Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and Aftermath

The Chinese had old-style weapons and artillery and these was no match for the British modern gunships, which ranged up and down the coast shooting at forts and fighting on land. The Chinese were equally unprepared for the technological superiority of the British land armies, and suffered continual defeats. Finally, in 1842, the Chinese were forced to agree to an ignominious peace under the Treaty of Nanjing.

The negotiations were protracted because it took days to translate Chinese documents into English and then English documents in Chinese.

2.4.1 Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and Aftermath

The Treaty of Nanjing⁹⁵, or what the Chinese call the unequal treaties⁹⁶, forced China to agree to harsh requirements. The Qing had no effective tactics against the powerful British navy. They retaliated merely by setting burning rafts on the enemy's fleet and encouraging people to take the heads of the enemies, for which they offered a prize. The imperial banner troops, although they sometimes fought fiercely, were ill-equipped and lacked training for warfare against the more modern British forces.⁹⁷

The Green Standard battalions (綠營) were similarly in decay and without much motivation or good leadership. To make up the weakness, local militias were urgently recruited, but they were useless. The British proclaimed that their aim was to fight the government officials and soldiers who abused the people, not to make war

95 For more information about the treaty please refer to Joint East Asian Studies Center‟s web page:

http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/nanjing.htm

96 For a reference book please see: WANG, Dong, China’s Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History, USA: Lanham, Lexington Books, 2005.

97 R. Derek Wood, The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the Foreign Office, 1842-1843, London: Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, May 1996, pp. 181-196.

56

against the Chinese population. And indeed there was a deep rift between the government and the people that the British could easily exploit; a weakness in Qing society that became apparent during the crisis of the war. After the defeat of Chinese Army, English government force China to sign unequal treaties.⁹⁸

According to the main provisions of the treaty, China ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five ports to British trade, abolished the Cohong system of trade, agreed to equal official recognition, and paid an indemnity of $21 million. This was the result of the first clash between China, which had regarded foreign trade as a favor given by the heavenly empire to the poor barbarians, and the British, to whom trade and commerce had become “The true herald of civilization.” Also China gave England Most Favoured Nation (最惠國待遇) status thus Chinese helped English merchants during their trade in China. China was forced to open Fuzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai and Amoy harbours to English trade. Missionaries have gained many rights to work in Chinese harbours thus they could introduce China their religion and culture.

In the treatment there was not any subject about opium smuggling.⁹⁹

In this treaty China lost the control over trade and turned in to a colony of Imperialist Countries. This was an important period for China because it was opening to West. While Westerners coming to the China, China was loosing her culture and power.

After Treaty of Nanjing, other countries forced China to sign new treaties between them. While the foreigners were coming to China, in the country the dislike against to foreigners was increasing. The end of the war caused many disorder in Chinese community, China was forced to pay unequal compensation to England.

98 Encyclopedia Britannica please see China profile:

chttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China/71766/Late-Qing

99 Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, London: Abacus, 1998, p. 237.

57

The Treaty of Nanjing was followed by two supplementary arrangements with the British in 1843, in addition, in July 1844 China has signed the Treaty of Wangxia (望廈條約) with the United States and in October the Treaty of Huangpu (黃埔條約) with France. These arrangements made up a complex of foreign privileges by virtue of the most-favoured-nation clauses (guaranteeing trading equality) conceded to every signatory. All in all, they provided a basis for later inroads such as the loss of tariff autonomy, extraterritoriality (exemption from the application or jurisdiction of local law or tribunals), and the free movement of missionaries.¹⁰⁰

With the signing of the treaties which began the so-called treaty-port system the imperial commissioner Qi Ying, newly stationed at Guangzhou, was put in charge of foreign affairs. Following a policy of appeasement, his dealings with foreigners started fairly smoothly. But, contrary to the British expectation, the amount of trade dropped after 1846, and, to British dissatisfaction, the question of opium remained unsettled in the postwar arrangements. The core of the Sino-Western tension, however, rested in an antiforeigner movement in Guangdong.¹⁰¹

The Opium War, however, had many social and economic effects. It created an entire new level of crime and disorder in Southeast China. The British navy drove away the pirates along the coast and up into Guangdong-Guangxi highlands. There, the pirates would periodically raid plentiful villages up the river. To add to the crime, former militiamen used their weapons for banditry. ¹⁰²

Feuds between the Punti and Hakkas (two different clans between the North and the South) rose with the crime level. Villages were divided amongst each other like

100 Quoted in online Encyclopaedia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71768/China

101 Online Encyclopaedia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71768/China

102 Immanuel Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, New York: Oxford University Press, 4th ed. 1990, pp.

92-190.

58

Montagues and Capulets. Unemployment was another issue. When Shanghai opened up to foreign trade, it shifted the occupations for the coolies and boatmen who would transport tea and silk throughout the regions in Canton. These thousands of workers were now unemployed since the majority of trade moved from Canton to Shanghai.

The Opium War had led the people of China to witness the destruction of their military and navy by the strongest military force at the time. It led to a greater understanding and appreciation for West, despite their hatred for it. This led many people to consider and try to understand Western doctrines and beliefs.

The Opium War was more than just a simple war. In the end it resulted in the dramatic changes in China economically, socially, and politically. It changed China‟s view and relationship with the Western world incredibly. It resulted in a major change in the economy and the social relationship between the people of China and the Qing Dynasty.¹⁰³

Because of the Opium War, China was left with internal struggles and warfare, increased crime, an economy downfall in Canton, the once major trading city of china, and the economic rise at Shanghai and Hong Kong. It led to the major influence of the Western cultures and belief in China, and the loss of power and control China had over Western nations to the gain of power in the Western nations over China. ¹⁰⁴

The outcomes of this event changed China‟s social, economic, and political thoughts. It resulted in a major change between the relationship of China and Western nations. The unfair treaties left China in weak position to the West, and opened China to Western influence. China‟s welfare and economy completely changed, leaving

103 On China‟s Economy and Foreign Investments please refer to; HOU, Chi-ming, Foreign Investment and Economic Development in China, 1840–1937. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965.

104 Frederic Jr. Wakeman, The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, p. 128.

59

people without work and money. Instead it changed and affected China‟s economic, political, and social events and developed China into a different direction.¹⁰⁵

The author of this study on China‟s military modernization wants to add very important information to China‟s modernization phase. As the author goes deeper in the study of China the things became clearer than ever. China‟s defeat in the Opium War caused a big damage in the society and country. Here we have an important question about the aftermath of the war. Is the First Opium War was a totally disaster or this war have also positive effects on China? The author wants to give a clear answer of this question.

With the effect of being defeated and the curiosity against to West, Chinese people began to search and introduce Westerners to their society. The point is here has a very critical point in author‟s study.

Although China lost the war to Westerners, but thereafter, information started to get in the country from the Western countries. As foreigners move in the borders they were converting Chinese people and teaching them Western society. Scholars have started learn more and started get curious about West. With all these effects China and her society gradually started to learn about their enemy and their experiences.

. Immediately after the Opium War, there was a surge of information about Europe such as Wei Yuan‟s A Comprehensive Survey of Off-shore Countries written in 1841,60 Chen Fengheng‟s A Brief History of England written also in 1841, Wang Wentai‟s A Study of England of Red-haired Barbarians written in 1842, and Liang Tingnan‟s Four Essays on Off-shore Countries in 1846, Xu Jishe‟s Records of Lands

105 Frederic Jr. Wakeman, The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, p.128.

60

and Peoples Overseas in 1848, and Xia Xie‟s Main Events between China and the West in 1850.¹⁰⁶

These books were precious resources at that time and Chinese people began to read more about West. New books and thoughts were blooming in Middle Kingdom.

As a result of this information in China, one thought has risen up and Chinese people decided the fight with the enemy with enemy‟s tactics and experiences. So, China pushed the button of Self-Strengthening Movement.

106 For more information please visit the website and read the Kent Deng‟s research, Movers and Shakers of Knowledge in China during the Ming-Qing Period, London School of Economics and Political Science, pp. 24-26.

http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHNPDF/GEHN9Deng.pdf

61

CHAPTER THREE: Self-Strengthening Movement 1861–1895

A critical issue for the Chinese since their defeat in the Opium War in 1842 was how to regain their loss of sovereignty. While most of those responsible for leading China preferred to continue the policies of the past, there were some officials who, in the 1870‟s, advocated reform in the form of a “Self-Strengthening Movement” With the slogan, “Learn the superior technology of the barbarian, in order to control him,” the Tongzhi Restoration (同治中興) led to new plans for a modern army and navy, industrialization and changes within the diplomatic corps, but the changes were slow for lack of government support.¹⁰⁷

Thomas Kennedy correctly indicates, for example, that for all its weaknesses, the “Self-Strengthening” movement from 1860 to 1894–1895 brought far more comprehensive and far-sighted changes than earlier studies infer. Self-Strengthening Movement; 1861–1895 was a period of institutional reforms initiated during the late Qing Dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions to foreign powers.

In this period China has learned her weakness against to the western powers and started to make many reforms on her system, including military, education, political…

etc.

This period was the first time for China to adopt Western technology and carry about many projects under many influential governors and politicians as Li Hong Zhang, Zeng Guo Fan (曾國藩), Zhang Zhi Dong (張之洞), and Zuo Zong Tang (左 宗棠)… etc.

107 Adapted from Readings in Global History, Vol. II, Revised 2nd Edition, Edited by Anthony Snyder and Sherri West, USA: Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall-Hunt, 1997, pp. 166–169.

62

In 1861, these important Han generals were able to convince the Qing court to initiate a 30-year “Self-Strengthening” program. Under the new program, the Qing dynasty began to train translators, import Western military technology, and set up armories. The most important goal of the Self-Strengthening Movement was the development of military industries; namely, the construction of military arsenals and of shipbuilding dockyards to strengthen Chinese navy. After the big defeat in Opium Wars showed that the western forces are stronger than Chinese forces. Western technology and commanding skills were much more effective than China‟s old Confucian learning and technology.

In order to beat Westerners and catch up their developed technology, their learning and experiences must be learned by Chinese. Thus, China has started to buy and hire Western weapons and trainers during the movement. Opium Wars showed that the most important weakness was navy. That‟s why China has decided to built a stronger navy in order to defend herself in the Oceans first. In response to that changes, further unlock the great direction of China modernizing, reforming the decayed situation.

3.1. Self-Strengthening Movement and Empress Dowager Cixi’s Effect on the