their spouses attend a special church located in Taipei; this congregation’s services are held in English. This study is significant to the population of Latter Day Saints expatriate families who come to Taiwan to complete different international assignments.. 7.

(16) Definition of Terms Expatriated Spouses: Also known as trailing or accompanying spouses. They are the husband or wife of an employee who is sent to work in another country (Cambridge, 2013). In this study it refers to the wives of organizational expatriates or Foreign Service employees.. Adaptation: According to the Merriam Webster third edition dictionary, adaptation is a change in a plant or animal that makes it better able to live in a particular place or situation. Also, the process of changing to fit some purpose or situation: the process of adapting.. Experiential Learning Theory: An adult learning theory developed by David Kolb. This theory draws from the work of famous philosophers and educators like John Dewey, Kurt Levin, Jean Piaget, William James, Carl Jung, Paulo Freire, Carl Rogers and others. This theory defines learning as a process, therefore knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. The model includes two ways of grasping experience: Concrete experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC). It also includes two ways of transforming experience: Reflective Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).. Cultural Intelligence: The term cultural intelligence was introduced by Earley and Ang (2003) to define the ability to adapt across cultures and it also indicates a person’s capability to gather, interpret, and act upon different cues to function effectively across cultural settings. Cultural intelligence includes four different components: Meta-cognitive facet (strategy), cognitive facet (knowledge), motivational facet (drive) and behavioral facet (action).. Narrative Research: Narrative research according to Lieblich et. al “narrative research refers to any study that uses or analyzes narrative material. The data can be collected as a story (a life story provided in an interview or literary work) or in a different manner. It can be the object of the research or a means for the study or another question. It may be used for comparison among groups, to learn about a social phenomenon or historical period, or to explore personality.” (1998, p. 2).. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: It is Christian restorationist church that was organized on April 6 of 1830 in Fayette, New York. Its members are usually referred as Latter Day Saints or less formally as Mormons. According to the National Council of Churches (2012) it is the fourth largest Christian denomination in the United States. According to the Church 8.

(17) its worldwide membership is over 15 million; the Church also claim to count with 85 thousand fulltime missionaries (Statistical Report, 2014). Its headquarters are located in Salt Lake City, Utah.. Latter Day Saints: Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints also known as “Mormons.”. 9.

(18) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW. Expatriate Spouses Organizations are utilizing different types of employees in their staffing profiles. Recent research also suggests the rise of short term international assignments as substitutes to long-term traditional expatriate assignments (Konopaske &Werner, 2005). Despite this, many organizations continue to utilize, long-term traditional expatriate assignments in their international operations (Cho, Hutchings & Marchant, 2013). Traditional expatriate assignments are unlikely to disappear in spite of the recent changes. The typical overseas assignment sees a male employee relocating and bringing his wife and children with him (Halsberger, 2010). Therefore, families and spouses are an important aspect of the international assignment. Due to this change of lifestyle, the expatriate spouse is also known as the accompanying or trailing spouse since she gives up her home, social network , and sometimes career to follow the interest of her husband’s career (Teague, 2015). Expatriates’ spouses face numerous challenges when relocating and adapting to a new culture. With the expatriate occupied with work, the family’s cultural adaptation is often left to the accompanying wife (Kupka & Cathro, 2007). If the spouse does not adapt effectively; they will be ineffective in assisting with other family members’ adjustment, or the expatriate’s adjustment (Bikos et al., 2007). If the spouse is not being a positive influence, it can not only compromise the wellbeing of the family, but it can also jeopardize the success of the assignment. This will ultimately bring negative consequences for the sponsoring company (Osman & Rockstuhl, 2008). Despite the importance and impact of spouses in international assignments, many organizations fail to prepare expatriates and spouses for their international assignments. Many organizations are insensitive to family issues, thus resulting in stress for families who are relocating without the adequate support from the organization (Harvey et al., 2009). Many organizations also fail to acknowledge the challenges and difficulties faced by expatriate spouses. These challenges and difficulties have been ignored by many organizations. However, research has been conducted in this field, since it is known that spouse adjustment has a great impact on expatriates’ adjustment (Takeuchi, Lepak, Marinova & Yun, 10.

(19) 2007). Researchers have identified some of the changes expatriate spouses have to go through. For example, their standard of living may be a few steps up or a few steps down from the standard of living in their home countries (Teague, 2015). Spouses might also want have to adjust their roles since some of them have been employed in their home countries and now find themselves as housewives in other cases, housewives join the workforce upon becoming expatriates (Van Der Zee, Ali, & Salomé, 2005). Bikos et al. (2009) found that the spouses who had a role shift and became housewives had a need to reform their sense of self; this made their adaptation process more challenging. However, this was not the case for the spouses who were able to transfer their careers to the host country; this made the adaptation process easier. Researchers have suggested different interventions to help spouses adjust effectively into the host country. They contend that effective organizational support can play an essential part in the adaptation process of expatriate spouses. Three types of organizational support have been identified: practical, professional and social. Practical support refers to: pre-assignment visits to the host location, furniture storage, tax advice, home-sale assistance, language courses, crosscultural training and immigration paperwork. Professional support includes: job search, career counselling, resume preparation, and work permit assistance. Finally, social support is: introductions to other expatriates, memberships in sports and social clubs, and information about and access to expatriate forums and spouse networking groups (Mcnulty, 2012). Even though most organizations provide practical support, many fail to provide social and professional support; therefore, this continues to be an ongoing issue. Companies need to take spouses’ adaptation under consideration, since it has been proved that the accompanying spouse has a marked impact on the overall success of the international assignment (Lauring & Selmer, 2010). Even though the body of literature in this area is increasing, more research is needed in the field of experiential learning and cultural intelligence. Also, research that can apply to a specific setting eg. Taiwan, is needed.. The Experiential Learning Process The experiential learning theory was developed by David Kolb, an American educational theorist in the 1970s. This theory relies heavily on the work of famous educators and psychologists such as: John Dewey, Kurt Levin, Paulo Freire, Jean Piaget and others. Kolb relied on the work of his predecessors to develop a holistic model of the experiential learning process of adult 11.

(20) development (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). This theory is built on six basic propositions that are shared by these scholars. The first proposition is that learning is best conceived as a process not in terms of outcomes. This approach is different than behaviorist theories or idealist education approaches. Experiential learning does not view ideas as fixed and immutable like the previous approaches, but rather it views ideas as elements of thought that are formed and re-formed through experience (Kolb, 2015). Viewing learning as an outcome in experiential learning can be equal to non-learning, since the experiential learning theory views learning as a process not a product. The second proposition is that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience. Knowledge comes from and is tested out in the experiences of the learner. This has important educational implications, but it also implies that all learning is relearning (Kolb, 2015). The third proposition is that the process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world. This means that conflict differences and disagreements are what drive the learning process. In the process of learning, individuals have to move back and forth between different ways of thinking, feeling, reflecting and acting. The fourth proposition is that learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world. Experiential learning is not a small educational process, but rather, a holistic process describing the central process of human adaptation to the social and physical environment. Learning is not in a single realm of human functioning, like cognition or perception. According to Kolb (2015) it involves the functions of the whole organism (thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving). Learning is the major process of the human adaptation and this process is broader than the one associated with the school classroom. The fifth proposition is that learning involves transactions between the person and the environment. This seems an obvious proposition but it has been misinterpreted for several reasons. One is the tendency to view the person’s relationship with the environment as one way, thus placing more emphasis on how the environment shapes behavior and not on how the behavior shapes reality. Learning is an active self-directed process that can be applied into everyday life (Kolb, 2015).. 12.

(21) The last proposition is that learning is a process of creating knowledge. Knowledge is the result of the transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge. The creation of knowledge occurs at all levels, from scientific research to the child’s discovery that a rubber ball bounces. Social knowledge is created and recreated in the personal knowledge of the learner (Kolb &Kolb, 2005). The experiential learning process can be described as a four stage cycle that includes four adaptive learning modes. These are: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. This process is an idealized learning cycle where the learner touches all of “the bases” (experiencing, reflecting, thinking and acting) (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). These model is divided in two different dialectics: (1) concrete experience/abstract conceptualization and (2) active experimentation/reflective observation. These are two opposed adaptive orientations. The abstract/concrete dimension represents two opposed processes of grasping experience and making meaning of the world, either through reliance on conceptual interpretation or through symbolic representation. Kolb (2015) calls this process comprehension. On the other hand, the reliance on immediate experience is called apprehension. The active/ reflective dimension is one of transformation. It also represents two opposing ways of transforming the grasp and experience. It can be transformed through internal reflection processes called intention or through the external manipulation of the world, which is called extension. Since there are two different ways of taking hold of experience and two different ways of transforming it, the result is four elementary forms of knowledge.. 13.

(22) Figure 2.1. Dimensions Underlying the Process of Experiential Learning (adapted from Kolb, 2015) Experience grasped through apprehension and that is transformed via intention results in divergent knowledge. Experience grasped through comprehension and transformed through intention results in assimilative knowledge. Similarly, experience that is grasped through comprehension and transformed through extension results in convergent knowledge and experience that is grasped via apprehension and transformed through extension results in accommodative knowledge (Kolb, 2015). The basic concept behind experiential is that learning requires the grasping of experience and the transformation of this experience. The simple perception of experience is not enough for learning, something must be done with it. The experience must be reflected on, and concepts made. In the same way, transformation is not enough for learning because transformation needs to occur due to an experience. Kolb & Kolb (2005a) recently introduced a new concept to the experiential learning theory. This concept is called “Learning Space”. It was introduced in order to elaborate on the dynamic 14.

(23) nature of learning style and its formation. It is based on Kurt Lewin’s theory and the concept of life space. This means that the person and the environment are interdependent variables. Life space includes all of the facts that might have an influence on a person’s behavior these factors are interdependent. Experiential Learning theory defines learning space through the dialectic forces of action/reflection and experiencing/conceptualizing. This creates a two dimensional map in the region of learning space. The experiential learning theory also includes individual differences in learning styles. These differences can be found in the preferences for using different phases of the learning cycle. Heredity, life experiences and demands of the current environment allow individuals to develop a preferred way of learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005a). The four basic approaches to learning included in the theory are: diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating. These approaches were identified using the learning style inventory (LSI) to assess the differences in learning styles. The convergent learning style relies on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. The focus of this approach is problem solving, decision making and practical application of ideas. Individuals who learn this way prefer dealing with technical tasks, rather than with social situations or interactions. The divergent learning style on the other hand, relies on concrete experience and reflective observation. Individuals who possess this learning style have the strength of awareness of meaning and values. This orientation focuses on adaptation by observation rather than action. Individuals who prefer this learning style are interested in people and are feeling-oriented. The assimilating learning style relies on abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. The focus of this approach is inductive reasoning and the ability to create theoretical models. Individuals who learn this way are less focused on people and more concerned on with ideas and abstract concepts. The accommodative style relies on concrete experience and active experimentation. The focus of this orientation relies in doing things and carrying out plans. People with this approach tend to solve problems with a trial-and error intuitive manner. These individuals rely heavily on other people for information rather than their own analytic ability (Kolb, 2015).. 15.

(24) More recent research has been conducted to advance the theory and practice of experiential learning. Since it is a holistic theory it includes research in different fields. The Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography includes 1876 entries (Kolb & Kolb, 2005b). These entries are in the fields of management, education, psychology, nursing, accounting, law etc. In 1991 Hickcox extensively reviewed the origins of the experiential learning theory using a qualitative approach. She concluded that 61.7 % of the studies supported the experiential learning theory, 16.1% showed mixed support and 22.2 % did not support it. Therefore, it is a reliable theory with which to explore learning.. Experiential Learning and Cross-Cultural Adaptation Yamazaki and Kayes (2004) argue that expatriates and their spouses learn to manage across cultures without formal education on cross-cultural skills; they believe that cross-cultural learning fits naturally under a general category of experiential learning. The experiential learning theory is one of the most prevalent theories of how managers learn from experience (Kayes, 2002). The theory has been influential in more than 1,800 studies in the last 30 years (Kolb & Kolb, 2004). There are unique aspects of the experiential learning theory that makes it useful to include in the relationship with cross-cultural learning and adaptation. First, the experiential learning theory includes a comprehensive sets of skills that include valuing, thinking, deciding, and acting; some of these skills are necessary in cross-cultural learning and adaptation. Second, the humanistic values of experiential learning offer an ethical approach to learning. These values are difference, self-development and self-actualization. These values emphasize the ability to learn and develop in cross-cultural situations and contexts. Therefore, they place the expatriate and spouse at the center of the cross-cultural learning process (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2004). Finally the experiential learning theory has been subject to extensive empirical validation. Using different measures of learning styles, skills and development the experiential learning theory offers one of the few empirically verifiable learning theories. Kolb’s theory and its extensions challenge other learning models that do not translate across cultures. For example, behavioral models respond to stimuli and cognitive theories involve the mental processing of information (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007). Researchers have concluded that both the behaviorist and cognitive theory are inappropriate to study cross-cultural adaptation and 16.

(25) learning (Black &Mendenhall, 1991). An experiential approach is more appropriate because as Kolb (1984) stated, learning goes beyond descriptions of socialization, or change or describing an adaptation process to the environment. It involves the functions of the whole organism (thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving). An experiential approach is also useful because it can also help explain how people learn across cultures. Learning styles that dominate in another country can differ from those in a different culture. Studies have indicated that there exist learning style differences from country to country ( Katz 1988; Yuen & Lee 1994; Auyeung & Sands, 1996). Empirical data also calls for an experiential approach to study global leader’s learning and development (Yee et al., 2009). Most empirical research on international assignments focuses on expatriates’ performance and adjustment (Bhaskar Shrinivas et al., 2005). There is a need to focus on the learning process, instead of on the outcomes. Yee, Van Dyne and Ang (2009) believe that the growing emphasis on experiential approaches to study global leaders’ development is due to the importance given to international experience. Global leaders find international assignments beneficial for their personal and professional development (Carpenter, Sanders & Gregersen, 2001). This is supported by Kolb’s experiential learning theory that views learning as a cyclical process. These studies on international experience have focused on expatriates, not on their spouses. Gupta, Banerjee and Gaur (2012) examined the existing expatriate spouse adjustment studies. Several gaps were identified in these studies. First, these studies focused on organizational support issues, and not on the antecedents of the expatriate assignment adjustment. Second, they did not include accounts of the spouses’ personalities or an important learning experiences. Furthermore, these studies did not include an experiential learning approach. Consequently, Kolb’s experiential approach is suitable to study expatriates spouses adaptation and learning.. 17.

(26) Cultural Intelligence The term cultural intelligence (CQ) was first introduced by Earley and Ang (2003). This term refers to the “ability to adapt across cultures, and it reflects a person’s capability to gather, interpret, and act upon radically different cues to function effectively across cultural settings or in multicultural situations” (p.59). Early and Ang (2003) argue that the most complex formulation of intelligence is the one that includes both an internal and external perspective of intelligence. The cultural intelligence theory draws from the work of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, Sternberg’s theory of triarchic intelligences, and Ceci’s bioecological theory of intelligence. These models build on different subfields of intelligence (biological, molar mental, psychometric, behavioral, and contextual). Cultural intelligence is also focused on the relationship of individuals and the environment. This theory includes an intraindividual perspective of intelligence including the functions of metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behavior on a daily basis. Context has a crucial importance in cultural intelligence, since cultural intelligence focuses on the ability to adapt to new cultural contexts. Therefore, cultural intelligence includes both internal and external views of intelligence; that also includes behaviors, as the individual adapts to his or her new cultural environment (Early & Ang, 2003). This theory argues that very different skills are needed for adaptation across cultures since familiar references are absent in different cultural contexts. A person with high social or cognitive intelligence is able to react and act appropriately to another person because their cultural context is similar. Nonetheless, in a new culture where familiar cues are absent; there is no frame to be relied on. This is where cultural intelligence comes into play, since the person must develop a new frame of understanding with the information available in the environment, even though he or she may not have a perfect understanding of the local culture (Early & Ang, 2003).Some behaviors might be necessary to respond appropriately to new cultures; however, these behaviors might not be part of a person’s frame of reference. A culturally intelligent person is able to acquire a new set of behaviors according to the demands of the environment. Early and Ang (2003) believe that CQ requires both action and intention. The action has to be implemented, not just planned.. 18.

(27) Early and Ang’s (2003) cultural intelligence model includes both emic and etic constructs and processes which exist in a cultural setting. An emic construct has its basis in a culture and it is appreciated within its context. The emic construct cannot be appreciated out of its context; it can only be appreciated within its cultural context. On the other hand, the etic constructs are universal. They exist across cultures and its characteristics are universal, for example, marriage or mourning the loss of a loved one. This discussion of etics and emics relates to cultural intelligence since there are several universal aspects pertaining to CQ. One example is how much a person is willing to engage in his or her environment proactively to adapt. Other aspects of cultural intelligence are emic because CQ can be broken down into context and individual specific features. Therefore, CQ includes both emic and etic aspects that are presented in a hierarchical manner. Cultural intelligence consists of four facets: cognitive, motivational, behavioral and metacognitive:. Figure 2.2. Facets of Cultural Intelligence (Adapted from Early & Ang, 2003). 19.

(28) The cognitive facet of cultural intelligence includes knowledge of the social environment and information handling. It refers to how people store and retrieve information that is relevant to cultural interactions. Social information processing is important in the cognitive facet of CQ. Inductive and analogical reasoning are also important since new cultural situations require a person to step beyond their existing knowledge to fully understand what is happening around them. A person with high CQ must inductively create a map of the social situation to function effectively. According to Early and Ang (2003) the cognitive perspective of cultural intelligence can be explored with three basic questions: 1. What are the ways that I can determine what I am like and what might someone else be like? 2. What is this person like and why are they this way? 3. What can people be like and why? (p.93) Moving across cultures can be challenging, and it requires adaptation that is not found in any other social interaction. Therefore, the cognitive component of cultural intelligence includes different types of knowledge that form the basis of what the individual knows. These three kinds of knowledge are: declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. Declarative knowledge refers to knowing about things, and procedural knowledge refers to how to do things. Conditional knowledge is knowing when and why to use particular cognitive strategies (Early & Ang, 2003). Individuals with high CQ use inductive and analogical skills to go beyond their existing knowledge and understand what’s happening in their environment. This knowledge is not empathy because the individual has to create a map of the new cultural setting in order to function effectively. However possessing and acquiring new knowledge is just the beginning since it does not include motivation, behavior and metacognition (Early& Ang, 2003). The motivation facet of cultural intelligence includes a person’s self-concept. This means that cultural intelligence reflects a person’s self-concept and motivates the adjustment to new cultures. Early and Ang (2003) believe self-concept is important to the discussion of the motivation facet of cultural intelligence; it also includes three self-motives: enhancement, efficacy and consistency.. 20.

(29) Self-enhancement is affected by the opportunities in the environment and the processes of interpreting and assessing those opportunities. One example of self-enhancement is a person’s tendency to distort reality to maintain a positive self –image (Markus, Kitayama,& Heiman, 1997). Self-efficacy is the Judgement of one’s capability to accomplish a certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986). This means that individuals eliminate the tasks they believe they will not be able to achieve and engage in tasks they believe they can accomplish. Finally, self-consistency refers to desire of maintaining consistency in their experiences and cognitions. Self-consistency includes two aspects first, the active construction of memories and perceptions according to previous events. The second aspect directs people to behave in accordance to their values and norms (Erez & Earley, 1993). The behavioral domain of cultural intelligence includes having a repertoire of behavioral responses for cultural situations. If the individual lacks this set of skills, he or she must have the capability of acquiring them (Early & Ang, 2003). An individual’s ability to understand the universality and cultural specific aspects of social behaviors is important in the behavioral facet of CQ. The behavioral domain of CQ is also related to the cognitive and motivational aspects. This is the case, since it requires the individual to persist and work hard to execute the behavior properly. Therefore, the behavioral facet is a product of both the cognitive and motivational facets. The behavioral facet requires flexibility from those individuals with high CQ. It is not enough to be a good actor and control displays and actions; it is also important to interpret the behavioral cues provided by others to interpret their actions and motives. Selfpresentation is important in the behavioral facet because no one wants to appear incompetent. It is part of individuals’ self-enhancement to avoid behaviors that will make them appear as socially undesirable (Earley & Ang, 2003). This can be difficult in unfamiliar settings that have unfamiliar traditions. Cross- cultural self-presentation includes both formal and informal skills. These skills can be: greetings, farewells, gestures, initiating social conversations, and understanding the “silent language.” These abilities can be applied in informal settings such as communicating with friends or in formal settings at the workplace (Hall, 1966). The metacognitive facet of cultural intelligence involves an individual’s conscious level of cross-cultural awareness during intercultural interactions (Rockstuhl et, al., 2011). It involves 21.

(30) higher cognitive strategies, for example, developing heuristics and guidelines for new cultural interactions and settings. Individuals with high metacognitive intelligence, are aware of the norms and preferences of cultures before and during their interactions; they adjust their mental models of intercultural experiences (Triandis, 2006). The metacognitive facet of CQ is how individuals use the understanding they gained in the cognitive facet. It is using this cultural understanding to plan for an interaction or project taking place in a different cultural environment (Livermore, 2015). The basic definition of metacognition is thinking about thinking or the knowledge and cognition about cognitive objects (Flavell, 1987). Metacognition can also be broken down into two elements: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience. Metacognitive knowledge is the knowledge acquired that is related to cognitive matters. On the other hand, metacognitive experience refers to the nature of the information acquired by the individual. It is how a person learns how the different kinds of information should be dealt in different contexts (Early & Ang, 2003). Individuals with high metacognitive intelligence develop plans for new intercultural situation. These individuals are able to monitor, analyze and adjust their assumptions and behaviors in different cultural settings (Livermore, 2015). Cultural intelligence offers a theoretical framework that includes the four components listed above (metacognitive, cognitive, behavioral and motivational). It reflects upon mental capabilities that should be acquired, and helps understand culturally diverse situations. The CQ framework also includes knowledge and control over individual thought processes. In this study, CQ will be considered a set of capabilities that are important for adaptation. Cultural intelligence dimensions are taken in consideration to examine the extent to which spouses are actively engaged in the four stages of experiential learning (Yee, Van Dyne & Ang, 2009).. Qualitative Research The following definition of qualitative research will guide this study: The purpose of qualitative research is to describe and understand social phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them. The research questions are studied through a variety of methods allowing the contact with the participants involved to the extent that is necessary to understand what is going on in the field. The methods produce rich, descriptive data that must be analyzed through the identification. 22.

(31) and coding of themes and categories leading to findings that can contribute to theoretical knowledge and practical use (Boejie, 2010). Quantitative and qualitative research have not always worked peacefully with each other; a paradigm war has existed between quantitative and qualitative researchers (Hutchinson, 2001). In many countries the quantitative research is still dominant in academic research. Despite this, it seems that the separation between qualitative and quantitative research is fading and the mixed method approach is gaining popularity (Morgan, 2007). Different fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, educational science, social geography, political studies and linguistics have developed their own uses of qualitative research. As qualitative research is becoming more accepted it is increasingly being conducted by formally funded research groups; qualitative programs consisting of multidisciplinary research projects are strived for (Hutchinson, 2011). There are many qualitative resources available for researchers. There are institutions worldwide organizing training and workshops, and conferences. There are numerous textbooks, handbooks, and qualitative data analysis software packages. In addition, there is a variety of electronic sources such as websites, journals, discussions and message boards (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2006) The starting point of qualitative research is to understand the meaning that people give to their environment and to understand the meaning of their social behavior. The researcher’s purpose in this study is to explore the spouses’ concrete experiences in Taiwan, their learning process, adaptation and CQ. Therefore, the data collection methods are used to enable close contact with the field of research. When reporting findings, qualitative researchers must provide a detailed description and account of the setting and participants (Boeije, 2010). This study aims to fulfill these objectives.. 23.

(32) Narrative Research Narratives are part of daily life. According to Polkinghorne (1988) individuals organize experience mainly in the form of narrative, and constantly tell each other stories without realizing it. Narrative studies have expanded into different fields including history, sociology, anthropology and psychology (Reissman, 2008). Narratives have also been useful in the business field and have gained importance in organizational studies in the past 20 years (Gabriel, 2000). In the field of cross- cultural interactions, narrative research has been suggested as a complementary approach, but it is not often used (Soin, 2006). A narrative approach in cultural encounters can be useful since it can deepen the understanding of the ways in which the phenomena is constructed as part of the social reality of those who experience them. In this particular study, expatriate spouses’ experiential learning and cultural intelligence will be examined through the use of narrative research. According to Bruner (2002) narratives derive from the dialectic of what is expected to happen and something unexpected happening instead. As a result, cultural encounters are likely to inspire narratives or storytelling. Thus, such encounters allow the researcher to explore expatriate spouses cross cultural interactions when transitioning to a new culture. It is important to note some of the characteristics of narratives. First, narratives have a chronological dimension. They are made up of actions and events located in a timeline. A narrative includes a beginning, an end, and transitions from one event to the other. Second, a narrative is a retrospective interpretation. A narrative has an identifiable voice that has a point of view of how the narrator interprets a number of events. The narration can include flashbacks and flash forwards. The narrator might prioritize the order of some events and provide possible explanations for certain events. Third, the events and actors are organized into a plot structure. This is the case since the narration focuses on the action of the narrator and others. The actors can have different traits; they can be heroes or villains. (Soderberg, 2006). Researchers have also identified narration as part of identity construction; since, the identity that the narrator adopts at the time of the telling has an influence on the narrative being told. The narration process helps the narrator construct, reinforce or change his or her identity ( Gertsen & Soderberg, 2010). Individuals share stories with others and adjust them to their. 24.

(33) reactions. Throughout life individuals develop, share, and even write autobiographies; the identities that were created this way are likely to have a cultural dimension. The identities can be different and relevant at different times. It is also important to recognize that the researcher can never know for sure to what extent the stories told have been consciously or unconsciously rationalized or changed. Therefore, the narrator may have different reasons to present his or her story in their own way; their intentions may never become clear to the researcher (Gertsen & Soderberg, 2010). Despite this, a narrative approach can be a suitable complementary approach to attempt to understand expatriates’ spouses’ cultural encounters. It allows the researcher to identify situations where some kind of cultural learning might have taken place. Also, a narrative approach allows a researcher to explore the usage of CQ’s four dimensions (cognition, behavior, metacognition, and motivation) on these encounters.. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints – History and Values The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is Christian church that was organized on April 6 of 1830 in Fayette, New York. Its members are usually referred to as Latter Day Saints or less formally as Mormons. According to the National Council of Churches (2012) it is the fourthlargest Christian denomination in the United States. According to the Church, its worldwide membership is over 15 million; the Church also claims to have 85 thousand fulltime missionaries (Statistical Report, 2014). Its headquarters are located in Salt Lake City, Utah. The Church was organized by Joseph Smith in a period of religious revival known as the “Second Awakening.” According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (2012), Joseph Smith (a fourteen year old boy) received a revelation in which God and Jesus Christ commanded him not to join any of the existing churches. He was told that God would restore the original church that Jesus Christ had established on earth. Some years after the vision, The Book of Mormon was first published in 1830. According to the Church, (2012) The Book of Mormon contains. “religious. writings. of. civilizations. in. ancient. America. between. about. 2200 B.C. and A.D. 421. It includes an eyewitness account of the ministry of Jesus Christ on the American continent following his resurrection in Jerusalem” (History of the Church, 2012, para.6).. 25.

(34) The Church started as a missionary church and in the mid nineteenth century, converts from the eastern United States and Europe were encouraged to migrate and join the members in America. The Church grew rapidly, with hundreds of immigrants joining in a short period of time. This also provided fuel for growing opposition (History of the Church, 2014, para.9). To escape persecution, the Church members moved from New York, to Ohio, and later to Missouri and Illinois. In Nauvoo, Illinois the distrust and suspicion from neighboring communities grew stronger. Local newspapers called for the Latter Day Saints’ extermination; Joseph Smith was shot by an armed mob in the Carthage Jail near Illinois. Mobs destroyed crops, homes and threatened to exterminate the Latter Day Saints. After Joseph Smith’s death, Brigham Young was chosen as the Church’s president. Due to the hostile environment in Illinois, Brigham Young directed the church members in a journey to the west. The Latter Day Saints crossed the Rocky Mountains until they arrived at the Salt Lake Valley. This became one of the most remarkable pioneer journeys in American history (History of the Church, 2012). Latter Day Saints have a strong belief in traditional family values. According to an official declaration released by the Church: “The family is ordained of God. Marriage between man and woman is essential to His eternal plan. Children are entitled to birth within the bonds of matrimony, and to be reared by a father and a mother who honor marital vows with complete fidelity” (The Family: A Proclamation to the World, 1995). This document was read in the Church’s 1995 semiannual General Conference by the former president of the church Gordon B. Hinckley. Families are a crucial aspect of Latter Day Saints life. The Church’s doctrine supports and favors gender equality. Despite this, it encourages men and women to occupy traditional gender roles (Lafkas, 2012). In families, men are expected to lead and provide and women are encouraged to be mothers and homemakers (Vance, 2012). It is common to encounter these roles in Latter Day Saints homes. This belief is tied to the Church’s doctrine that gender is essential to an individual’s eternal identity. Also, the church doctrine states that each gender has special roles and sacred responsibilities to fulfill (The Family: A Proclamation to the World, 1995). The percentage of Latter Day Saint women who claim to be homemakers is twice as high as that of the general population (Phillips & Cragun, 2011). Besides families, another core value of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Saints is missionary work. The Church is characterized as a missionary church which sends missionaries to 26.