自強運動（1861–1895）背景下中國的軍事現代化與李鴻章的影響

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(1)國立台灣師範大學政治學研究所碩士論文研究. 自強運動（1861–1895）背景下中國的軍事現代化與李鴻章的影響 The Military Modernization of China during the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895) and Li Hong Zhang’s Impact. 指導教授:王冠雄博士. 研究生:吳承鳳撰中華民國九十八年六月.

(2) Acknowledgements This study took a very long time to make, however I just did the writing and searching part of this study. As the author of this humble thesis I think the most important people are my teachers who helped me during my study in Taiwan. The department of Political Science gave me a very happy education opportunity that I never forget in my whole life. First of all I would like to thank my dear advisor As. Prof. Wang Guang Xiong, (王冠雄) he taught me how to write a thesis in a professional way and how to use better English in my papers. Without his help I could not finish this study. The other very important man is absolutely our department’s chairman Prof. Mr. Qu Zhao Xiang (曲兆祥) I never saw such a kind chairman in my education life in Turkey and Taiwan. He welcomed me his office whenever I knocked his door and shared with me his deep knowledge about China. I learned many things from him. His support for China studies in Turkey is very precious for China studies in Turkey. I want to thank him with all my heart. The first face that I saw in our department was Prof. Mr. Chen Wen Zheng (陳文政), he opened the way for my education in Taiwan and NTNU. He welcomed me when I came to NTNU 3 years ago. His friendly character and very modest attitude made me happy that I met such an intelligent man in Taiwan. He has a very special place in my heart. I would like to thank all of my other teachers that gave their knowledge to me during my study in Taiwan. I think all the members of Political Science Department are very precious people. I feel myself lucky to have chance to study here. My classmates especially Zhen Nan, helped me so much. I thank him very much. Our assistant in the office Mr. Wu Jian Zhong (吳建忠) showed me how I handle my things in our school and department. He is a great and very talented guy. I wanted to thank God that gives me health to finish my study in Taiwan. Maybe the most important person that I need to thank him specially is my dear Dad. I dedicate this thesis to him and I would like to thank him for his support since 1980. He is the man never gives up; he is the man who has dreams. He is the man whom I will keep forever in my heart. I love him, I am lucky that I have a dad like him. My late Mum and Aunt see me from paradise that I finish my school in Taiwan. I know they are happy and watching me over there with smile on their face. Ugur Rifat Karlova 吳承鳳 2009 Taipei/ Taiwan. A.

(3) For My Dad who never gives up.

(4) 摘要：本研究作者關注於中國大陸現代化開始的起點。作者認為近代中國大陸的軍事現代化的起始於第一次鴉片戰爭。此次戰事的失敗啟發了中國政治家和學者們對於過去錯誤的省思。中國大陸藉由瞭解西方現代化的經驗開始著手研究學習西方國家的發明。故此中國的現代化時期起始於軍事方面。軍事現代化僅僅只是中國現代化的啟始階段而已，隨之其現代化的腳步蔓延至中國其他的面向。這份研究包含了 1861-1895 年中中國現代化的進程。作者想點出中國與西方現代化勢力的第一次接觸和其造成之影響。作者的關注的焦點人物是李鴻章，其生平事蹟和影響在中國軍事現代化時期具有關鍵重要性。作者聚焦於中國許多不同面向且深入發掘其歷史。內容包含許多重大歷史事件、關鍵人物、叛亂、和中國當時的國際關係等，作者將該些事件以歷史編年順序呈現以幫助讀者瞭解此研究。為了瞭解中國的現代化歷史進程，作者相信鴉片戰爭和自強運動是很好的著手點。對於此時期的瞭解將有助於窺探中國現代歷史後續的事件和關鍵人物的發展。關鍵字：軍事現代化、李鴻章、鴉片戰爭、中國軍隊、慈禧太后、自強運動。.

(5) National Taiwan Normal University Graduate Institute of Political Science The Military Modernization of China during the Self Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) and Li Hong Zhang’s Impact Student: Ugur Rifat Karlova (吳承鳳) Advisor: Ph.D & Prof.. Wang Guang Xiong (王冠雄). Abstract: The author of this study has an idea of starting point in China’s modernization period. The author considers the starting point of the Military Modernization in China’s modern history is First Opium War. The big defeat in the war led the Chinese politicians and scholars to think about the mistakes in the past. With the understanding of Modernization experience in the West, China has begun to research and get more information from the Western countries about their learning. As a result of that China’s modernization period started in military field at first. The military modernization was just the beginning phase of Modernization period in China. The Modernization period began with military and that showed its effects in other parts and institutions of China. This study covers the 1861-1895 years of China’s modernization steps. The author just wants to point out China’s first big encounter with the Western force and its effect on China. The author’s key figure is Li Hong Zhang, Li Hong Zhang’s life time, achievements and impact has a big importance in China’s military modernization period. The author focuses many different parts of the China and digs out different points from her history. The incidents, important key figures, rebellions, international relations of China and etc... The incidents were set up by author with an historical order and this makes the study fluent for readers. The author thinks that in order to understand China’s modern history, the Opium Wars and Self-Strengthening Movement would be the good starting points. The understanding of this period will open the doors of upcoming incidents and key figures in Chinese modern history. Key words: Military modernization, Li Hong Zhang, Opium War, Chinese Army, Ci Xi, Self- Strengthening Movement.. I.

(6) CONTENTS Acknowledgments. A. Abstract. I. Contents. II. Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Purpose. 1. 1.2 Methodology. 5. 1.3 Structure. 7. 1.4 Problems and Limitations. 9. 1.5 Literature Review. 10. 1.6 Motivation. 12. Chapter Two: Background of Self-Strengthening Movement. 14. 2.1 Weakness of China and Foreign Interest. 18. 2.1.1 Foreigners in Borders. 20. 2.1.2 First Challenge Against the West. 29. 2.2 China’s Social and Economic Environment in the Beginning of 19th Century. 31. 2.2.1 Qing Society in 19th Century. 34. 2.2.2 Qing Economy in 19th Century. 39. 2.2.3 Qing Administration. 41. 2.3 East India Company and English Trade in China During 1800’s. 46. 2.3.1 Opium and Lin Ze Xu. 48. 2.3.2 The Precautions in Canton Region. 51. 2.4 Declaration of the First Opium War, Nanjing Treaty and Aftermath. 54. 2.4.1 Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and Aftermath. 55 II.

(7) Chapter Three: Self-Strengthening Movement 1861–1895. 61. 3.1. Self-Strengthening Movement and Empress Dowager Cixi’s Effect on the Movement. 62. 3.1.1 Empress Dowager Cixi’s Effect on the Movement. 65. 3.2 First Steps and Military Establishments during the Movement. 71. 3.2.1 First Military Establishments. 74. 3.2.2 Some Important Military Units, Arsenals and Dockyards during the Movement. 78. 3.3 The Shanghai Jiangnan Arsenal. 80. 3.3.1 Shipbuilding in the Jiangnan Arsenal. 81. 3.4. The Fuzhou Navy Yard. 85. 3.5. Hanyang Arsenal. 93. 3.5.1 Establishment of Hanyang Arsenal. 95. 3.6 Chinese Maritime Customs Service. 97. 3.7 The First Impact of Military Modernization in Chinese Society. 100. 3.8 Foreigner’s Role in Military Modernization. 111. 3.8.1 Some Important Foreigners during Military Modernization. 113. 3.8.1.1 Léonce Verny (December 2, 1837-May 2, 1908. 113. 3.8.1.2 Prosper Giquel (1835-1886. 115. 3.8.1.3 Sir Robert Hart (20 February 1835 – 20 September 1911. 117. 3.8.1.4 Horatio Nelson Lay (1832 –May 4, 1898. 121. 3.8.1.5 Thomas Francis Wade (25 August 1818 – 31 July 1895. 123. 3.9 China’s New Modernized Army during the Movement. 125. 3.9.1 Beiyang Army. 128. 3.9.2 Beiyang Fleet. 130. 3.9.3 Guangdong Fleet. 133. 3.9.4 Fujian Fleet. 134 III.

(8) 3.9.5 Nanyang Fleet. 135. 3.10 Remarks. 136. Chapter Four: Li Hong Zhang and His Role in Self Strengthening Movement. 141. 4.1 Li Hong Zhang’s Life. 143. 4.2 His Role in Self-Strengthening Movement and Military Modernization. 147. 4.2.1 Chinese Maritime Customs and Li Hong Zhang’s Role. 148. 4.2.2 Patriotism: Li Hong Zhang and the Foreign Threat. 149. 4.2.3 Li Hong Zhang’s Germany Visit and Policy. 153. 4.2.4 Li Hong Zhang’s United Kingdom Visit and Policy. 157. 4.2.5 Business Institutions in 19th Century in China and Li Hong Zhang’s Role. 175. 4.2.6 Li Hong Zhang and the other Reformist Leaders. 176. 4.2.7 Peking Syndicate, The Rothschild Archive, Li and the Role of Angelo L.. 185. 4.3 Remarks. 196. Chapter Five: Aftermath of the Self-Strengthening Movement and Military Modernization. 198. 5.1 Discussion of Success and Fail in the Self Strengthening Movement. 199. 5.2 The Opinions of the Other China Studies’ Researchers. 201. 5.3 Chronology of Modern China and West (1583–2000). 208. Chapter Six: Conclusion. 210. Annex. 215. Bibliography. 223. IV.

(9) CHAPTER ONE: Introduction. 1.1 Purpose. It is believed that the first Western style of modernization steps started in China after the First Opium War (鴉片戰爭) in 1839. The First Opium War has opened the way of modernization in China‟s modern history. Most of the historians agree that the Opium Wars have made a very deep impact on China and her future. The topic of this study aims to focus on the Self-Strengthening Movement (洋務運動 or 自強運動) and especially its military modernization phase. The author wants to draw attention to the turning point in the history of China which especially happened after the First Opium War in 1839. In the author‟s usage of the term “Turning point” was aimed to state the before and after periods of Western influence in China. Here the author means China‟s new learning, experiences and some serious decisions in her old Confucian thought. As the hundreds of historical researches indicated that, after the big defeat in the First Opium War, China woke up from her long and deep sleep. The results of this big defeat have forced China to adopt Western technology and its military experience 1. Thus, China has decided to change and start to criticize her thousand year long Confucian thought in order to survive. The period after being attacked and invaded by foreign powers 2 the traditional Chinese basis for values, with its principles in. 1. 2. Gilbert Rozman, The Modernization of China, New York: The Free Press, 1981, pp. 1–7. Throughout history, China was invaded many times by Western countries such as Portugal, Spain and. Netherlands. However, in this study what the author calls Western countries are; France, Britain, Germany and Russia. These countries have directly occupied China but besides USA, also wanted to get more control over China after “Nanjing Treaty.” *Japan would be the biggest threat over China in later periods.. 1.

(10) Confucianism, fell into dire straits, in the late 19th and early 20th century3. The First Opium War and its later period mean for Chinese people a starting page of “Defeat and Invasion”. The huge defeat in this war against to British forces caused Chinese people to start to question themselves about the mistakes in the past. Chinese scholars have begun to raise questions about the change in their society and Confucianism. They emphasized on need for modernization in China. They decided to follow the modernization path which was followed by Western countries. The learning of the Western countries taught the Chinese people new systems, techniques and new ideologies in many areas such as education, military training, army etc… As a result of being invaded by Westerners, China has opened a new page in her history. The Western invasion resulted with the start of modernization of China‟s military. This study will focus on the “Military Modernization”, the words “Military” and “Modernization” will be the key words and all the incidents will be explained under this title. The main purpose of this study would be arranged as follows:. 1- Analyze the background and starting point of the military modernization. 2- Historical research of Self-Strengthening Movement and focus on its military modernization. 3- Case study on Li Hong Zhang ( 李鴻章 ) and his effects on the modernization of China and her society. 4- Discuss the Success and Fail of the military modernization.. 3. The study of Fang Song Hua, Chapter 18, The Modern Significance of Chinese Traditional Culture,. http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III–16/chapter_xviii.htm. 2.

(11) As we can see, these four critical points would be the main frame of this study. Thus, the author aims to reach answers for the following two questions: Why China has started her Western style of modernization? And, what is the “Change” of China during the period of 1839–1895? Till 1840, China could not imagine the power of Western countries and their modern army. China has made a big mistake to catch up the Western technology and unfortunately till the danger came from the Western countries. China and Chinese people lived behind closed doors more than a couple of hundred years. At that time Western countries have already made reforms in their armies and the other army units such as modern navy and stronger weapons. Being closed to the Western reforms caused China to miss a very important era in the world. Edwin Hoyt writes very clearly in his book about that period; “Chinese society thought that Chinese technological development was far superior to the West.4 In fact, this superiority had existed since the Song dynasty (960–1279), but Chinese technology stabilized after that and did not develop much further”. Chinese society was totally lost in her and was not aware of the other countries‟ modernization steps. China‟s close community and limited relations with West gave China a false path in her historical journey. When she met the advanced power of Westerners it was already late for China to turn back and make up her mistakes in the past. Because of all these mistakes and reasons China had to reform her thousand year old thought and open up to the new changes in her society. First of all China needed to make reform in her weak army and outmoded technology. This was the first rule of the modern wars against to West. 4. Edwin P. Hoyt, The Rise of the Chinese Republic from the Last Emperor to Deng Xiao Ping, New. York: Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Company, 1989, pp. 1-10. Edwin Hoyt‟s book is a basic reference for China‟s modern history.. 3.

(12) As the author mentioned before, Western influence has began after the defeat in First Opium War5 and gradually turned in to an invasion on China. We can easily say that after this war, even the Chinese people could not imagine the size of damage and turbulence in their life. It is very clear that the First Opium War was a kind of earthquake for whole China which was felt in every level and area their life. After the defeat in the Opium War, Chinese scholars have started to speak out an idea; “Let‟s make something in order to get strong a soon as possible. Otherwise we will be vanished.” So, why did the “Military Modernization” come first? This is a very critical question in author‟s study on military modernization of China. The answer would be the following couple of words as we have already mentioned; “First Opium War in 1839” and following the “Second Opium War in 1856–1860” In order to fight with invaders, China had to be strong and need to have stronger army. For instance, new arsenals, new navy and new weapons all had to change in order to build a strong China. Scholars and regional leaders like Li Hong Zhang, Feng Gui Fen (馮桂芬), Lin Ze Xu (林則徐) etc… encouraged Chinese people and made very big changes on the military modernization movement. As we look some of these scholar‟s words we can understand the need of starting the military modernization in China. In 1842 Lin Ze Xu wrote “Ships, guns, and a water force are absolutely indispensable,”6. in which he pointed out the weakness of China and her army. In. addition to his words maybe the one of the most important explanation about the Self-Strengthening Movement came from Feng Gui Fen. He said: 5. 6. Gilbert Rozman, The Modernization of China, New York: Free Press, 1981. Extracts from the writings of Feng in W. de Bary, Sources of Chinese Tradition, II, Columbia Univ.. Press, 2nd edition, March 15, 2001, p. 46.. 4.

(13) “Yet we are shamefully humiliated by the four nations (England, Russia, US, France) not because our climate, soil, or resources are inferior to theirs, but because our people are inferior. Now, our inferiority is not something allotted us by Heaven, but is rather due to ourselves. Since the inferiority is due to ourselves, it is a still greater shame, but something we can do something about. And if we feel ashamed, there is nothing better than Self-Strengthening.”7. In order to understand the path which China has followed in her history, the author thinks that Self-Strengthening Movement is a good and very critical starting point. This starting point, figures and the incidents during the movement will bring many ideas to readers and probably it will help others to commence new studies about this period.. 1.2 Methodology. In this study the author prefers to select the latter to interpret modernization. Moreover, apart from the interpretation and evaluation of traditional historical methods, the main methodologies applied in this thesis will be documental review and analysis in order to present through case study the sought-for successful way to military modernization in Self-Strengthening Movement. Basically, the concentration. 5.

(14) and scope of this research will rely on interdisciplinary fields of political, military, social and cultural views to reexamine the paths of modernization of China. In general, scholars of Asian Studies agree China started its modern history from the Opium War in 1839, in 1860s China and Japan embarked on significant programs for the introduction of Western science and technology. It should be noted that some Marxist scholars claim China started her Self-Strengthening Movement from 1864 (to 1895). Some scholars‟ think that the years are the starting point of modernization in China 1861 to 1895 based on the theories of Kim8 and Hsu9. The case study method has its place in chapter 4 the study on Li Hong Zhang, covers his life and made a detailed discussion of his role in the military modernization. In his study authors does not totally agree with these latter scholars that the movement started after the Arrow War (1858-1860)10 The author thinks the first phase starts with First Opium War and continues with Second Opium War (第二次鴉片戰爭是 1856-1860). After all these incidents and wars the most important shock and the most effective phase of modernization in China begins with the first Sino- Japanese War (中. 8. Quoted from K. H. Kim, Japanese Perspectives on China’s Early Modernization: the. Self-Strengthening Movement, 1860–1895, A Bibliographical Survey, Michigan: Ann Arbor, 1974, p. 1. 9. 10. Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, Oxford University Press, 1970, pp. 342–347. The Arrow Incident happened in October 1856. In order to exact revenge on Qing China, British. and French Allied Forces captured Guangzhou in 1857, and continued to march forwards into northern China until the concluding of the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 and the Convention of Beijing in 1860. The Second Opium War and Arrow War are both used in the literature. “Second Opium War” refers to one of the British‟s strategic objectives: legalizing the opium trade, expending coolie trade, opening all of China to British merchants, and exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties. The "”Arrow War” refers to the name of a vessel which became the starting point of the conflict. The importance of the opium factor in the war is in debate among historians.. 6.

(15) 日戰爭) in 1894. The modernization phase of China after 1895, would be another study of the author in the future.. 1.3 Structure The basic structure of this study will comprise six chapters in total.. Chapter 1: Introduction This first chapter of the study gives the introduction phases about the author‟s study. Purpose, methodology, structure etc… The starting of the study and the author‟s aims were given in this chapter. A short definition of modernization and the born of modernization ideas will be discussed in chapter 1.. Chapter 2: Background of Self-Strengthening Movement The background of the Self-Strengthening Movement was given in chapter 2. Before diving into Self-Strengthening Movement and its military modernization the reasons of modernization must be known generally. Especially First Opium War has a great importance in this chapter. In this part of the thesis the author focuses on the years 1800–1842 and the incidents of that period. In chapter 2, the author aims to make clearer what happened afterwards of First Opium War.. Chapter 3: Self-Strengthening Movement In chapter 3, the author focuses Self-Strengthening Movement itself. The military modernization steps and the foreigners are the key titles of this chapter. China‟s new emerging army and the impacts of military modernization shall be. 7.

(16) discussed. Key persons were given in order to understand the figures that have impacts on the military modernization and Chinese society.. Chapter 4: Li Hong Zhang and His Role in Military Modernization Chapter 4 has cases study on the key person of Self-Strengthening Movement and his impact on military modernization phase. In the author‟s study the key person of this period is Li Hong Zhang. In this chapter the author wants to make clear of his life, achievements and different efforts during his lifetime. The author‟s opinion on Li Hong Zhang would be included in the conclusion of this chapter.. Chapter 5: Aftermath of the Self-Strengthening Movement and Military Modernization Chapter 5 includes the aftermath of Self-Strengthening Movement and military modernization. This chapter discusses the negative and positive sides of the military modernization phases. China‟s failure and success during the period has an important part in chapter 5. Here in this chapter, the author wants to draw attention to good and bad sides of the movement. The failure and success part also contains the other scholar‟s opinions. Their researches were given in this part to make the last step clearer for the readers. The author adds his own opinions in to the China scholar‟s discussion. Besides this, the author gives a chronology of modernization and Western effects on China. Thus, readers could easily follow the process of modernization era.. Chapter 6: Conclusion Chapter 6 covers all the author‟s study and makes an ending conclusion on the military modernization and China‟s society. The changes during the period, key 8.

(17) persons, after effects on China etc… Chapter 6 discusses all the period from start to end. The author sums up all the incidents and makes a detailed analysis of military modernization in last chapter of his study. Chapter 6 does not close the modernization path of China. This chapter puts a light on coming historical events in Chinese History. The author‟s aim is to step in the new coming future of China and open the way into 1911 revolution.. 1.4 Problems and Limitations. Certainly, it cannot be denied that a topic such as the Self-Strengthening Movement and military modernization of China has its difficulties and limitations. This is a very complicated period and especially a kind of new start for China and her society. This period can be seen as the turning point from the ancient society to West affected society. Because of the huge range of materials written in different languages it is quite impossible for one master student to read and summarize all of the works in a relatively short time. One of the biggest problems of the author is, not using his mother tongue in his study. This makes the terms not so effective as in his mother tongue Turkish. The author did his best to write a clear and simple study on military modernization. The author believes it would be better to use his own language to make a study on such a complicated period. The second problem is surely the limited time for this study. Especially impossible to read many Chinese books in this limited time. For this reason, the author chose more English books rather than Chinese. The other problem was to be a 9.

(18) foreigner and writing something about China and her history. 5000 years long Chinese history is a kind of boundless ocean. In order to understand her history well many years have to be spent and unfortunately it is impossible to understand truly. In this study, the author believes that the Chinese scholars are already doing their best on China studies. The author‟s will is, as a foreign graduate student, to focus in to the Chinese history and dig out new views from this period. New debates may start and this will make the author‟s study to reach the success. Interesting on China and her historical experiences makes author happy to do a study about China. The author believes China has thousands of treasures and these treasures are waiting for to be discovered. Understanding of China will put a light in our modern age and China will become clearer than ever for the rest of the world. Of course, inevitably some points in the conclusion mint contain own subjective views, omissions or defects. As the poet Ziya Pasha11 wrote: “The things I‟ve chosen are a drop, no more: The undiminished sea still crowds the shore.”. 1.5 Literature Review. With regard to the topic of China‟s military modernization during Self Strengthening Movement there a huge amount of books in English and Chinese. Some writers focused just these period and some others wrote the general modernization in. 11. Quoted by J.A.G Roberts in his preface, Modern China: An Illustrated History, UK: Phoenix Mill,. Brimscombe Port, 1998.. 10.

(19) China from Qing dynasty to now. As a literature review, the author thinks that reading about events before and after the Self Strengthening Movement can lead to a better understanding of the incidents in this period. Also the books about key persons are very important for the military modernization period of China. Even the books about later periods like “1911 Revolution” can help to understand the aftermath of the movement. Thus, the books must have a wide range. As a result of that, the author made a picky book selection about his study. Without doubt, many of these books can provide valuable material for reference. The Modernization of China, edited by Gilbert Rozman, is a very precious reference material. In his book Rozman focuses on the China‟s modernization path, he starts from the international definition of modernization and enters to China‟s modernization. His book covers 18th, 19th and 20th centuries of China. However, Rozman did not give very clear details on the incidents and figures. The reason of that, Rozman‟s study covers many periods and his book wants to give the main steps in China‟s history. His starting point is similar with the most of the other historians; he thinks that the First Opium War is the starting point of China‟s modernization period.. The Rise of the Chinese Republic, “From the Last Emperor to Deng Xiao Ping” by Edwin P. Hoyt, who wrote a very useful reference book for China‟s History. He did not focus on details but he separated the periods very successfully. His book covers 100 years of China and the incidents in these years. The first chapter especially gives the reader clear information about the collapse of the Qing dynasty.. China’s Struggle for Naval Development 1839–1895 by John L. Rawlinson and John Lang,. both writer made a clear research on this period and focused on 11.

(20) naval development in China. Their starting point is the same as Rozman: The first big defeat against Western powers in the First Opium War (1839) and its effects on the Chinese military. The weakness of naval army of China forced her to build up a new army. In this book readers find many figures that have huge impacts on the military modernization of China.. British Trade and the Opening of China 1800–42 by Michael Greenberg, whose book focuses the opium trade and incidents before the war. He gave very detailed information on this trade and its effects on Chinese society. This book is a very useful reference for First Opium War and opium trade in the middle 19th century. The author just cited some of his historical study references in his study. These are the basic sources about the author‟s study. In the historical circles all of these books are considered as valuable resources. The author made a thorough but careful book selection and more materials which are related with the research shall be found in the bibliography part.. 1.6 Motivation. The biggest motivation of author for this study is his deep interest in Chinese history. The author has learned many new things about Chinese society during his study in Taiwan. His learning and teachers led him to learn more about China and her history.. 12.

(21) In the author‟s country Turkey unfortunately it is very hard to find books about China and her history. Because of this reason the author wanted to introduce Turkish people more sides of Chinese history. The author‟s study about Chinese history will be the one of the first studies on China in his country‟s archives. Besides, living in Chinese society made the author more curious about Chinese people and their history. The beauty and the magical side of Chinese history attracted the author and through this study he added himself many things from Chinese history. One of the author‟s motivations is to create a study which can be a bridge between old Chinese society and new modern China. The author wanted to point out a very important break up for new students who want to start to learn Modern Chinese history. Creating a key study and seeing it opens the doors for Chinese history makes the author happy about his work he made.. 13.

(22) CHAPTER TWO: Background of Self-Strengthening Period. There is an old Chinese saying: A one-hundred-year-old worm, its body would not be rotten after its death. (百年之蟲死而不僵) The meaning of this Chinese saying is; that regimes which have ruled for a long time do not fail very easy even though it is already dead inside. Qing dynasty maybe the best example of this saying; it did not collapse right away due to the internal and external problems, and it managed to get through the 19th century and on until 1912.12 The author thinks that also the Ottoman Empire (奧斯曼帝國) had the similar process in their history. In the early 1860s, (Here the author means after the first Opium War) the Chinese government undertook a range of modernization reforms. This reform movement was the result of the conjunction of several circumstances. One of the most important factors was being humiliated and defeated by foreigners in the wars. The other reasons about China‟s modernization were; economical problems, corruption among politicians, underdeveloped society and poor education etc... The clash of weak society and modernized Western countries were the starting point of the idea of Modernization.13 In the 19th century, the Chinese government was shaken both by domestic rebellions and by the unequal treaties. The term “Unequal Treaties” (不平等條約)14 mainly used by modern China, refers to a series of treaties signed by several Asian states, including that Western nations had forced China to accept this cruel treaty.. 12. Jonathan Spence, the Search for Modern China, 2nd Edition, New York, 1999, p. 195.. 13. A reference book about The Self-Strengthening Movement please see; Kim, Kwan Ho, Japanese. Perspectives on China’s Early Modernization: The Self-Strengthening Movement, 1860–1895: A bibliographical survey, USA: Ann Arbor, Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1974. 14. Frederic Jr. Wakeman, The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, p.128.. 14.

(23) However, except this treaties China was in trouble within her borders with the minorities and other rising regional figures. Minorities were looking for their freedom and the uprising leaders were looking for their fights against to Qing rulers. They wanted to overthrow the dynasty and establish their own rule over China. This was the internal uprising part of the China. However, the problems were not just at all. From the other side Westerners getting more and more in to the Chinese territory and having more rights in the borders. Western influence and invasion would be more dangerous than internal conflicts. Every right they took from China meant a piece from China to be given to Westerners. As a result of that Western invasion gradually grew bigger and turned China in to a very big colony which was invaded by many countries.15 Except Westerners, China‟s big rivals Russia and Japan were also waiting for their turn to get the share for their own. This race eventually has ended with the big war between Russia and Japan which was called “The Russo-Japanese War16 in 1904–05”. (日俄戰爭)17. 15. Among these countries; Germany, Portugal, Holland, Russia, Britain, France, United States, Spain.. *Japan would be the next in the later period. 16. Neilson Keith, Railways and the Russo-Japanese War: Transporting War, USA: The Journal of. Military History - Volume 73, Number 1, January 2009, pp. 291–292. The web site of the Society for Military please refer to: http://www.smh-hq.org/ 17. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, which began with the Japanese naval attack on Port Arthur,. had its roots in the simultaneous determination of both Japan and Russia to develop “Spheres of influence” in the Far East, mainly at the expense of China. Japan fought a very successful war against the weak Chinese Empire in 1894–95 and imposed a severe treaty. Japan demanded from China a heavy war indemnity, the island of Formosa, and Port Arthur and its hinterland. The European powers, while having no objection to the indemnity, did feel that Japan should not gain Port Arthur, for they had their own ambitions in that part of the world. Russia persuaded Germany and France to join her in applying diplomatic pressure on the Japanese, with the result that Japan was obliged to relinquish Port Arthur. Two years later Saint Petersburg forced the Chinese into leasing Port Arthur to Russia, together. 15.

(24) China was slowly turning in to a center of interest and conflict. Many Western countries interested on the same land and in a result of that in this area happened many wars between the Western countries in later periods. By the beginning of the 1860s, the Taiping Rebellion (太平天国). 18. was. perhaps one of the biggest and bloodiest civil war in Chinese history; a clash between the forces of the Qing Empire devastated millions of people and very vast area 19. The others were affecting China deeply but Qing dynasty‟s limited power was not enough to suppress them in a short time. Like Taipings, the other rebellion was terminating the villages and citizens which called “The Nien Rebellion” (捻軍起義;)20 was a large armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868 has also cost many victims. Muslims fought for themselves in “Muslim Panthay Rebellion” (杜文秀起義)21 and this rebellion was a separatist movement of the Hui people, Chinese Muslims were against the imperial Qing dynasty. Except for these rebellions China has seen many of them through the late Qing dynasty such as: “White Lotus. with the Liaotung Peninsula on which it stood. For Russia this meant the acquisition of an ice-free naval base in the Far East to supplement Vladivostok. For Japan it was a case of adding insult to injury. 18. Cited from Chung Habin, Economic Factors in Chinese Rebellions of the 19th Century, Korean. Minjok Leadership Academy International Program, Term Paper, AP European History Class, November 2005, pp. 1–4. 19. Taiping Rebellion: (1850 – 64) Large-scale rebellion against the Qing dynasty and the presence of. foreigners in China. The peasants, having suffered floods and famines in the late 1840s, were ripe for rebellion, which came under the leadership of Hong Xiu Quan.(洪秀全) 20 Nien Rebellion: (1852 – 68) uprising that occurred against the Qing dynasty of China. 21. Muslim Panthay Rebellion: (1856–1873), known in Chinese as the Du Wen Xiu Rebellion was a. separatist movement of the Hui people and Chinese Muslims against the imperial Qing Dynasty in southwestern Yunnan Province, China, as part of a wave of Hui-led multi-ethnic unrest.. 16.

(25) Rebellion” (白蓮教起義)22, “Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)” (同治回亂) the famous “Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901)” (義和拳). 23. and sure. 24 25. The Qings had also resigned themselves to the necessity of accommodating the Western powers demands. On the other hand, the Western powers had realized that in order to retain their treaty concessions, they had a vested interest in preserving the unity and integrity of China, and that this in turn required them to sustain the Qing administration. At that time some part of Asia were still independent from European dominance after 1750 suffered from political decline and from the reactions to new challenges. They also faced the threat of Western imperialism and their industrial lead.26. 22. White Lotus Rebellion: Chinese anti-Manchu uprising that occurred during the Qing dynasty. It. broke out (1796) among impoverished settlers in the mountainous region that separates Sichuan province from Hubei and Shaanxi provinces. 23. The Dungan Revolt was a religious war in 19th-century China. It is also known as the Hui. Minorities War and the Muslim Rebellion. The term is sometimes used to refer to the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan as well. It was an uprising by members of the Hui and other Muslim ethnic groups in China‟s Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces, as well as in Xinjiang, between 1862 and 1877. 24. The Boxer Rebellion, or more properly Boxer Uprising, was a violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian. movement. In response to imperialist expansion, growth of cosmopolitan influences, and missionary evangelism, and against the backdrop of state fiscal crisis and natural disasters, local organizations began to emerge in Shandong in 1898. 25. Mark Bryant, Knocking Out the Boxers, UK: History Today Volume: 58, Issue: 12, December 2008,. pp. 56–57. 26. Quoted from Peter N. Stearns, Stuart B. Schwartz, Michael Adas, World Civilizations, Chapter 26,. Pearson Longman, World Civilizations, AP Edition Companion Website, Copyright 1995-2008. This part was cited from the e-book of Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Longman. Please refer to: http://wps.ablongman.com/long_stearns_wcap_4/18/4651/1190880.cw/index.html. 17.

(26) China, under the Qing dynasty in the 17th century, enjoyed growth and prosperity in their society. Besides, Chinese people had the power to limit European intervention. At the end of the century, the foundations of Chinese civilization had been demolished by internal and external pressures. These were the internal rebellions and external imperialism. Western rising demand on natural resources led them to move further out from their borders. All these powers have had many different interests on China. Each of them found a weakness and try to push China in order to get what they want from her. They were all looking for more rights and using China‟s territory for their own good. Thus, they could move in the borders easily without having any resists and problems. 27. 2.1 Weakness of China and Foreign Interest. By the 19th century, China was experiencing growing internal pressures of economic origin. At the turn of the 19th century, the Qing dynasty, while still strong on the surface, however inside of the dynasty was already beginning to show symptoms of decline. One of the first was the morale of the imperial government. It gradually began to show first signs of deterioration. Instead of performing their duties. 27. For a reference book please see: Li, Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840–1928,. Stanford: Standford University Press, 1956.. 18.

(27) properly, the rulers began to lead a luxurious and debauched life. This caused many wrong decisions and neglections.28 29. The other problem was the corruption among Qing officials. It was rife at. various levels within and outside the imperial court. The moral decay and the excesses of the imperial government as well as its military expeditions caused a steady increase in the national budget which was soon to become unbalanced, resulting in galloping inflation. The problem of corruption in Qing Dynasty was very serious. It caused unbalanced and unfair decisions among people. Through the whole Chinese History corruption was one of the biggest problems of Chinese bureaucracy. Nearly all of the officials in the Qing government corrupted at that time30. Since they were not satisfied with the low salaries they received from the government, then no matter local officials or central officials also squeeze property from the ordinary people. The sharp increase in population further aggravated the situation. As a result of that, peasant life, which had already been hard to bear, was gradually reduced to a level of mere subsistence. Frequent natural calamities; such as floods, drought and locusts; caused tens of. 28. Francesco Sisci, China’s Massive Wranch, Change in the Face of Foreign Devils. 3 July 2008. This. is a newspaper article from Asia Times. In this article Sisci disscusses the “Modernization and Westernization” of China. His article can be found at; http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JG03Ad01.html 29. 卜照晶, (Zhao-Jing Bu), An Inquiry into the Corruption of Bureaucracy at the Beginning of Qing. Dynasty, Mainland China: Journal of Liaoning Normal University, Vol. 30, no: 4, July 2007, pp. 122–124. 30. Quoted from Shawn X. Ni, University of Missouri at Columbia, Department of Economics, Van H.. Pham, Baylor University, Department of Economics, High Corruption Income in Ming and Qing China, February 2005, This study can be found at Social Science Research Network‟s web page; www.ssrn.com. 19.

(28) thousands of peasants to starve to death. It was no wonder that both social unrest and peasant rebellions erupted in the 19th century.31 By the beginning of the century, Chinese population was over 300 million people. However, there was no industry or trade of sufficient number to absorb the surplus labor in society. Moreover, the scarcity of land led to widespread rural discontent and a breakdown in law and order. The weakening through corruption of the bureaucratic and military systems and mounting urban pauperism also contributed to these disturbances. Localized revolts erupted in various parts of the empire in the early 19th century. Secret societies, such as the White Lotus sect in the north and the Triad Society (三合會); in the south, gained ground, combining anti-Manchu subversion with banditry.32. 2.1.1 Foreigners in Borders. China‟s geographical environment, surrounded on all four sides by natural barriers, its original territory integrated into a single geographical unit, hindered contact and communication with much of the outside world. This had the accumulative effect on most Chinese of their seeing the entire world from within the. 31. Quoted from Francis Soo‟s study. For more information please refer to China & Modernization -. Past & Present, Studies in East European Thought, Springer Netherlands Volume 38, Number 1, July 1989, Mr. Soo is a professor at Boston College in Department of Philosophy. 32. Chaos research group‟s web site, The Chaos Group at Maryland since the mid-1970s, has done. extensive research in various areas of chaotic dynamics ranging from the theory of dimensions, fractal basin boundaries, chaotic scattering, controlling chaos are making researches on many topics. For more information please visit the web site of Chaos: http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/modern.html. 20.

(29) narrow confines of China‟s topography. They perceived China as being surrounded by four seas, bordered by peripheral kingdoms with an interior composed of various feudal kingdoms. These natural barriers were considered worldview of most Chinese people. “Heaven above; Earth below; The Middle Kingdom at the center of the universe.”33 The author of this study agrees with the historians that all the changes that have occurred in modern Chinese society are in response to Western challenges. Fairbank and Su Yu Teng elaborate:. “As China is the largest unitary mass of humanity with the oldest continuous history, its being trampled upon by the West during the past century was bound to create a continuing and violent intellectual revolution, the end of which we have not yet seen. A century plagued with unequal treaties brought the ancient society of China into ever closer contact with the dominant and expanding societies of Western Europe and America. This Western contact, lent impetus by the industrial revolution, had a disastrous effect upon the old Chinese society. China‟s old order was challenged, attacked, undermined and overwhelmed within every social sphere by a complex series of processes – political, economic, social, ideological and cultural that had. 33. Quoted from Zhang, Xiao Min and Xu, Chun Feng, The Late Qing Dynasty Diplomatic. Transformation: Analysis from an Ideational Perspective, Oxford: Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 1, 2007, pp. 405–445.. 21.

(30) been activated by encroachment of an alien, more powerful society”34.. This model has been of very big influence on many Chinese scholars and is regarded as a main point of reference within historical research on late Qing diplomacy. The Qing government, prior to 1861, was strongly influenced by traditional ideas in every aspect of its foreign relations. One traditional idea that was the basic tenet of Qing diplomacy was that whereby the Qing court did not perceive other countries as equal political entities. From the Chinese perspective, East Asia was the entire world. When China engaged with other nations, it was in the context of its ever-expanding world, at whose centre was the Chinese emperor. The Qing government broadly grouped the countries it dealt with into “Tributary states” and “Mutual trading states”35. Many Europeans had contact with China over the centuries. When Marco Polo (馬可·波羅) traveled to China in the 13th century, he found European artisans already at the court of the Great Khan (成吉思汗). In the 16th and 17th centuries, priests such as the Italian Matteo Ricci (利瑪竇)36 journeyed to China, learned Chinese, and tried to make their religion more acceptable to the Chinese people. These contacts were made usually by individual entrepreneurs or solitary missionaries. Although some Western science, art, and architecture were welcomed by the Qing court, attempts to convert Chinese to Christianity were by and large unsuccessful. More importantly, 34. Cited from the study of John Fairbank and Ssu-Yu Teng, China’s Response to the West, New York:. Atheneum, 1963, p. 1 35. Zhang, Xiao Min and Xu, Chun Feng, The Late Qing Dynasty Diplomatic Transformation: Analysis. from an Ideational Perspective, Oxford: Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 1, 2007, p.416. 36. For more information about Matteo Ricci please visit “Ricci Institute Library Online Catalog”. http://riccilibrary.usfca.edu/. 22.

(31) the Chinese state did not lend its support to creating a significant number of specialists in Western thinking37. Direct oceanic trade between China and Europe began during the 16th century. At first it was dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish, who brought silver from the Americas to exchange for Chinese silks. Later they were joined by the British and the Dutch. Initially trading took place at several ports along the Chinese coast, but gradually the state limited Western trade to the southern port of Canton (Guangzhou). Here there were rich Chinese merchants who had been given monopoly privileges by the emperor to trade with foreigners. Merchant guilds trading with foreigners were known as “Hongs” The original merchant associations had been organized by streets. The merchants of the selected hongs were also among the only Chinese merchants with enough money to purchase large amounts of goods produced inland and have them ready for the foreign traders when they came once a year to make their purchases.. 38. The Chinese court also favored trading at one port because it could more easily collect taxes on the goods traded if all trade was carried on in one place under the supervision of an official appointed by the emperor. Such kind of a system would make it easier to control the activities of the foreigners as well. So in the 1750s trade was restricted to Canton, and foreigners coming to China in their sail-powered ships were allowed to reside only on the island of Macao as they awaited favorable winds to return home39.. 37. Columbia University, An Initiative of the East Asian Curricilum Project and the Project on Asia in. the Core Curriculum: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/modern/tch_mcem.htm 38. Quoted from Frederic Wakeman, The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, p.. 101. 39. Frederic Wakeman,, The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975, p. 101.. 23.

(32) As the author has pointed out in the first chapter of this study, in the former periods of Chinese history, Chinese people mostly thought of themselves as far superior to Westerners. Because of this image against to West, China did not want to learn their society and historical events. China was already closed herself to West and their negative or positive influence. However, with the journey of missionaries, Chinese people still have had connections with them but such a little connection would not enough to understand the world of Westerners. During the Jesuit (耶蘇會) period. 40. , European knowledge trickled to China. mostly through the handiwork and services of the missionaries themselves. The Chinese people were yet to be fully convinced that there was a need to Westernize for modernity. This was begun to change after China‟s historical defeat in the Opium War with the rise of the supporters of Western science and technology. After this war and defeat for the first time, the floodgate of European knowledge was opened up and kept open. To the internal decline of the Qing dynasty was added the external. 40. The Jesuit Period of China: The history of the missions of the Jesuits in China in the early modern. era stands as one of the most notable events in the early history of relations between China and the Western world.. The missionary efforts and other work of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits between the. 16th and 17th century played a significant role in introducing Western knowledge, science, and culture to China. Their work laid much of the foundation for much of Christian culture in Chinese society today. Members of the Jesuit delegation to China were perhaps the most influential Christian missionaries in that country between the earliest period of the religion up until the 19th century, when significant numbers of Catholic and Protestant missions developed. After their efforts in converting Chinese people, they created a Chinese-Christian society in China. The thoughts of west were learned by Chinese people. The missionaries have a very important effect in China. Jesuits and Chinese people have many conflicts in later periods too. For more information you may read: Stephen K. Batalden, Kathleen Cann, John Dean, Sowing the word: the cultural impact of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804–2004, Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2004, Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005. On 19th century and rural life of China please refer to; Hsiao Kung-ch'uan, Rural China; Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century, USA: Seattle University of Washington Press, 1960.. 24.

(33) intrusion of Western powers. For, at the turn of the 19th century, Western powers, urged on by their ever-expanding colonial successes, began to demand the opening of China‟s doors to trade.41 On the other hand, as a self-sufficient country for centuries, China had no need for trade with others. In addition, convinced of her cultural superiority, China‟s relations with non-Chinese countries were based on the tribute system, an unequal system in which China treated China before the First Opium War would not recognize any other state as equal to herself. Foreign relations were considered as part of a hierarchical order consisting of the “Middle Kingdom” and the barbarians on the periphery. Barbarian countries were all regarded as tributary states only42. As elsewhere in Asia, in China the Portuguese were the pioneers, establishing a foothold at Macao, from which they monopolized foreign trade at the Chinese port of Guangzhou. Soon the Spanish arrived, followed by the British and the French. Trade between China and the West was carried on in the guise of tribute: foreigners were obliged to follow the elaborate, centuries-old ritual imposed on envoys from China‟s tributary states. There was no conception at the imperial court that the Europeans would expect or deserve to be treated as cultural or political equals. The sole exception was Russia, the most powerful inland neighbor. The Manchus were sensitive to the need for security along the northern land frontier and therefore were prepared to be realistic in dealing with Russia. The Treaty of Nerchinsk (尼布楚條約) (1689) with the Russians, drafted to bring to an end a series of border conflicts and to 41. Quoted from Kent Deng, Movers and Shakers of Knowledge in China during the Ming-Qing Period,. pp. 30–31. Internet resource of Kent Deng. Please refer to web site of London School of Economics and Political Science: http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHNPDF/GEHN9Deng.pdf 42. This passage was quoted from History web base “Corner of the World”, more information can be. found at:. http://www.thecorner.org/hist/essays/china/canton-system.htm. 25.

(34) establish a border between Siberia and Manchuria (northeast China) along the Heilong Jiang, this was China‟s first bilateral agreement with a European power.43 In 1727 the Treaty of Kiakhta (布連斯奇條約) delimited the remainder of the eastern portion of the Sino-Russian border. Western diplomatic efforts to expand trade on equal terms were rebuffed, the official Chinese assumption being that the empire was not in need of foreign and thus inferior products. Despite this attitude, trade flourished, even though after 1760 all foreign trade was confined to Guangzhou, where the foreign traders had to limit their dealings to a dozen officially licensed Chinese merchant firms.44 Trade was not the only basis of contact with the Westerners. Since the 13th century, Roman Catholic missionaries had been trying to establish their church in China. Although by 1800 only a few hundred thousand Chinese had been converted, the missionaries (mostly Jesuits) contributed greatly to Chinese knowledge in such fields as cannon casting, calendar making, geography, mathematics, cartography, music, art, and architecture. The Jesuits were especially adept at fitting Christianity into a Chinese framework and were condemned by a papal decision in 1704 for having tolerated the continuance of Confucian ancestor rites among Christian converts. The papal decision quickly weakened the Christian movement, which it proscribed as heterodox and disloyal.45 43. Quoted from China Assistor. This is a news internet web site for China and her Politics. The author. quoted the part from this web site, for more information and see the whole article please refer to http://chinapedia.chinaassistor.com/2007/1026/1193375398_4522.html 44. Chaos research group‟s web site. The Chaos Group at Maryland since the mid-1970s, has done. extensive research in various areas of chaotic dynamics ranging from the theory of dimensions, fractal basin boundaries, chaotic scattering, controlling chaos are making researches on many topics. For more information please visit the web site of Chaos: http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/modern.html 45. Country Studies, This website contains the on-line versions of books previously published in hard. copy by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress as part of the Country Studies Area. 26.

(35) Not after being defeated in the war China saw many invaders in her borders but she had to deal with them by one by. Northern and southern part was totally divided different kind of interests by foreign powers. China was having trade relations with West for more than couple of hundred years. Till the Imperialism gained importance in the west during the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Western countries turned their face to the East. At that time in the East there was Ottoman Empire which was called “The Sick Man”46 Once one of the strongest empires of the world and at that time was suffering internal and external problems. With the force of seeking new territories westerners were moving to south and east. In the east other prays were India and sure weak China with vast territory and rich natural resources. From the start of the thought “Search for weak land and colonize them” Western interests grew gradually on China. For China 19th century was the meeting time with the evil face of Imperialism. The Manchus continued to treat Europeans as just another type of barbarian, although the advances by Europeans in science and industry made them dangerous rivals to the empire. Confrontation occurred over the importation of opium from India into China. The British had lacked commodities, apart from silver, to exchange for Chinese goods. Opium reversed the trade balance in their favor, but the Chinese saw the trade as a threat to their economy and social order. Silver left the country and. Handbook Series sponsored by the U.S. Department of the Army between 1986 and 1998. Each study offers a comprehensive description and analysis of the country or region's historical setting, geography, society, economy, political system, and foreign policy. About the China‟s general information you may read Robert L. Worden, Andrea Matles Savada and Ronald E. Dolan, China: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987 Please refer to: http://countrystudies.us/china/14.htm 46. The “Sick man” paradox: history, rhetoric and the “European character of Turkey,” London:. Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans, vol. 8, no. 3, December 2006, pp. 299–311.. 27.

(36) opium addiction became rampant. Government efforts to check the problem failed until the 1830s, when an important official, Lin Ze Xu, came to end the trade at Canton and nearby.47 After the British Opium trade in Canton region China has started to face the negative effects of opium trade on her society.. Till that time West was not. dangerous for China. In the Chinese history, Chinese people always think that danger comes from near the borders not from far places. However, the West‟s imperialism ideology changed the plans. Western countries launched a massive attack to East part of the world. In 19th century invasion and colonization period began on East Asia. After Chinese people saw and learned what West want from her, they started to deal with foreigners. The author wants to emphasize that they had to learn how to deal with the West. China had not enough skills on dealing with the West and this is the biggest handicap of Chinese society. Because till Qing Dynasty, China has saved her own ideology and solved the matters with her own way. After they saw the Western treat, they started to learn the Western thought and dealt with the foreigners with adopting Western logic. In this period many scholars and students went abroad and came home with many different thoughts of West. This led China to new future through her history.. 47. Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, The Islamic Heartland, and Qing China, please refer to:. http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/stearns_awl/medialib/IM/ch32.pdf This web site provides the readers a limited e-book. The book name is World Civilizations. The primary goal of World Civilizations is to present a truly global history. For more information please visit their web site; http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/stearns_awl/. 28.

(37) 2.1.2 First Challenge Against to West. After the beginning of 19th century Westerners have started to have more and one sided relations with China. The rising Imperialism of Europe and their demand for new resources changed their direction to China. As a result if that Western powers have started to bear more interests on China and her rich resources. With the new and powerful weapons it would be easy to control China and her resources. After the First Opium War, Britain has forced China to accept their demands. They knew that China could not fight with them and this was the time for deeper invasion. China has already lived some conflicts with foreigners in her borders but these conflicts were small scale problems especially was trade problems between the merchants and Chinese. These problems never became international fights like Opium Wars, they remained just local comflicts. China‟s first big conflict with the West appeared in 19th century with the First Opium War48. Although Japan has started its modernization with the Meiji Restoration (明治維新) (1868 – 1912) a couple of years later than China, Japan has gained more effective results in a very short time. In a very short time Japan has already managed to surpass China in technology and military power. Western interest grew gradually on China and became the most dangerous event for China during the 19th century. Even in the ancient China, Mogol attacks did not harm China as West and Japanese did in 19 and 20th century. This period saw the hardships and changes in Chinese society. New thoughts from West came in the country and the new China has started. 48. Quoted from Wakeman, Frederic Jr., The Fall of Imperial China, New York: The Free Press, 1975,. p. 128.. 29.

(38) to rise. For Chinese people it would take more than 100 years to fight with West and the Japanese and in this long time Chinese have learned their experiences.49 19th century has seen a new China and totally big change (or we call it reform) from ancient to modern thought among Chinese scholars. China sent many young students and scholars to Western countries for education. When they came back home with new thoughts these young intellectuals began to criticize the system. The young intellectuals were looking for new, modern and democratic China. This would lead China to open another page in her history. During 18th and 19th centuries new leaders and new thoughts emerged, some of these were Li Hong Zhang, Sun Yat Sen (孫中山), Liang Qi Chao (梁啟超), Mao Ze Dong (毛澤東); etc… From a point of the given first steps about the China‟s modernization period the author wants to add that; “Self-Strengthening Period is a very complicated and hard period for China and her people. Before, during and after this period many foreigners have acted at the same time but in the different parts of China and eventually the structure of Chinese social life began to change. This was the reason of foreigners in the borders of Middle Kingdom.” The Western impact on Chinese society and the background is the first starting point of this study. Here the author‟s ultimate will is making the first step clear for the coming events in Chinese History. The understanding of China‟s social and economic life will give very clear details about that period‟s life. The author can say that the building a background for upcoming events are the keys of coming chapters. Thus the periods and figures would be clearer for the readers of this study.. 49. Quoted from V. P. Dutt, Crystal Gazing China, Strategic Analysis, London Volume 32, Issue 4 July. 2008, pp. 509 – 525.. 30.

(39) 2.2 China’s Social and Economic Environment in the Beginning of 19th Century. Historians wrote that Qing Dynasty was a foreign rule over China. The Qing Dynasty was the second time when the whole of China was ruled by foreigners, the Manchu. Manchu males had the custom of braiding hair into a pigtail known as a queue. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchus enforced this custom onto the Han population, and any male who was seen without pigtail outdoors was to be beheaded. The Qing favored an isolationist policy, which proved fatal. The lack of trade hurt China economically. Qing period is the key period between the ancient China and modern China50. This period was the transforming period for China and Chinese people, in the beginning of 18th century China was meeting with foreigners; the contact with West has affected the social life and economic life of Qing Dynasty. One common view of the 19th century was that, it was an era in which Qing control weakened, and prosperity reduced. China suffered large social conflicts, economic stagnation, and explosive population growth. With the rule of Dao Guang Emperor ( 道光帝)-(1820-1850), China has increasingly connected to Russia, the West, and later Japan.51 50. Ewin Moise, Downward Social Mobility in Pre-revolutionary China, Modern China, USA: North. Carolina, Volume 3, No: 1, January 1977, pp. 3-31. The text is available to subscribers on JSTOR. 51. Stuart V. Aque, Pi Xirui and Jingxue lishi, (The History of Classical Scholarship) (經學歷史皮錫. 瑞)University of Washington, 2004, pp. 1–115. This reference is a dissertation which was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The whole Thesis can be found at; https://digital.lib.washington.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1773/2092/Dissertation.pdf;jsessionid=5048 50810BF4783406E729AA1629EA55?sequence=21. 31.

(40) International and global influence was more freely allowed into the country, Great Britain especially was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. Before the contact of foreigners China had her own way of life most affected by Confucianism. After the middle years of the 19th century, partly as a consequence of new professions brought in by Westerners, but also because of the decay in political stability a factor which almost always in Chinese History has introduced at least temporarily a large measure of social mobility. The lower gentry became both larger and more uncertain in its social status. Thanks to China‟s now virtually complete and highly efficient hub and spoke transport to market network, novel ways of earning money pioneered in the treaty ports could gradually come to affect income sources in the cities of the interior. Conversely, the treaty ports provided new outlets and hence stimulus for growth in traditional products and services in Chinese borders. As a consequence, the opportunities (and dangers) that formerly existed only in and around Canton City soon spread to fifteen other cities and the still larger number of lesser urban areas. By the end of the century, treaty-port-like extraterritoriality for Westerners existed in nine times that many urban areas52. The author‟s point is showing the process of Western effect in China. I was slow but very effective for foreigners. The author wants to underline that Qing Dynasty (Especially 19th century) is the key period of Chinese society that making the closest relations with the West. Many countries including England, Russia, Germany, France, United States… etc. have had interests on China and her resources.. 52. Quoted from the study of Edward Kaplan, Western Washington University, Department of History,. Nineteenth Century Chinese Society, pp. 31–3. Edward Kaplan‟s study on Chinese society can be found at: http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~kaplan/H371/re31.pdf. 32.

(41) In this period the rival Japan started to get closer China because of their interest in Chinese Mainland and the islands including the most important one; Taiwan. All these turned into a very massive invasion in China. China stepped in a new period which was the one of the worse period in her history. Rebellions all around the country, foreign pressure, stagnations on the politics and economic affairs was about the start. The Qing period was the era in which China came into conflict with Europe. Spreading around the globe, Europeans more and more confidently asserted economic monopolies and political power all around the globe, from the Americas to Africa to India and, eventually, to China herself. As the Qing dynasty wore on, Europeans increasingly began to enforce their economic and political will through the use of arms; this practice would eventually be called “Gunboat Diplomacy” (砲艦外交) 53 in the 19th century. The history of conflict between Europe and China slowly developed over the 17th and 18th centuries; by the middle of the 19th century, Chinese and European relations had so degraded that England sent warships in order to preserve its despicable trade in opium to the Chinese people in Canton during the winter months.. 53. Gunboat Diplomacy can be defined in a general way as any aggressive diplomatic activity carried out. with the implicit or explicit use of military (usually naval) power. J. Cable, Gunboat diplomacy, 1919–1991: Political Applications of limited Naval Force (third edition), UK, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994, p.14. Gunboat diplomacy had its origins in the Opium War, when the Chinese rebelled against the British importation of opium into China, and the British response was to send a gunboat up the Yangtze River. From the web data base please refer to; http://www.worldfreeinternet.net/news/nws2.htm. 33.

(42) 2.2.1 Qing Society in 19th Century. The author believes that, understanding the Chinese society from surface would make the readers more clear about late Qing period. With all the turbulence in Qing China, Chinese people still were living their own lives. Mostly farmer populated China was closed to the new technologies but the old Chinese style life could be seen most of the society.. 54. a) Scholar-gentry. In Qing dynasty all government officials were selected by the Civil Service Examinations held regularly by the government in the provinces or at the capital. If one is successful, the candidates would be given academic degrees. These degree-holders would then enjoy special privileges of dress, law and social position. They would become the scholar-gentry. As no more than 5% of them could become officials, the majority of the scholar-gentry stayed in local villages or cities as social leaders. The scholar-gentry carried out social welfare measures, taught in private schools, helped decide minor legal disputes, supervised community projects, maintained local law and order, conducted Confucian ceremonies, assisted in the government‟s collection of taxes, and preached Confucian moral teachings. As a class, these scholars represented morality and virtue. Although they received no official salary and were not government officials, their contributions and cooperation were. 54. For a reference book please see: William E. Willmot, Economic Organization in Chinese Society,. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1972.. 34.

(43) much needed by the district magistrate in governing local areas. The relations between this scholar-gentry class and the imperial dynasty were two ways:55. a- The scholar-gentry depended on the dynasty for academic degrees and official recognition as social leaders. b- The dynasty in return depended on the scholar-gentry for: 1. running local affairs and informal administration, 2. Confucian recognition of the ruling dynasty as a lawful one in Chinese history.. b) Peasants. The majority of the population was peasants in China. By the end of the 19th century, the number of people approached 300 million. However China was so undereducated that most of her peasants did not know how to read and write. They stayed in their villages and seldom went to other places. They looked to the scholar-gentry for social leadership and were usually obedient and passive. By the 19th century, it is estimated that a direct magistrate, the lowest level official responsible for all local administration, might be responsible for as many as 250,000 people. Small wonder that when real crises came, officials in government were powerless to avoid them, and people had nothing to fall back on except for some. 55. Quoted from Rowe, William T. Hankow, Commerce and Society in a Chinese City 1796–1889,. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984, pp. 50–125.. 35.

(44) meager donations and national and international relief efforts, which reached few people.. 56. To get an idea of the extent of the suffering in the late 19th century look closely at the woodblock prints from the China Famine Relief Fund distributed in Europe. As you view them, keep in mind that they were produced during one of the most disastrous famines in recent Chinese history, which took place between years 1876 - 1879. It affected all five provinces of north China and claimed at least 9.5 million lives57. The immediate cause was a three year drought which withered crops from 1873- But when life became too difficult, the peasants might become rebels, challenging the dynasty and causing social troubles. A story tells us the very touching and hard times of late Qing Dynasty period in China; This selection is a Chinese woman‟s account of the period ten years later when another great famine afflicted North China. When she was old, this woman, Ning Lao Tai Tai, narrated the story of her harsh life. At the time of this story, she is a young woman with two children, married to a man who has turned out to be an opium addict. (By the late 19th century, it is estimated that in some areas of China, as much as 80% of the population of villages were frequent users of opium, and the average is estimated at perhaps 10% of the entire population.) This selection tells what life was like for her in North China in 1887-88;. 56. Quoted from Columbia University, An Initiative of the East Asian Curricilum Project and the. Project on Asia in the Core Curriculum http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/china/modern/crisis.htm 57. Quoted from Columbia University, An Initiative of the East Asian Curricilum Project and the. Project on Asia in the Core Curriculum, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/. 36.