The theory of training and cross- culture training

2.3.1 Concept of training

As defined byNilsson, and Nyberg, (2003, p.229). "Training is the process of providing specific skills for specific objectives". and “Education is the organization's efforts are taken to change the behavior and attitudes of staff to meet the requirements of the job effectively"

Discussing about development Nilsson, and Nyberg (2003, 230) show that

"Development is the process of preparing and providing the necessary capacity for the organization in the future." "Development is included activities to prepare for staff to keep up with the organizational structure as it changes and development".

Training, by definition, the most common is the impact on people, making them comprehend and master the knowledge, skills, techniques, etc. in a systematic way so that they can adapt and have ability to receive a certain division of labor, contributing their efforts to the development of society in general. That process makes people become qualified under certain criteria, requirements, the process armed with knowledge and new skills.

Fostering is the process that impact human and “add more capacity or quality", is the process of improving professional skill, knowledge and professional skill on a regular basis, strengthening general capacity on the basis of obtained knowledge and skills (Gliessman et al, 1979, Aguiar et al, 2014). Fostering undertake tasks of renovation, addition of knowledge, skills and attitudes to civil servants so that they can perform their work better, more efficiently

Thus, training is seen as a process that makes people "become qualified under certain criteria", and fostering is determined to be a process that makes people "increase capacity or quality". The separation of the concept of training and fostering is only for convenience in analyzing the similarities and differences between training (Aguiar et al, 2014).

A general definition for training of civil servants can be understood as process that change human behavior in a systematic way through the study which is the result of education, guidance, development, and acquisition of experience in a methodical, planned manner. Thus, training is the organization of opportunities for officers and civil servants to study and to help organizations achieve their goals by enhancing the capacity and increase the value of the most important and basic resources of people, civil servants working in organizations (Androniceanu, 2012).

Training of officers, civil servants is the process of organizing learning opportunities for them to equip, update and improve knowledge, skills and attitudes to their work and complete their assignments more efficiently (Silverstone et al.,2013).

With such notions, training aimed to the following main objectives: Equip, update and improve the knowledge, skills, attitudes toward actual works for each job position, employment of civil servants and employees, to meet the requirements for increasing current capacity of individuals and organization. Equip knowledge, skill and ways of working to meet the future requirements of job positions, rank standards of civil servants and employees at the request of the organization (Androniceanu, 2012). Equip, provide necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and working manner to help civil servants, officers familiar with, renovation the new jobs by rotation, transfer, promotion.

The success of any training can be gauged by the amount of learning that occurs and is transferred to the job. In organizational environments, training and learning will take place anyway - especially through informal groups - whether an organization has a coordinated training and development effort or not. But without a well-designed systematic approach to training, what is actually learned may not be what is best for the organization

Figure 2.1 shows the relevant components of the three major phases in a training system7: [1] the needs assessment phase; [2] the implementation phase; and [3] the evaluation phase.

Figure. 2.3 "Model of Training System", Mathis and Jackson, p. 278

2.3.2 Cross- culture training

Cross-cultural training has long been proposed as an anticipatory mechanism to increase adjustment to foreign cultures (Torelli, 2011). “In cross-cultural training programs, a wide variety of training methods are typically used, including lectures, video films, experiential exercises, culture assimilators, and behavior modification” (Bochner, S. (Ed.).

(2013). Bhagat and Prien (1996) discussed “the main differences between traditional training

and cross-cultural training”. As they described, traditional training is characterized by a focus on the “acquisition of information, rather than on change in attitudes” (Bhagat&Prien, 1996, p. 223). By way of comparison, Bhagat and Prien observed that cross-cultural training addresses the acceptance of differences between cultures (Fischer, 2011).

The process of globalization is taking place on a powerful, fast and become the mainstream of the world. Globalization creates information revolution throughout the world, increasing migration flows between nations and civilizations, formed the economic center, the world's financial and global financial flows ... Process This brings new opportunities for mankind, towards a humane society and prosperity of every nation with civilization on the basis of effective use of intellectual achievements(Rehg et al., 2012). Globalization also creates the maximum exposure characteristics and cultural identity, thereby sharing and towards the common cultural values based on the cultural diversity of different areas. The development of science and technology also contributed to changing the face of the world, create more favorable opportunities for communication between communities on earth.

However, globalization also contains latent contradictions and challenges to humanity such as the world model links are now obsolete, incapable of solving global problems; the gap between rich and poor ethnic widening; Environmental pollution; climate change, ethnic conflicts, religious, regional conflicts between cultures and civilizations more complicated (Koo, 2012). The problem is the human need for dialogue to select relevant model to meet the new world reality of twenty-first century, in order to develop a global civilization.

Moreover, while cultural awareness training is “the study of the trainee’s home culture and its effect on his/her behavior to enable the trainee to understand the nature of cultural differences” (Eschbach et al., 2001), sensitivity training leads the trainees to understand their own values and culture and to be aware of cultural differences by demonstrating a behavior that may be completely different from that of their own culture. The strength of cultural awareness training comes from the fact that the trainees learn to appreciate cultural differences and to apply whatever they learn to enhance the effectiveness of cross-cultural interactions ( Brandl&Neyer, 2009). On the other hand, cultural awareness training “does not necessarily help the trainees learn anything specific about the host culture in which they will be interacting” (Bhawuk&Brislin, 2000, p. 170).

2.3.3 The factors affecting Cross- culture training

According to many writers, there are four key factors that contribute towards success of an international assignment that are selection, preparation, Management Support and repatriation (Mendenhall, 1998).

Research of Deresky (2003) shows that most Multinational Corporations do not properly estimate the importance of the function of human resource planning in perspective of selection and training of managers detailed for abroad assignments. Cross Cultural Training has taken very important contributory role for apprising the expatriates about the cultural differences and adopting oneself in new environment and culture.

Black and Mendenhall (1990) reviewed 29 empirical studies that evaluated the effectiveness of various cross-cultural training programs. Their comprehensive literature review showed that cross-cultural training had a strong positive impact on participants’ self-confidence, on their interpersonal relationships with host nationals, and on their perceptions of the host culture

Caligiuri, (2000)s measured a Big Five factor, subscale scores were averaged to obtain a score on the Big Five factor . “Learn by doing” (Littrell& Salas, 2005, p. 312) best spells out the nature of experiential learning. Look-see visits, role-playing, intercultural workshops, and simulations are major techniques used in experiential learning. The main advantages of experiential training come from the fact that it helps trainees develop the skills necessary for effective performance, for positive interaction with the locals, and for cognitive skills to make correct attributions ( Littrell& Salas, 2005; Morris &Robie, 2001). However, it has not yet been backed up by empirical research (Bhawuk&Brislin, 2000).