This chapter presents the survey results analyzed from questionnaires distributed nationwide to 1,500 respondents as Thai citizens (male and female) over 18 years old. The sampling areas were diversified similar to central authority administration as the capital, semi-urban and local areas. After discarding the invalid questionnaires, 1,500 were collected and used as the random sample. Furthermore, the initial scale items were affirmed and all the items for different attitudes regarding women’s political participation in Thailand were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale: strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1).
The research results are divided into three sections. The first explores the general background of respondents. The second investigates the respondents’ perceptions regarding women’s political empowerment. The final section conducts an analysis correlating the dependent and independent variables regarding women’s political participation in Thailand.
Research Result
Analysis of Demographic and Other Variables
The first part illustrates the background overview of respondents including demographics of gender, age, and status. Socioeconomic indicators were occupation, education, and income factors. Cultural index was assessed by questions regarding religion and hometown. Frequency of political participation was an important factor in determining the political interests of respondents.
Gender
Table 5.1: Male and female respondents
Gender Number (n) Percentage (%)
Male 481 32.07
Female 1,019 67.93
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.1 shows that 67.93 percent of respondents were female and 32.07 percent were male. Thus, for questionnaires distributed randomly in every region stratum, females were more likely to answer survey questions than males and displayed a greater interest in the topic.
Age
Table 5.2: Age of respondents
Age group Number (n) Percentage (%)
18-30 1,335 89.00
31-40 115 7.67
41-50 29 1.93
51-60 16 1.07
60 years and over 4 0.27
Undisclosed 1 0.07
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.2 shows that the majority of respondents were 18-30 years old. The survey questionnaire was randomly conducted in public areas such as government buildings, the university in each region spectrum and online. Results indicated that most young adults were willing to answer the questions rather than adults or older people. Furthermore, this research focused on women’s political participation which involved gender and politics; therefore, the younger generation was more interested in this topic.
Occupation
Table 5.3: Occupation of respondents
Occupation Number (n) Percentage (%)
Student 1,159 77.27
Teacher/Lecturer 70 4.67
Government Officer 90 6.00
Businessman/ woman 29 1.93
Laborer 10 0.67
Employee in Private Company 107 7.13
Agriculturist/Fisherman 1 0.07
Housewife 7 0.47
Unemployed 7 0.47
Other 13 0.87
Undisclosed 7 0.47
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.3 shows that 77.27 percent of respondents were university students as the younger generation (Table 5.2). Employees in private companies formed the second highest occupation.
Income
Table 5.4: Income of respondents (Thai baht per month)
Monthly income (Thai baht) Number (n) Percentage (%)
No income 773 51.53
Less than 10,000 286 19.07
10,000-19,999 215 14.33
20,000-29,999 106 7.07
30,000-39,999 47 3.13
40,000-49,999 17 1.13
Monthly income (Thai baht) Number (n) Percentage (%)
50,000-59,999 15 1.00
60,000 or more 36 2.40
Undisclosed 5 0.33
Total 1,500 100.0
In Table 5.4, 51.53 percent of respondents had no income and were university students (Table 5.2 and 5.3). Those with income less than 10,000 baht took second place.
Religion
Table 5.5: Religion of respondents
Religion Number (n) Percentage (%)
Buddhism 1,371 91.40
Christianity 40 2.67
Islamism 43 2.87
Other 40 2.67
Undisclosed 6 0.40
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.5 shows that 91.40 percent of respondents were Buddhist. Islamism was the second most popular religion, with Christianity in third place.
Education
Table 5.6: Education of respondents
Education Level Number (n) Percentage (%)
Not educated 4 0.27
Preliminary - -
Secondary 122 8.13
Vocational Certificate 19 1.27
Education Level Number (n) Percentage (%)
Bachelor Degree 1,137 75.80
Higher than Bachelor Degree 191 12.73
Undisclosed 27 1.80
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.6 shows that 75.80 percent of respondents held a bachelor degree. This implied that in Thailand the education required for working in public and private sectors was bachelor degree level. Not only young adults but also private sector employees held bachelor degrees.
Nevertheless, an education level higher than bachelor degree recorded second place. This result proved that most Thai people attained a higher educational level because of their careers and socioeconomic status.
Marital status
Table 5.7: Marital status of respondents
Marital Status Number (n) Percentage (%)
Single 1,283 85.53
Married 86 5.73
Widowed/Divorced/Separated 8 0.53
Undisclosed 123 8.20
Total 1,500 100.0
In Table 5.7, 85.53 percent of respondents were single, implying that many people were interested in this issue and shared opinions about women in politics. However, 8.20 percent of respondents did not disclose their marital status while 5.73 percent were married. Thus, people who were single were more likely to engage in political activities than those who had families.
Hometown (Region)
Table 5.8: Hometown (Region) of respondents
Hometown (Region) Number (n) Percentage (%)
Bangkok and outskirts 448 29.87
Central 128 8.53
Northern 216 14.40
Southern 156 10.40
Northeastern 455 30.33
Eastern 43 2.87
Western 53 3.53
Undisclosed 1 0.07
Total 1500 100.0
Table 5.8 indicates that 30.33 percent of respondents came from the northeastern region. The population density of the sampling in this area was the highest. Meanwhile, the stratum of Bangkok and outskirts took second place, with the eastern region recording the lowest sampling numbers.
Political participation
Table 5.9: Political participation of respondents
Political Participation Number (n) Percentage (%)
Ever 1,203 80.20
Never 292 19.47
Undisclosed 5 0.33
Total 1,500 100.0
Table 5.9 shows that 80.20 percent of respondents had participated in political activities. This implied that many people were highly active in democratic political participation. On the contrary, 19.47 percent of respondents had never participated in political
activities. One reason behind this was that some respondents were young generations and under the current political situation, there were no general elections in Thailand.
Political activities
Table 5.10: Political activities of respondents
Political Activity Number (n) Percentage (%)
Voting 1,135 84.89
Being a candidate at local level 11 0.82
Being a candidate at national level 5 0.37
Proposing the law 118 8.83
Being members of a political party 13 0.97
Other 55 4.11
Total 1,337* 100.0
*Remarks: According to Table 5.9, 1,203 respondents had participated in politics. However, some respondents participated in more than one kind of political activities.
Table 5.10 shows that 84.89 percent of respondents had voted. This implies that voting36 is a primary instrument through the democratic process. According to the 2017 Constitution, it states that voting is a prime duty of the Thai people.
Public perceptions about women’s political participation in Thailand
This section discusses the attitudes of respondents concerning women’s political participation and the acceptance of the role of women in higher political positions at both national and local levels. To illustrate clearly, the results are diversified by Frequency, Percentage (%), Mean ( X ), and Standard Deviation (S.D.) as follows:
36 According to the 2017 Constitution, Chapter IV, duties of the Thai people in Section50 (7), it stated that “A person shall freely exercise his or her rights to vote in an election or referendum, take into account the common interests of the country as prime concern”.
Institutional Factors Constitution
Table 5.11: Constitution impacting on women’s political participation (Constitution)
1. The Thai Constitution B.E. 2557 Section 30 states that “All people, both men and women shall enjoy equal rights”. The Thai constitution is a supporting factor for women to access the political sphere.
Number directly on women’s political participation in Thailand ( X = 4.20, S.D. = 1.11).
Political processes
Table 5.12: Political processes (recruitment of candidates and campaigns) influencing women’s political participation (Process1)
2. Processes to political access, such as the recruitment of candidates and campaigns in Thailand. These activities do not facilitate women.
There are many hindrances which obstruct women accessing politics.
Number
2. Processes to political access, such as the recruitment of candidates and campaigns in Thailand. These activities do not facilitate women.
There are many hindrances which obstruct women accessing politics.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
X = 3.32, S.D. = 0.98 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.13: Development of political processes impacting on women’s political participation (Process2)
3. Nowadays, processes accessing the political sphere have gradually developed and females have more opportunities.
Number
In Table 5.12, 37.60 percent of respondents opined that political systems including the recruitment of candidates and campaigns were major hindrances for women to access politics ( X = 3.32, S.D. = 0.98). According to Table 5.13, 50.20 percent of respondents agreed that the current political process had gradually improved and females now had more opportunities to access the Thai political arena ( X = 3.69, S.D. = 0.84).
Political parties
Table 5.14: Political parties encouraging women’s political participation (Parties1)
4. Political parties should promote and increasingly encourage women’s political participation. The proportion of women candidates is considered in the general election to promote access for professional women to the political sphere.
4. Political parties should promote and increasingly encourage women’s political participation. The proportion of women candidates is considered in the general election to promote access for professional women to the political sphere.
Table: 5.15: Political parties promoting Thai women candidates (Parties2)
5. Political parties and popular male politicians should join campaigns for women candidates during the general election.
Number
Table 5.16: Political parties supporting budgets for women candidates (Parties3)
6. Political parties should increase their budgets in election campaigns for women representatives. Moreover, political parties should reform their policies for women’s participation.
6. Political parties should increase their budgets in election campaigns for women representatives. Moreover, political parties should reform their policies for women’s participation.
In Table 5.14, 52.27 percent of respondents opined that political parties should promote and increasingly encourage women’s political participation. The proportion of women candidates was considered in the general election to promote access for professional women to the political sphere (X = 4.00, S.D. = 1.34). According to Table 5.15, 52.87 percent of respondents believed that political parties and popular male politicians should join campaigns for women candidates during general elections ( X = 3.83, S.D. = 0.77). Furthermore, in Table 5.16, 49.53 percent of respondents agreed that Thai political parties should increase their budgets in election campaigns for women candidates and reform their policies for women’s participation (X = 3.76, S.D.= 0.82).
National development plans
Table 5.17: National development plans impacting on women’s political participation (Plan)
7. National Economic and Social Development Plans are crucial strategies that could support and encourage Thai women’s political participation.
In Table 5.17, 48.33 percent of respondents agreed that National Economic and Social Development Plans were primary strategies for increasing the proportion of Thai women’s political participation (X = 3.77, S.D. = 0.79).
Non-Institutional Factors
Personal leadership characteristics
Table 5.18: Characteristics of women’s political leadership (Characteristics)
8. The characteristic of women’s political leadership is a major factor that influences voters’ decisions during general elections.
Number
In Table 5.18, 49.20 percent of respondents agreed that the characteristic of women’s political leadership was an important factor which significantly affected voters’ decisions during general elections ( X = 4.00, S.D. = 1.56).
Acceptance from Thai citizens and the community
Table 5.19: Acceptance of Thai citizens regarding the role of Thai women in politics (Acceptance1)
9. Thai citizens cannot accept women holding higher political positions at both national and local levels.
9. Thai citizens cannot accept women holding higher political positions
Table 5.20: Role of Thai women in politics (Acceptance2)
10. The role of women in politics is still not accepted by Thai citizens because they think that males can govern better than females.
Number
Table 5.21: Thai women holding higher political positions (Acceptance3)
11. Women who hold higher political positions have to monitor/control/
encourage as coordinators to solve problems and benefit local people.
Number
In Table 5.19, 36.00 percent of respondents agreed that Thai citizens could not accept women holding higher political positions at both national and local levels (X = 3.30, S.D. = 1.10). According to Table 5.20, 30.47 percent opined that the current role of women in politics was still not accepted by Thai citizens because they believed strongly that males could govern better than females (X = 3.06, S.D. = 1.15). Conversely, in Table 5.21, 55.53 percent of respondents agreed that Thai women who held higher political positions had to monitor/control/ encourage as coordinators to solve problems and benefit local people ( X = 3.97, S.D. = 1.30).
Context of Thai society
Table 5.22: Context of Thai society impacting on women’s political participation (Society)
12. Thai society can facilitate women to participate in political activities and hold higher political positions both at national and local levels.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 151 10.07
(4) Agree 532 35.47
(3) Neutral 420 28.00
(2) Disagree 325 21.67
(1) Strongly disagree 65 4.33
Undisclosed 7 0.47
X = 3.28, S.D. = 1.49 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.22 shows that 35.47 percent of respondents agreed that the context of Thai society facilitated women to participate in political activities and hold higher political positions both at national and local levels (X = 3.28, S.D. = 1.49).
Traditional values and cultures
Table 5.23: Traditional political cultures impacting on women’s political participation (Political culture)
13. The characteristic of government is assimilated through authority such as Paternalism. This affects women with lack of confidence and passive action. Nowadays, this political culture still influences the role of women.
Table 5.24: Influences of religion impacting on women’s political participation (Religion)
14. Religious beliefs affect the role of women in politics. For example, Buddhism identifies that males can be monks, but females cannot.
Religious belief influences higher status of males rather than females.
Number
Table 5.25: Traditional values impacting on women’s political participation (Thai proverb)
15. The Thai proverb, “Men are the front legs of the elephant and women are the back” defines that males are the strongest sex or leaders of the family.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 105 7.00
(4) Agree 358 23.87
(3) Neutral 361 24.07
(2) Disagree 426 28.40
(1) Strongly disagree 237 15.80
Undisclosed 13 0.87
X= 2.80, S.D. = 1.43 Total 1,500 100
In Table 5.23, 41.53 percent of respondents agreed that the characteristic of government was assimilated through authority such as Paternalism. This affected women through lack of confidence and passive action. Nowadays, this political culture still impacts on the role of Thai women ( X = 3.49, S.D. = 1.01). According to Table 5.24, 34.53 percent agreed that religious beliefs affected the role of women in politics; for instance, Buddhism states that males can be monks but females cannot. As a result, this religious belief has directly impacted on the higher status of males over females ( X = 3.24, S.D. = 1.21). Conversely, in Table 5.25, 28.40 percent of respondents disagreed with the Thai proverb, “Men are the front legs of the elephant and women are the back” because they believed that the society has now changed and people increasingly accepted the abilities and knowledge of Thai women politicians (X = 2.80, S.D.
= 1.43).
Family background
Table 5.26: Family inheritance impacting on women’s political participation (Family1)
16. Females hold political positions inherited from people in the family –father or husband as their former political positions both at national and local levels. This situation helped women to gain more confidence due to intimate political experiences from their family.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 203 13.53
(4) Agree 718 47.87
(3) Neutral 407 27.13
(2) Disagree 122 8.13
(1) Strongly disagree 43 2.87
Undisclosed 7 0.47
X= 3.61, S.D. = 0.92 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.27: Political experiences supporting the confidence of women in the political sphere (Political experience)
17. Females are held as leaders of the community with high political experience and this increases confidences for campaigns and higher political positions.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 313 20.87
(4) Agree 926 61.73
(3) Neutral 229 15.27
(2) Disagree 23 1.53
(1) Strongly disagree 4 0.27
Undisclosed 5 0.33
X= 4.02, S.D. = 0.67 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.28: Other factors (education, budget and potential) impacting on women’s political participation (other factors)
18. Females have higher potential, education, budget and popularity among people. These factors facilitate women to take part in political roles.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 404 26.93
(4) Agree 837 55.80
(3) Neutral 221 14.73
(2) Disagree 32 2.13
(1) Strongly disagree 2 0.13
Undisclosed 4 0.27
X= 4.08, S.D. = 0.71 Total
1,500 100
In Table 5.26, 47.87 percent of respondents agreed that females held political positions inherited from people in their families, father or husband, as their former political positions at both national and local levels. This situation helped women to gain more confidence due to intimate political experiences from their family ( X = 3.61, S.D. = 0.92). According to Table 5.27, 61.73 percent of respondents emphasized that females were held as leaders of the community and had high political experience which significantly impacted on increased confidence for campaigns and higher political positions ( X = 4.02, S.D. = 0.67). Moreover, in Table 5.28, 55.80 percent of respondents agreed that females had higher potential, education, budget and popularity among people. These factors facilitated women to take part in political roles (X = 4.08, S.D. = 0.71).
Motivation/Inspiration
Table 5.29: Motivation/inspiration impacting on women’s political participation (Motivation)
19. Do you think that motivation/inspiration influences women accessing political activities?
In Table 5.29, 60.40 percent of respondents strongly agreed that motivation/inspiration were primary factors for Thai women to access political activities ( X = 4.01, S.D. = 0.67).
Socioeconomic status
Table 5.30: Socioeconomic factors impacting on women’s political participation (Socioeconomic)
20. “Women who are well-educated, well-nurtured and have a good family background definitely gain a successful opportunity to hold higher political positions”.
Table 5.30 indicates that 48.93 percent of respondents agreed that women who were well-educated, well-nurtured and had a good family background gained a successful opportunity to hold higher political positions (X = 3.79, S.D. = 0.85).
Economic development
Table 5.31: Economic development impacting on women’s political participation (Economic)
21. Currently, economic development is an important factor to indicate people’s well-being. Women must work outside the house and they also have to nurture their children. These causes make women ignore political involvement and participation.
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(5) Strongly agree 194 12.93
(4) Agree 661 44.07
(3) Neutral 427 28.47
(2) Disagree 184 12.27
(1) Strongly disagree 30 2.00
Undisclosed 4 0.27
X= 3.54, S.D. = 0.94 Total 1,500 100
In Table 5.31, 44.07 percent of respondents agreed that the economic situation influenced the current role of Thai women. Women worked outside the home while they also had to nurture their children. These causes made women ignore political involvement and participation ( X = 3.54, S.D. = 0.94).
Table 5.32: Government supporting the increase of Thai women in political
Table 5.33: Cooperation between the government, private agencies and NGOs impacting on women’s political participation (Implementation2)
23. The government should allocate an annual statement of expenditure about women’s political participation. In addition to this implementation, the government should cooperate with private agencies, including NGOs.
In Table 5.32, 52.67 percent of respondents opined that the Thai Government should give women opportunities to hold increasingly higher political positions ( X = 4 .06, S.D. = 0.73). According to Table 5.33, 50.87 percent of respondents agreed that the government should allocate an annual statement of expenditure about women’s political participation. In
addition to this implementation, the government should cooperate with private agencies, including NGOs (X = 3.75, S.D. = 0.82).
Influences of mass media
Table 5.34: Mass media impacting on women’s political participation (Media)
24. Mass Media should take an important role to promote the public activities of women representatives to create women’s images appropriately.
In Table 5.34, 54.13 percent of respondents agreed that the mass media should take an important role to promote the public activities of women representatives and create women’s images appropriately ( X = 3.96, S.D. = 0.76).
The most supporting factor of women’s political participation
Table 5.35: The most supporting factor impacting on women’s political participation
Factors Number
(n)
Percentage (%) A) Institutional Factors (Constitution, Law, Political Party and National
Plan)
370 24.67
B) Cultural Factors (Traditional values, Religion and Family Background)
559 37.27
C) Economic Factors 352 23.47
D) Organizations (Government, Mass Media, and NGOs) 199 13.27
Undisclosed 20 1.33
Factors Number (n)
Percentage (%) X= 3.07, S.D. = 1.28 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.35 shows that 37.27 percent of respondents agreed that cultural factors such as traditional values, religion and family background were the most supporting factors of women’s political participation in Thailand ( X = 3.07, S.D. = 1.28).
The most obstructing factor of women’s political participation
Table 5.36: The most obstructing factor impacting on women’s political participation
Factors Number
(n)
Percentage (%) A) Institutional Factors (Constitution, Law, Political Party and National
Plan)
163 10.87
B) Cultural Factors (Traditional values, Religion and Family Background) 366 24.40
C) Economic Factors 462 30.80
D) Organizations (Government, Mass Media, and NGOs) 497 33.13
Undisclosed 12 0.80
X= 2.94, S.D. = 1.12 Total 1,500 100
In Table 5.36, 33.13 percent of respondents agreed that organizational factors such as government, mass media and NGOs were the most obstructing factors of women’s political participation in Thailand ( X = 2.94, S.D. = 1.12).
Gender Quota at the national level
Table 5.37: Gender quota system at the national level
27. How do you think the gender quota system is considered between males and females to hold higher political positions at national level; such as Member of the House of Representatives, Senate, and Ministers?
Number
27. How do you think the gender quota system is considered between males and females to hold higher political positions at national level; such as Member of the House of Representatives, Senate, and Ministers?
Number (n)
Percentage (%)
(3) Not consider sex, but focus on the potential of candidates 862 57.47
(4) Others 2 0.13
Undisclosed 39 2.60
X= 2.25, S.D. = 0.98 Total 1,500 100
Table 5.37 shows that 57.47 percent of respondents opined that Thai citizens should not consider the sex of candidates and instead focus on their potential. Consequently, respondents believed that the gender quota system was inappropriate for the Thai political system (X = 2.25, S.D. = 0.98).
Gender Quota at the local level
Table 5.38: Gender quota system at the local level
28. How do you think the gender quota system is considered between males and females to hold higher political positions at local level; such as
Provincial Council, Municipal Council and Sub-district Organization Administration?
(3) Not consider sex, but focus on the potential of candidates 41 2.73
(4) Others 23 1.53
Undisclosed* 889 59.27
X = 3.06, S.D. = 2.00 Total 1,500 100
*Remark: many respondents focused on the national level. They were concerned that this measure did not facilitate equal competition in general elections.
In Table 5.38, 28.73 percent of respondents disagreed with the gender quota system for local administration and they criticized the Thai political system as being dominated by men.
Furthermore, the identity of Thai political culture was patronage and networking. As a result, it was hard for women to access to political empowerment ( X = 3.06, S.D. = 2.00).
Equality of political status
Table 5.39: Equality of political status
Table 5.39: Equality of political status