台灣私立幼教機構外籍英語教師任職動機之研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 台灣私立幼教機構外籍英語教師任職動機之研究. The Motivations of Foreign English Teachers in Taiwan’s Private Preschools. Student: Bryn Thomas Advisor: Doctor Chuing Prudence Chou 中華民國 106 年 3 月 March 2017. i.

(2) 台灣私立幼教機構外籍英語教師任職動機之研究. The Motivations of Foreign English Teachers in Taiwan’s Private Preschools Student: Bryn Thomas Advisor: Doctor Chuing Prudence Chou 國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. 中華民國 106 年 3 月 March 2017. ii.

(3) Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis advisor Professor Chuing Prudence Chou for her ceaseless patience, kindness, and meaningful input. Without her willingness to take me on as an advisee, this project would be a mere shadow of what it is. I’m grateful she chose to take the risk. Likewise, I would like to thank my committee members for their advice and constructive criticism. Thanks is also due to Rebecca Huang, my loving partner, who supported me through the most trying moments of the writing process. I would also like to thank my parents for their patience and understanding throughout this process. Finally I would extend a special thank you to Gina Song, whose support and advice were invaluable. It is my hope that this research contributes to a greater understanding of the lives of expatriates in Taiwan. Although there are undoubtedly some bad examples, many native English speaking teachers chose to put their best efforts into their work despite the myriad of complications that surround kindergartens in Taiwan. I dedicate this thesis to these teachers, who strive daily to improve the lives of their students. It is to you that I owe the highest of admiration.. iii.

(4) 台灣私立幼教機構外籍英語教師任職動機之研究. 在國際化趨勢中，台灣政府推動英語教學，來提升國人成為「終身學習者」。為了達成上述目標，台灣政府允許公立與私立學校聘用以英文為母語的外籍教師，尤其在私人的學前教育機構與補習班等，經常可看到這些外籍教師。由於家長對於子女提前接受英語教育的期望，造成市場的需求，導致政府英語教學政策和民間需求，存在著相當的落差，導致許多私立學前教育機構為了維繫市場競爭力，規避政府的法規，聘請英語非母語的外籍教師任教。本論文旨在探討為何許多來台外籍人士，無論本身是否具有合格師資與英語母語條件，在台灣冒著被驅逐出境的風險，以學前教育工作為首選，從事合法及非法打工，而非選擇其他的工作機會？本研究以英語外籍教師為主要對象，採用質性研究法，運用「計畫行為理論」作為研究架構，先透過 12 個先導性調查，進行初步資料分析，再經由 10 次深度訪談，以及 80 份問卷調查，了解外籍教師的看法。本研究根據計畫行為理論中的變項，包含：態度、主觀規範，以及認知行為控制等項目，分析在台外籍人士何以選擇到學前教育機構，任教英語的行為動機，及其背後原因。本研究發現，學前教育備受來台外籍人士歡迎的原因，包括：台灣學前教育階段英語教師市場需求大，教學資格門檻不夠嚴格、入行容易，薪資待遇佳，尤其是學前教育階段特殊的教學方式，能夠提供較具彈性的上班時間與生活方式，都是造成學前教育機構吸引來台外籍教師任教的原因。研究進一步發現，台灣的教育政策至今仍缺乏對於學前教育機構外籍英語教師聘用等方面，有效的管理與輔導。本論文最後建議，台灣公部門必須對於所有相關機構與個人，諸如：學前教育單位、英語為母語及其他外籍教師、與學生家長等，進行明確的規範，落實學前教育英語教師的任教資格、加強本地雇主與外師之間勞資雙方工作條件的透明度、甚至落實對非法雇主的取締及違法者處分等，都是改善台灣學前教育英語學品質，保障學童受教權及外籍教師工作權的重要途徑。關鍵字：學前教育、英語教學、計畫行為理論、外籍教師任教動機、補習班。. iv.

(5) The Motivations of Foreign English Teachers in Taiwan’s Private Kindergartens. Abstract The government of Taiwan seeks to create a population of “internationalized life-long learners” through English as a Second Language education. To facilitate this education, the Taiwanese government, permits the hiring of native English speaking teachers in public and private schools. Despite this, a gap exists between parental expectations and government regulation creating a market for English learning at the kindergarten level. This gap is often filled by Private Preschool Institutions. Findings suggest private preschools in Taiwan manifest themselves in numerous ways, and often skirt government regulation to remain competitive. This research discusses why expatriates seek employment at the preschool level in Taiwan, despite the risk of deportation, and the availability of alternatives. This study applied the Theory of Planned Behavior to twelve pilot surveys, ten interviews, and eighty questionnaires from a sample of teachers in Taiwan. Using qualitative methods, this study identified how the Theory of Planned Behavior variables: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control were significant in creating the behavior intention to teach English at the preschool level in Taiwan. Findings suggested that preschool teaching is perceived as rewarding because of the lifestyle it creates. Furthermore that it is seen as commonplace and acceptable. And finally that endemic, race based, low hiring standards in the English as a second language market create low barriers to entry. Several implications were drawn from this research. Primarily, that policy should address labor and lifestyle issues in legally sanctioned schools and that greater transparency between all actors; the private preschools, Taiwanese government, English teachers, and parents is needed.. Key Words: Early Childhood Education, English as a Second Language, Social norms, Theory of Planned Behavior , Native English Speaking Teachers, Taiwan. v.

(6) List of Terms NEST- Native English Speaking Teacher NNEST- Nonnative English Speaking Teachers MOFA- Ministry of Foreign Affairs MOE- Ministry of Education ESL- English as a Second Language Buxiban- This is a Chinese term referring to private after school programs or cram schools. Foreigners typically refer to buxiban as private after school programs teaching ages 6-18 NT- New Taiwanese Dollar LPP- Language Planning Policy TPB- Theory of Planned Behavior Kindergarten- A Kindergarten is specific type of school for ages 4-5 defined by MOE licensing (further explanation in section 1.2). Kindergarten for expatriates usually entails any work at the preschool level.. vi.

(7) Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Abstract .......................................................................................................................................v List of Terms ............................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. ix List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Definition of Terminology .................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Personal Motivations............................................................................................................ 9 1.4 Aim of Study .....................................................................................................................10 1.5 Research Questions .............................................................................................................10 Chapter 2 Literature Review ......................................................................................................12 2.1 Analytical Framework .........................................................................................................12 2.1.1 Salient Beliefs ..............................................................................................................15 2.2 The Theory of Planned Behavior ..........................................................................................16 2.3 Expatriates, NESTs, and Job Recruitment ..............................................................................18 2.4 Government Policy, Taiwan’s private ESL market, and the Buxiban .........................................20 2.5 Teachers Perceptions...........................................................................................................24 Chapter 3 Methodology..............................................................................................................25 3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................................25 3.2 Formative Research, Pilot Study Construction and Distribution ................................................27 3.3 Interviews ..........................................................................................................................28 3.4 Primary Questionnaire.........................................................................................................29 3.5 Methods of Analysis ...........................................................................................................30 3.6 Analyzing the Salient Belief Study .......................................................................................30 3.7 Interview Analysis ..............................................................................................................30 3.8 Primary Questionnaire Analysis ...........................................................................................31 3.9 Data Coding .......................................................................................................................32 3.10 Sampling .........................................................................................................................32 Chapter 4 Data Analysis.............................................................................................................35 4.1 Populations measures ..........................................................................................................35 4.2 Attitude .............................................................................................................................41 4.2.1 Working with Children..................................................................................................42 4.2.2 Working Hours and Placement .......................................................................................43 4.2.3 Lifestyle ......................................................................................................................45 4.2.4 Management and Abuse ................................................................................................47 4.2.5 Summary of Attitude.....................................................................................................51 4.3 Subjective Norm.................................................................................................................51 4.3.1 Family and Friends .......................................................................................................52 4.3.2 Taiwanese Society ........................................................................................................53 4.3.3 Summary of Subjective Norm ........................................................................................55 vii.

(8) 4.4 Perceived Behavioral Control ...............................................................................................56 4.4.1 Hiring Standards and Qualifications ................................................................................56 4.4.2 Race Based Hiring Practices ..........................................................................................60 4.4.3 The Perception of Legality.............................................................................................61 4.4.4 Summary of Perceived Behavioral Control ......................................................................63 4.5 Discussion .........................................................................................................................63 Chapter 5 Conclusion & Policy Implications ...............................................................................67 5.1 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................67 5.2 Other Notable Trends ..........................................................................................................69 5.2.1 The ESL Black Hole .....................................................................................................70 5.3 Avenues for Future Research ...............................................................................................70 5. 4 Policy Implications ............................................................................................................72 5.5 Limitations ........................................................................................................................76 Bibliography..............................................................................................................................79 Appendix ...................................................................................................................................84 Appendix A Pilot Survey Responses ..........................................................................................84 Appendix B Primary Questionnaire ............................................................................................94 Appendix C Interview Notes .....................................................................................................96. viii.

(9) List of Figures Figure 1 the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975) .......................................................... 13 Figure 2 the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2006) ............................................................................ 14 Figure 3 Research Framework (Source: Author. Based on Ajzen, 2006) ................................................... 26 Figure 4 Data Collection Timeline (source: Author.) ................................................................................. 27 Figure 5 Survey Respondent Gender (Source: Author.) ............................................................................. 35 Figure 6 Ethnicity of Survey Respondent (Source: Author) ....................................................................... 36 Figure 7 Respondent Nationality 1 (Source: Author) ................................................................................. 37 Figure 8 Age of Respondents (Source: Author).......................................................................................... 38 Figure 9 Shared TPB Variables (Source: Author) ...................................................................................... 64. List of Tables Table 1 The "Legal Gray Area" .................................................................................................................... 6 Table 2 Interviewee Demographics ............................................................................................................ 39. ix.

(10) Chapter 1 Introduction One of Taiwan’s greatest resources is its educated populace. As Taiwan is a relatively small and politically isolated island its qualified workforce has driven the growth of its booming export driven industries. The necessity to maintain a competitive and educated population has seen the Republic of China (ROC), Taiwan’s government, create a thorough and comprehensive education program at every level. This education program is extremely competitive, being measured by standardized tests from the kindergarten to the university level, creating one of the highest educated populations on earth per capita. In an increasingly globalized environment, the Taiwanese government, which relies on its educated population for economic growth, has adapted measures to internationalize its education. Fueled by “English Fever” (Chang, 2008) the population of Taiwan and its government has readily adopted English as a second language (ESL) learning into its curriculum by making the study of English the only mandatory nonnative language taught in its public schools. English language proficiency is also tested in Taiwan’s university entrance exams. Taiwan’s supplementary private education market has yielded a boom in ‘buxibans’ adapted to address parental expectations, exam anxiety, and group pressure towards learning (Chou, 2011). Both private and public schools in Taiwan have readily hired native English speaking teachers (NESTs) to enhance the authenticity of the English spoken in their classes. Conflict has arisen between Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE) and Taiwan’s population with regard to the age at which English language learning should begin. Many Taiwanese parents agree with the ‘earlier is better’ theory of language learning (Oladejo, 2006). This sentiment is enhanced by the competitive nature of Taiwan’s education program, and the perception of non-standardized English instruction and text in Taiwan’s public schools. 1.

(11) Government regulations forbid the teaching of English to young learners (ages two through elementary school) and mandates that ESL education begin by the third year of elementary education, but no earlier than the first grade. A situation has been created in which the societal norms and expectations of parents do not align with legal regulations of the Taiwanese government (Oladejo, 2006). Privatized preschool institutions (PPIs) in Taiwan fill the gap between parental expectation and legal prohibition (Oladejo, 2006; Chang, 2008). As of 2014, over half the preschools in Taiwan were privately owned (MOE, 2014). In an environment of decreasing birthrates, private preschools seek ways to distinguish themselves from their competition. Furthermore, privatized education in Taiwan is determined by social pressure (Chou & Ching, 2012, pg. 120). However, private and public kindergartens are not the only schools providing English schooling at the preschool level. There is also a large market of unregistered kindergartens and buxibans. Thus a combination of decreasing market and parental pressure create an environment in which English is actively taught at the preschool level. When Taiwanese private preschool institutions incorporate English into their education, they often hire foreign teachers with little screening for quality or qualification (Chou & Ching, 2012). In sum, the gap between parent expectations and government regulation, market mechanisms in private education, and a competitive education system creates a job market for native English speaking teachers (NESTs) at the preschool level.. 1.1 Problem Statement Private preschool institutions, many of whom are well intentioned, often operate in a legal ‘gray area’ (as legal schools providing illegal services), seeking to provide for a market of parents eager to start language learning earlier than the government mandated age. The unregulated nature of these schools, and the ‘legal gray area’ in which they operate, creates 2.

(12) circumstances in which children are potentially exposed to myriad of dangers, including, but not limited to, unprofessional teachers, inadequate curriculums, unsafe environments, overcrowded classrooms, and nontransparent ineffective teaching practices (Survey highlights number, 2011). As of 2014 Taiwan had 6,560 public and private preschools servicing 448,189 pupils, with a public to private ratio of 3:7 (MOE, 2014). Although not pertaining specifically to preschools, one survey suggests that out of 726,300 elementary-school pupils who are in after-school care programs, only 35,521 attend registered childcare centers (Survey highlights number, 2011). The remaining students attend unregistered cram schools (unregistered buxibans); where they are likely to study English. A situation exists that is hazardous for all parties involved. Native English speaking teachers (NESTs) in Taiwan, although often unqualified, sometimes unwittingly enter an environment in which they risk deportation and exploitation in employment under regulated by government bodies (Lan, 2011). NESTs, are drawn to Taiwan for numerous personal reasons and have opportunities at a myriad of schools, but often choose to work in PPIs regardless of the legal ramifications. The existence of a shadow economy of private preschool institutions (PPIs) makes it difficult for the Ministry of Education (MOE) to guarantee the quality of its education. Children are potentially exposed to unqualified or dangerous NESTs, and parents are sometimes swindled out of tuition fees. Before continuing it is necessary to discuss the terms “kindergarten” and “buxiban”, as well as the relevant laws and so called “legal gray areas” that were used in this study.. 3.

(13) 1.2 Definition of Terminology There are three types of schools that teach at the preschool level in Taiwan. Namely kindergartens and nurseries, which Taiwanese government refers to as “educare institutions” (Early Childhood Education and Care Act, 2013); and buxibans (cram schools). Understanding the complex and often convoluted differences between these schools is necessary for understanding both the legal pitfalls and gray areas NESTs in Taiwan operate in. As stated above, nurseries, kindergartens, and buxibans (crams schools) cater to the preschool level: ages two through elementary. Kindergartens and nurseries can be subdivided into private and public institutions. All buxibans are privately owned. Due to greater government control, there is no evidence that NESTs are working at public kindergartens or nurseries in Taiwan. Private kindergartens, nurseries, and buxibans are defined by their licenses, which are stipulated according the strict regulations regarding their curriculum, provided services, and teacher qualifications. Kindergarten licensing depends on several factors. Requirements include indoor and outdoor space, student to teacher ratio, ages of students (4-5), and the qualification of teachers (Hsieh, 2008). Kindergartens must hire teachers according to strictly specified standards (Early Childhood Education and Care Act, 2013). Furthermore the curriculum taught in kindergartens is restricted to, physical, language (first language), cognition, aesthetic emotional, and interpersonal development (Early Childhood Education and Care Act, 2013). Foreign languages such as English are not considered developmentally appropriate.. Kindergartens are also. restricted as to what kinds of care services they can provide, be it meals or napping areas. Educators in kindergartens, are referred to as Teachers (Hsieh, 2008). Parents who enroll their children in kindergartens are also eligible for a government voucher (Ho, 2006).. 4.

(14) Private nurseries are distinguished from private kindergartens by larger class sizes and a focus on care rather than education. Educators in nurseries are referred to as nurses (Hsieh, 2008). Furthermore nurseries employ those with two year college degrees (Hsieh, 2008). Children in nurseries cover a larger age range than those in kindergartens (ages 2-5) (Hsieh, 2008). Buxibans (cram schools) also provide education at the preschool age and are less regulated than both nurseries and kindergartens (Hsieh, 2008). Looser regulations are exhibited in terms of classroom sizes, school spaces, teacher qualifications, age of students and curriculums. Buxibans are considered to be supplementary education (Supplementary Education Act, 2013). Although it is forbidden for ‘young children’ to attend buxibans, the practice is exceedingly common (Supplementary Education Act, 2013; Cai, 2016). This study specifically addresses NESTs operating in the myriad of institutions that manifest at the preschool level; be it private kindergartens, nurseries, or buxibans. For the sake of streamlining, this study refers to these schools as: Private Preschool Institutions (PPIs). In this study, a PPI unless noted, refers to all private institutions that teach at the preschool level (ages two through elementary). The English term “kindergarten” is used by expatriates in Taiwan to refer to the above discussed myriad of teaching activities in PPIs, whereas buxiban refers specifically to cram schools occurring between the ages of six and high school with class placement in the afternoons and evenings. Foreign teachers who use the term ‘kindergarten’ are often referring to the teaching of what the Taiwanese government refers to as ‘young children’; that is children older than two but not yet in elementary school (Early Childhood Education and Care Act, 2013). Similarly, while there are ‘buxibans’ that teach preschool aged kids, these are referred to by expatriates as “kindy” or kindergarten.. NESTs in Taiwan often do not understand the. 5.

(15) differences in licensing within PPIs and organize schools according to the age taught, in this case ages two through elementary; or ‘kindergarten’. This age group, referred to as ‘young learners’, is subject to a ‘legal grey area’, which can result in the deportation of NESTs. Deportation is due to working illegally. The illegality of this refers to the act of working at a place not specified on their work permit, and not due to teaching ‘young learners’ specifically (Employment Service Act, 2006). Likewise, NESTs can also be deported for substitute teaching at a school which is not listed on their Alien Resident Card (ARC). Thus once a NEST is in possession of an APRC (Alien Permanent Resident Card) they will no longer risk deportation, as their visa is no longer dependent upon their employment. However, the school or institution is still subject to fines, and the NEST may lose their jobs. The following sections will attempt to define this legal ‘gray area’ (Table 1) in black and white terms. Table 1 The "Legal Gray Area". Types of School. NESTs. Young Learners. Consequence to NEST without APRC. Nurseries. Foreigners and English not allowed. Ages 2-5 Allowed. deportation. Registered Kindergartens. English allowed with strict regulations. Foreign teachers not allowed.. Ages 4-5 allowed and encouraged with vouchers. deportation. Buxibans. Foreign Teachers and English curriculum allowed. Forbidden but common practice. none/ case by case. Unregistered Kindergarten. Unregulated. Unregulated. deportation. Source: Author. Thus far we have established that NESTs in Taiwan risk deportation for teaching at the preschool level in Taiwan. Based on this one would assume that it is the act of teaching by a 6.

(16) foreigner at the preschool level that is expressly illegal. ESL recruitment websites for major private school chains address the issue openly stating “although it is technically illegal, it is a legal grey area” (Is Teaching Preschool Illegal, 2017).. In order to further understand the. phenomenon of English teaching at the preschool level, we need to gaze into the legal fog in which these schools operate. The question of English teaching at the kindergarten level was first addressed in 1981 with the Preschool Education Act which expressly banned both the teaching of English and foreigners in Kindergartens (Oladejo, 2006). This initial ban was initiated a part of the Kuo Min Tangs pro-Chinese ‘Language Planning Policy’ (LPP) (Su, 2006). The question came to the foreground again in 2004 with Taiwan’s Challenge 2008 Education Development Scheme which sought to make education both more globalized and internationalized for young learners (Chou & Ching, 2012). The government decreased the English language learning age from the fifth grade to the third year, with classes starting in the first grade where resources are available. As established in the literature review, chapter 2, other market forces have created a boom in ESL teaching at the kindergarten level. Increased attention to English teaching yielded a request for clarification regarding the issue. In 2004 the Ministry of Education announced a ban on English medium kindergartens stating that “foreign language learning at the kindergarten level was not developmentally appropriate” (Taiwan to Ban Kindergarten, 2004). The same announcement also stated that foreigners were barred from working in kindergartens as they are not qualified teachers (Taiwan to Ban Kindergarten, 2004). In the event that a foreigner is caught teaching in a school registered as a kindergarten, they will be deported for working illegally and the school will be fined.. 7.

(17) Bowing to market demand and a desire to stay competitive, private education entrepreneurs have been creative in their skirting of government regulations. One method is not registering the kindergarten (Taichung City Government, 2010). While illegal, this practice has been argued to be tolerated, as there are fears the registered kindergartens could not handle the surplus of children (Hsieh, 2008). Another way is simply registering the PPI as a kindergarten then having the foreign teachers run or hide when education officials arrive (Appendix C: Nelson, John, Rachel, Jim, Hugo, Kyle).A final and probably the most common practice is registering a PPI as a buxiban and teaching preschool aged kids English there. Schools registered as buxibans will choose English and Chinese names suggestive of them being a kindergarten; “Bilingual Kindergarten” for example (MOE Clarifies English Learning, 2004). While outwardly registered as a buxiban, some of these schools conduct day to day business as though they were a kindergarten, providing meals, sleeping areas, outdoor play time, English instruction, and of course NESTs; practices not allowed according to their licenses (Cai, 2016). The practice of teaching English, as well as abacus, mental arithmetic, and speed reading in buxibans to preschoolers was banned first in 2004 (Taiwan to Ban Kindergarten, 2004) and again in 2009 with the passage of the Supplementary Education Act (Bill Seeks to Protect Young, 2009; MOE, 2013). The practice continues however, with schools regularly popping up in the Taiwanese television news (Cai, 2016). While still illegal, NESTs caught at a buxiban are not typically deported, as their ARC is correctly registered.. In the context of this study, preschool refers to all teaching activities at the ‘young learners’’ level (ages 2-6). Conversely, unless explicitly stated buxiban refers to age six and above or cram schools. This study specifically addresses all NESTs who teach ages two through elementary in private preschool institutions (PPIs), be them nurseries, registered or unregistered 8.

(18) kindergartens or buxibans. Essentially all practices which fall into the “legal gray area”.. 1.3 Personal Motivations Many recent college graduates from the United States, United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and Canada are drawn to teaching ESL in Taiwan as a way to build personal and career experience, internationalize, tackle student debts, and travel. Taiwan’s flourishing ESL industry draws qualified and unqualified teachers alike, working at almost every level of education. Due partially to a conflict between parental expectations and government regulation, many native English teachers find themselves working in unregulated PPIs. These jobs leave foreign teachers defenseless against labor abuses and put children in potential danger. The issue of English teaching in preschools in Taiwan is rarely studied in English, and is only addressed peripherally (Hsieh, 2006, Oladejo, 2006). While other authors have demonstrated the presence of foreign teachers, issues of immigration in Taiwan, and the adverse effects of Taiwan’s education policies; none have addressed preschool teaching through the NESTs involved. The questionable legality of the practice also yields a lack of transparency concerning its extent. While a scan of the MOE or Immigration Services website provides numerical counts of foreigners by country and profession, registered schools, and children in attendance; the prevalence and practices of NESTs at the preschool level is unknowable. Without knowing the practices, prevalence, or qualifications of its teachers, the MOE’s ability to guarantee the quality of its teaching is called into question. With this in mind, this research was exploratory in nature. We are casting a stone into a dark ocean and examining the ripples.. 9.

(19) 1.4 Aim of Study This study helps define the effect of NEST’s attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on the decision to teach English in a PPI in Taiwan. Through collecting data on a sample of NESTs in Taiwan within the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1985), it is hoped that the consistency of individual variables can be identified. Identification of individual variables will contribute to previous scholarship by discussing why NESTs choose to work in PPIs. With conclusive identification of the constitution of these variables, policy implications were drawn with the intention remedying some perceived problems involving ESL in Taiwan and the recruitment of NESTs. This study consists of exploratory research and builds on this previous research by analyzing factors that push NESTs into filling the gap between parental expectations and government regulation regarding the teaching of English at the preschool level.. 1.5 Research Questions This research applies the Theory of Planned Behavior to the decisions of native English speaking expatriates teaching at the preschool level In Taiwan; a deportable offense. This study aimed to address the phenomenon of “Why foreigners teach English at the preschool level in Taiwan?”. The above stated general research questions will be addressed through answering the following operative questions.. 10.

(20) 1.. How are the three determinants of behavioral intentions: attitude, subjective norm,. and perceived behavioral control present in a NEST’s decision to teach English at the preschool level in Taiwan? 2.. What are the enablers or barriers to teaching English at the preschool level in. Taiwan? 3.. What policy implications can be made from understanding the determinants of. behavior intentions, enablers, and barriers?. 11.

(21) Chapter 2 Literature Review The following chapter will detail the literature surrounding this study. This chapter will begin with an introduction to the Theory of Planned Behavior, its surrounding concepts, and its relevant application in this study. This chapter will then discuss expatriates, NESTS, and job recruitment followed by a discussion of works surrounding Taiwan’s private ESL market.. 2.1 Analytical Framework Social psychologists have long sought to address why individuals choose to engage in certain behaviors. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985) provides a model for understanding the formation of people’s decision making processes. This study seeks to apply the Theory of Planned Behavior to the question of “why foreigners teach English at the preschool level in Taiwan?” In particular, what TPB variables are significant in the creation of the behavior intention to teach English in PPIs? Behavior intentions are assumed to encapsulate the motivational factors that influence certain behaviors, actions, or decisions. The stronger the intention, the more likely someone is to engage in an act. The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that behavioral intentions are the direct antecedents to a behavior (Ajzen, 1991). If an individual has a strong intention to teach in a PPI they will likely try to do so. The Theory of Planned Behavior is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Figure 1) (Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1991). Originally propagated by Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein, the Theory of Reasoned Action discusses behavior intentions which are under volitional control of an actor through an assessment of the two variables; attitude and subjective norms (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). 12.

(22) Figure 1 the Theory. of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). In regards to both the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Theory of Reasoned Action, ‘attitude’ refers to an individual’s positive and negative behavioral beliefs about an action, as well as an individual's outcome beliefs regarding said behavior. ‘Subjective norms’ refers to the perceived social pressure towards performing a certain action (Ajzen, 1988). In the event that an individual's attitude towards a behavior is positive, and normative pressures are pushing them towards a behavior, a behavior intention will likely be created. This is assuming a behavior is under an individual's volitional control. Not all behaviors are within complete volitional control of an individual. For example having a positive attitude, and a supportive social network does not always give one the ability to become a professional athlete. The Theory of Planned Behavior (Figure 2) was developed to address behavior intentions, while considering variables that are not entirely within a person's volitional control.. 13.

(23) The variable of perceived behavioral control was added to Theory of Reasoned Action creating the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1988; Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1991).. Figure 2 the Theory. of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2006). Perceived behavioral control relates to how difficult or easy performing a behavior is perceived as being. According to Ajzen (1985), perceived behavioral control is formed through a combination of past experiences and anticipated obstacles. Perceived behavioral control can also be influenced by access to the required resources in completing a task. The greater the resources an individual feels they possess (be them financial, physical, social, etc.) the greater the perceived control of a behavior (Ajzen, 1988; Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1991). Typically, intentions to perform actions, be it wearing condoms, job seeking behaviors, or teaching preschool, should be strong when individuals exhibit positive attitudes towards a task, are supported in their task by social groups, and perceive a strong degree of behavioral control (Ajzen, 1988).. 14.

(24) 2.1.1 Salient Beliefs Salient Beliefs, or Accessible Beliefs, are key to both the Theory of Planned Behavior. and its predecessor, the Theory of Reasoned Action. In layman's terms, Salient Beliefs are shared outcome ideas that surround a certain behavior (Ajzen 2006; Sutton et al. 2003). For example when considering rock climbing, ‘dangerous’ may be an idea that instantly comes to mind. Salient Beliefs are the beliefs of this nature which are shared within a large portion of the sample population. The Theory of Planned Behavior variables of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, consist of varying Salient Beliefs about the positive and negative outcomes of a behavior. When participating in any behavior one is thought to weigh the negative outcomes against the positive ones. The weights on this mental scale are Salient Beliefs. In The Theory of Planned Behavior, Salient Beliefs, are the immediate ideas associated with the behavioral outcomes, normative outcomes, and barriers or enablers to a particular behavior. Therefore, Salient Beliefs fall into three categories: outcome beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs (Sutton et al. 2003). Outcome beliefs are the shared expected outcome of a behavior; for example, being paid wages via employment. Normative beliefs are the shared perceived social outcomes of a behavior. Your doctor approving of you quitting smoking for example. And, control beliefs are the shared perceived enablers and barriers to the successful completion of a behavior. For example, your ability to afford a gym membership when attempting to lose weight. Salient Beliefs can be further organized into modal accessible beliefs, beliefs shared within a population, and personal accessible beliefs, beliefs believed to be individually based (Ajzen, 2002). In the case of NESTs teaching in Taiwan, a modal belief may be that it provides a comparatively high wage (Appendix: A), where as a personal belief would be “I’m too old to deal with children”. The methodologies for eliciting Salient Beliefs are discussed further in 15.

(25) Chapter Three of this study. This is a reverse TPB study. The behavior intention is always assumed to be positive as the entire sample has taught in a PPI. Therefore, this study focuses particularly on how the variables, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control were present in the formation of the preexisting behavior intention. Due to the Theory of Planned Behaviors extensive use in numerous topics, considerable meta-analysis has been conducted. Meta-analysis has concluded that TPB provides explanations for a wide range of behaviors (Ajzen, 1991; Armitage & Conner, 2001).. 2.2 The Theory of Planned Behavior This section will discuss the origins and applications of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Behavioral psychology has long sought to predict behaviors. A successful model in this endeavor has been the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1985) which demonstrates behavior intention through the measuring of three variables; attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1988). The model provided by the Theory of Planned Behavior has been effectively applied to a wide range of topics from condom use to smoking cessation (Godin & Kok, 1996); and, more relevant, regulatory violations. Studies have established that this theory is applicable both to fraudulent financial reporting in white collar businesses (Carpenter & Reimer, 2005) or failure to obey traffic regulations (Parker, Stradling, Reason, & Baxter, 1992). Although these studies differ greatly from the subject of preschool teaching in Taiwan, it is worth noting that the Theory of Planned Behavior is commonly applied to regulatory violations and other activities with potential negative externalities. This study addresses visa violations in regard to illegal work and illegal work place. 16.

(26) As of yet the Theory of Planned Behavior has not been utilized in measuring either NESTs in foreign countries, or preschool teachers in general. Still, The theory has been demonstrated to be applicable to the decisions of multiple nationalities to expatriate (Engle, Schlagel, Dimitriadi, Tatoglu, & Ljubica, 2015).. Engle et al.’s study (Engle, Schlagel,. Dimitriadi, Tatoglu, & Ljubica, 2015) discussed the motivations of expatriates from multiple backgrounds to seek employment or accept positions abroad. Although both studies deal with expatriates from different countries, this study varies in that it deals with those who have already moved abroad to work in unregulated ESL. The Theory of Planned Behavior has also been applied to job seeking behaviors of recently graduating students and ethnic minorities in temporary employment in the Netherlands (Caska, 1998; Van Hooft, Born, Taris, & Flier, 2003). Although many NESTs in Taiwan are recent graduates, ethnic minorities, and arguably temporarily employed, these studies differ as the deals with legal work in multiple careers. This study examined unregulated employment in PPIs. In conclusion, The Theory of Planned Behavior has been demonstrated as suitable for analyzing a plethora of human behaviors. This study contributed to the application of this theory in several ways. First this study addressed expatriates in Taiwan. Second this is the first time that this theory has been applied to unregulated teaching specifically. Furthermore this was the first time that this model had been applied to the employment choices of ESL teachers in East Asia. Finally this study applied the theory retrogressively through both qualitative and quantitative means, meaning that the behavior intention was always positive.. 17.

(27) 2.3 Expatriates, NESTs, and Job Recruitment Taiwan is a popular destination for ESL job seeking expatriates due to its sizable market. NESTs in Taiwan are a non-permanent migrant population, coming from a myriad of backgrounds; as such few comprehensive studies have focused specifically on them. This portion of the literature review seeks to analyze studies that have addressed the issue specifically and peripherally. Few academics have discussed NESTs’ career prospects in Taiwan.. One article. discussed the topic in detail. Lan (2011) establishes that English Teaching is a futureless job, typified by high turnover rates. Through interviewing multiple foreign workers at different levels of income from different high skilled jobs (as defined by 2006 Foreign Employment Service Act), Lan (2011) concludes that foreign teachers are valued as having native knowledge and not an achieved skill, yielding a situation of cultural ghettoization. The article contends that NESTs fall victim to unethical business practices, including withheld wages and denied benefits. These result from the extralegal nature of some buxiban work (Lan, 2011). Lan’s (2011) study also establishes that ESL teachers are recruited through private recruiters and employed at PPIs with a work permit provided through a buxiban (a private afterschool program). Although this study establishes the career prospects, pitfalls, advantages, and practices of both legal and illegal teachers in Taiwan from the perspective of NESTs; it does not address PPIs specifically. In relation to the TPB this study illustrates several of behavioral outcomes, or perceived outcomes (Ajzen, 1988), of ESL in Taiwan. These outcomes are labor abuses, diminished career prospects, and cultural ghettoization. While this study discusses behavioral outcomes, it stops short of discussing how these outcomes affect the decisions of NESTs to seek PPI employment.. 18.

(28) ESL recruitment in Taiwan relates to the perceived behavioral control of NESTs. The topic has been discussed in numerous studies. Recruitment practices are important in understanding the perceived behavioral control and subjective norms towards teaching English in PPIs. Jeon and Lee’s (2006) article conducted a comparative study of the ESL hiring practices of Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea, and China. The study concluded that Taiwan recruits ESL teachers through private agents, and not through a centralized government bureau (Jeon & Lee, 2006). This study however is refined only to public school teachers who do not teach English in PPIs. Wang & Lin’s (2013) study discussed the emphasis on professionalism in English teacher recruitment in Taiwan. The study concluded that, despite regulations mandating a minimum Bachelors in Education, and TESOL certification, schools in Taiwan often recruit those with a minimum of a Bachelor degree. Although this policy suggestion paper does not specifically address teaching in PPIs, it does highlight other extra regulatory practices in Taiwan's ESL market. Likewise, a lack of professionalism in hiring standards implies diminished barriers in regard to the variable perceived behavioral control. This study built upon this research by addressing the extent to which lax recruiting practices influence NEST’s decision making processes. Recruiting practices for PPIs (buxiban and PPI work) have only been addressed peripherally. Demonstrated by Lan (2011), one contacts a so called “Mr. Chen” who introduces you to a job which in turn provides you with work documents through a “buxiban”. Oladejo (2006) suggests that the main qualifier for teaching English is your skin color, with white being preferred. This argument is reinforced by a 2000 Taipei Times article which see private schools blame parental preference on race based hiring practices (Jan, 2000). Although ESL recruitment. 19.

(29) has been discussed by several academics, no studies have addressed the foreign teacher’s perspective on the matter. The procurement of wages, and the conflicts they create have also been discussed. Public schools offer a wage in the range of 50,000 to 70,000 NT a month (Jeon & Lee, 2006). A quick Google search of the topic reveals that payment for ESL teachers in Taiwan (including PPI teachers) is delivered through a monthly salary, or on an hourly basis, hourly wages range between 580 NT per hour to 750 NT per hour depending on numerous factors including experience, the location of the school, and the age of the students (Addis, 2014, What are English Teacher, 2016). These same websites establish that the average starting wage in preschools is 550-600 NT per hour. The wages received by NESTs in Taiwan are higher than the wages received by. nonnative English speaking teachers or NNESTs, creating a situation of low. motivation and resentment in NNESTs (Yeh, 2002). Yeh (2002) further argues that NESTs have greater fringe benefits than NNESTS. It is apparent that English teaching in Taiwan has been discussed peripherally in terms of the recruitment, wage, and fringe benefits. This study builds upon previous research by addressing how issues of wage, recruitment, and cultural ghettoization contribute to the TPB variables: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control.. 2.4 Government Policy, Taiwan’s private ESL market, and the Buxiban This section of the literature discusses parent perceptions about ESL, and the structural conditions that have created the PPI’s market. Parental perceptions and market forces contribute. 20.

(30) directly and peripherally to the perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm of NESTs in Taiwan. Understanding parental expectations of language learning in Taiwan is essential to understanding why a demand for NESTs exist at the preschool level. Three studies conducted by James Oladejo (2006), Chang Yuh Fang (2008), and a collaborative work by Hui-fang Shang, Robert Ingebritson, and Chen-Lin Tseng (2011) address the issue.. James Oladejo (2006). surveyed over 1,060 parents seeking to determine, which languages were preferred and at what age language learning should begin. Furthermore, he addressed the perceived negative consequences of learning English from a young age in in regards to acquisition of mother tongue, and effect on traditional culture. The study concluded that an overwhelming majority (95.3%) of respondents preferred English as their foreign language; introduced at an early age (32.7% in Kindergarten and 17.8% in grade one) (Oladejo, 2006). A similar study discusses parental attitudes concerning the implementation of Taiwan’s English Language policies. Chang’s (2008) study yielded telling results 94.7% of respondents consider English to be important. All the respondents started their children in English classes before the second grade (a year before government mandated period) with 67.3% starting in kindergarten (at the preschool level), indicating a clear disparity between government policy and parent’s needs (Chang, 2008) A final study establishes that parents see potential career and self-confidence value in learning English at progressively lower ages (Ingebritson, Tseng, & Shang, 2007). In regards to this research into ESL, several implications can be gathered through understanding parental expectations of the age in which English language learning should begin. First that parents expect English language learning to begin at an age earlier than government. 21.

(31) regulation, and second that despite government regulation, English language learning is occurring, creating a market. Conflict between the expectations of parents and government policy is derived not only from age expectations at the parental level, but perceived inequalities at the education policy level. Taiwan, as is the case with many East Asian developing countries, has an extremely rigorous standardized testing regimen (Oladejo, 2006). The competitive nature of this education system encourages parents to seek the best schools.. The Taiwanese government has. decentralized its school system in attempt to localize its curriculum, and this has had some unexpected consequences. As James Oladejo (2006) has established “all education policies are made by the central government, while local governments are primarily responsible for implementation” (Oladejo, 2006, pg.151). This means that less well funded schools may not be able to mobilize the same resources in English education. Taiwanese parents compensate for perceived shortcomings through the hiring of private institutions. In 2003 there were 3,306 private and public kindergartens in Taiwan. Many of the 1,948 private kindergartens were teaching English at least part time (Chou & Ching, 2012, pg. 120). A 2004 article reveals 50% of these schools were teaching English before the government mandated age and many in an immersion environment (Oladejo, 2006)*. The literature has thus far established a gap between government policy and parental expectations. It is clear that there is both a market for kindergarten ESL and a common practice of seeking PPIs to compensate for perceived shortcomings in government Language Planning Policy (LPP). This study builds upon this research by analyzing factors that push NESTs into filling the gap between parental expectations and government regulation through the teaching of. 22.

(32) English in PPIs. Likewise this study, addresses the extent to which parental expectations regarding language learning actually effect NESTs’ behavior decisions. The topic of private kindergartens in Taiwan has been widely discussed (Chou, 2014). It is established that ‘young learners’ education is a non-compulsory subject in Taiwan; largely dominated by privately owned schools (Chou, 2014). Chou (2014) demonstrates that 181,628 students attend 3,154 preschools in Taiwan. Oladejo (2006) claims that there are likely twice as many unregistered kindergartens as there are registered ones. Although these works address the nature of the kindergarten market in Taiwan, they do not address the perceptions of NESTs. Supplementary education in Taiwan is addressed in several texts. It is reported that buxibans help meet parental expectations based on credentialism (Chou & Yuan, 2011). And that buxiban demand is based on market demand (Chou, 2014). PPIs in Taiwan often mimic buxibans in general; with much of their education conforming to social pressures by providing English classes, and hiring un-vetted foreign teachers (Ching & Chou 2012, pg. 121). Although the topics of preschool, kindergarten, and private education have been specifically addressed, this study seeks to build upon the previous research in the following ways. While several articles have addressed parental perceptions and reactions to government kindergarten education policy, no study to date has assessed NEST reactions and interactions within the market. Likewise, although private education has been addressed in terms of buxibans (cram schools), no study has discussed the manifold manifestations of PPIs specifically; nor the motivations and lives of NESTs operating within them. Finally, this study builds upon previous research by discussing how parental perceptions and market forces influence the attitudes, subject norms, and perceived behavior control of NESTs.. 23.

(33) 2.5 Teachers Perceptions This study addresses the factors that create the behavior intentions of NESTs to take PPI jobs in Taiwan. There have been numerous studies discussing the perceptions of both NESTs and Non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs) in Taiwan. This study is unique in that it specifically focuses on NEST’s behavioral intentions to work at the preschool level. The majority of the studies concerning both native and non-native English speaking teachers were conducted in regard to the application of teaching strategies. A 2013 article analyzed the effectiveness of the collaboration between NESTs and NNESTs in a private Kaohsiung kindergarten (Chang, 2013). The opinions of NNESTs regarding government policy at the elementary level have been discussed. A study conducted by Ya-Chen Su (2006) interviewed ten ESL teachers in Tainan, sought to establish the perception of ESL teachers on government policy at the elementary school level. The teachers agreed that English should be taught at a young age as it creates greater listening and communicative skills (Su, 2006) but argued that the over emphasis on early language learning had the negative consequence of increasing the students work load. Both studies, while clearly addressing English teaching before the government mandated ages, failed to address the legality issue. Previous studies regarding teacher perceptions addressed the effectiveness of teachers, but not their qualifications, and presence in PPIs.. 24.

(34) Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Research Design This research employed a mixed methodology drawing from quantitative and qualitative sources triangulated through the Theory of Planned Behavior. As this is a study of the motivations of NESTs teaching in PPIs in Taiwan, it is the NESTs who are the primary focus of this study. This study surveyed NESTs who are presently or have recently (within the last 3 years) taught in a PPI in Taiwan. As the designated sample of research have all already demonstrated both, the behavioral intention, and actual behavioral control over teaching English at the preschool level in Taiwan, this study is retroactive in nature (Figure 3). Instead of determining which variables formed the behavior intentions to teach English in Taiwan, this study filtered NESTs’ responses through TPB variables.. 25.

(35) Figure 3 Research. Framework (Source: Author. Based on Ajzen, 2006). Data for this research was collected using three methods; through a pilot questionnaire of open ended questions designed to identify Salient Beliefs, through a primary questionnaire addressing the attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control of NESTs from differing nationalities, and finally through interviews with current, former, and prospective NESTs in Taiwan (Appendix: A&C). Research progressed in three interconnected phases (See Figure 4), first a pilot questionnaire was distributed to a small portion of the sample population in an effort to identify Salient Beliefs surrounding work in PPIs (Appendix A). This questionnaire was accompanied by a review of the surrounding literature and two preliminary interviews. Second a primary questionnaire was developed and distributed via snowball sampling (Appendix C). Simultaneously, eight more interviews were collected from NESTs in relation to emerging questionnaire and pilot study results. In the event that new findings arose, interviewees were contacted and asked for necessary clarifications. 26.

(36) Figure 4 Data. Collection Timeline (source: Author.). 3.2 Formative Research, Pilot Study Construction and Distribution As recommended by Ajzen (2006) this study proceeded with a pilot survey and two interviews to establish the Salient Beliefs surrounding English teaching at the preschool level by NESTs in Taiwan. The pilot survey was created according to standards established by previous scholarship (Ajzen, 2006). In order to establish Salient Beliefs, a simple ten question survey was constructed and distributed between November 15 and November 29 of 2016. As recommended, the survey featured open response questions related to each of the TPB variables: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 2006). Respondents came from a small portion of the proposed population (twelve individuals), and were asked questions eliciting Salient Beliefs. Surveys were distributed through purposive sampling to ESL teachers and then snowballed to one other teacher.. 27.

(37) 3.3 Interviews Nine semi-structured face to face and one Skype interview represent the primary data set for this study. Interviews are useful in the collection of qualitative data as it allows the researcher to probe and discover details regarding the teaching of English by NESTs at the preschool level in Taiwan. Interviews aid the researcher in avoiding non-respondents and obtaining details from interviewees, when further explanation is needed (Neuman, 2006). Interviews were also used as a measure for the establishment of Salient Beliefs. Ten interviews were conducted using a semi structured questionnaire designed to discover background information, Salient Beliefs, and details related to relevant TPB variables (attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control). Interview Questions were devised through the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior (2002). Ajzen's (2002) recommendations were useful in structuring the interview questions to fill all variables of The Theory of Planned Behavior. Further structuring was influenced and informed by previous application of TPB through qualitative measures (Klobas & Renzi 2008) which were refined according to the specific needs of this study. Interviews were conducted between December 2nd 2016 and January 31rst 2017, and were recorded on the interviewer's IPhone with guaranteed anonymity. Summarized transcriptions of the interviews can be found in the appendices of this study (Appendix C). Interviews built on each other in accordance to principles of grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 2009). As new information arose, previous interviewees were contacted, requesting clarification, developing a rich portrait of teaching in PPI’s in Taiwan. Respondents were first asked background questions related to the amount of time they had spent in Taiwan, employment history, education, and demographic factors. Once the. 28.

(38) interviewee was comfortable and talkative, questions were asked according to the pilot study and above mentioned guidelines provided by Ajzen (2006). Questions ranged from open ended questions, to specific questions related to Salient Beliefs established by the pilot study.. 3.4 Primary Questionnaire As the Subject of NESTs teaching at the preschool level in Taiwan is relatively understudied. Interviews were supplemented with a questionnaire hereafter referred to as the “primary questionnaire”. Descriptive statistics generated from the questionnaire aided the researcher in expanding interview conclusions to the general population of NESTs in Taiwan. Primary questionnaire construction took place under the guidelines recommended by Ajzen (2002). The questionnaires were based on unipolar 1-7 point Likert Scales seeking to identify attitude, subjective norms, behavioral control and intention. The questionnaire utilized the TACT (target action context and time) (Ajzen, 2002) in its display of questions. For example, “Teaching English in a Kindergarten in Taiwan for a school year”. It is worth noting that in regard to the time element this study is given a high degree of generality, meaning the time frame for exhibiting a behavior (in this case teaching at the preschool level) was assumed to be a year. This is because PPIs typically sign NESTs on a yearly contract (in accordance with the Taiwanese school year). Also, NESTs’ work visas, known as Alien Resident Cards (ARCs) require one to file for a new work permit after the completion a year. Questions were written to conform to Ajzen's designation of compatibility (2002); questions related to attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm conformed to the same TACT.. 29.

(39) 3.5 Methods of Analysis All three data collection methods, the pilot study, interviews, and primary questionnaire; were subject to complementary analytical approaches.. 3.6 Analyzing the Salient Belief Study Salient Beliefs are beliefs related to behavior and normative outcomes; as well as the barriers, and enablers that float around a particular behavior (Ajzen, 2006). The pilot study questionnaire was designed with ten questions with each TPB variable represented. Questions were worded to identify internal consistency. For example, when asked the positives of teaching kindergarten in Taiwan, some may cite working with kids, while others may view this as a negative. Through this measure this study was able to identify shared beliefs. Beliefs were chosen through an internal overlap of approximately 35%, meaning if a belief exhibited itself three times out of ten, it was examined further. Due to the open ended nature of questions, responses were organized according to trends. For example, age groups: “20 somethings” “people in their 20s” “ recent undergraduates” and “ people younger than 30” would be summed into “ people in their 20s”.. 3.7 Interview Analysis Interview data was generated in accordance to a partially grounded approach (Glaser and Strauss, 2009). Grounded Theory works with the creation of theories through the analysis of data. Inference emerges through simultaneous analysis of interview responses. Grounded theory is achieved through the gathering and simultaneous analysis of data. Interview results are allowed to influence follow up interviews as new trends come to light. Grounded theory relies on 30.

(40) comparative analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 1990) where interview data is allowed to influence the theory being studied, in this case, The Theory of Planned Behavior. With this is mind, during the interview process, when new Salient Beliefs arose they appeared in the following interview questionnaire. For example if dealing with child abuse is cited as an issue of deterrence by one teacher, the following interviewee would be asked “do you ever encounter child abuse in your workplace?” “If so, how does it affect your decision to teach English in a kindergarten in Taiwan?” Likewise, when possible previous interviewees were contacted to address new ideas that became relevant later in the study. The same principle is particularly applicable in the study of subjective norm; for example while some early interviewees were pushed into teaching a PPI by a recruiter, others revealed that they found their jobs through their social network. In the end, recruiters were viewed as untrustworthy and most teachers did not use them. Following the completion of interviews, results were organized and analyzed according to its respective TPB variable.. 3.8 Primary Questionnaire Analysis Eighty responses were received for the secondary questionnaire with five noted nonrespondents (who became nervous of their legal situation and the researchers intent). Results were analyzed through basic descriptive techniques. These results were then compared to the above mentioned interview and pilot study results, in an effort to reinforce assumptions drawn from each respective group of findings.. 31.

(41) 3.9 Data Coding Quantitative and qualitative data was coded according to its qualification as certain variables of TPB. Each TPB variable; attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control were given a category. Interview, and pilot belief responses were analyzed according to frequency and importance. While not yielding a statistically definitive answer to which variable is the most important in creating the behavior intention towards teaching English in a PPI in Taiwan; this method yielded a portrait of what these variables consist of, and an in depth look at how these variables are formed on the individual basis. Through use of the primary questionnaire, implications were drawn as to which extent the various Salient Beliefs and TPB variables are applicable to the larger populations of NESTs teaching at the preschool level in Taiwan.. 3.10 Sampling Interviews and pilot study respondents were sampled through purposive sampling followed by snowball sampling when available. Known members of the ESL community who have taught, intend to teach, or will teach kindergarten were sourced, vetted, and interviewed. In the event that interviews met a predetermined standard, the interviewee was asked to introduce the researcher to a friend who also taught English in a PPI in Taiwan. This study utilized snowball sampling based on the population of English teachers in Taiwan according to National Immigration Agency (NIA) 2011 statistics. As demonstrated by the NIA 2011 survey presented by Lan (2011), 29% of Americans and 27% of Canadians in Taiwan are female (Lan, 2011). This is out of a combined total population of 3,232 English Teachers (Canadians 1071 and Americans 2161). This trend extends to other expatriate groups.. 32.

(42) ⅓ of the expatriate population in Taiwan is female, therefore the survey results seemed to approximately fit this with 22.2% of respondents being female (This ill-fit is further discussed in limitations).. Two surveys were distributed face to face, while 83 were distributed through. social media based networks for snowball sampling. The following discusses the sampling procedure and justifications used during the pilot and primary questionnaire distribution. NESTs who work at the preschool level in Taiwan are arguably a “hard-to-reach” population (Marpsat & Razafindratsima, 2010 p.4). This population is likely small in number, physically indistinguishable from other foreign populations (students, entrepreneurs, travelers), works in illegal and sometimes stigmatized work, and often works at PPIs with dubious registrations. Considering the difficulties in surveying a population that is difficult to reach and potentially nervous to speak, this study utilized two sampling procedures; non probability purposive sampling, and anonymous snowball sampling. Non Probability purposive sampling was utilized through contacting known kindergarten teachers in Taiwan. All those contacted were known to teach kindergarten or have taught kindergarten within the last three years, and in possession of a Taiwanese Alien Resident Card, or Alien Permanent Resident Card. Possession of an APRC or ARC guarantees two things; a bachelor's level education and that the subject hails from a country that can legally teach ESL in Taiwan. Further non probability purposive sampling was utilized through advertisements placed on ESL recruitment Facebook pages requesting survey volunteers. Those who answered were screened according to the above mentioned criteria and surveyed accordingly. Trusted respondents were asked to employ our second method of sampling; snowball or chain sampling via the use of the social networking website Facebook. Snowball sampling has. 33.

(43) been demonstrated in to be effective in measuring deviant populations (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). Furthermore, internet based social network snowball sampling has been demonstrated as being useful in the surveying of hard to reach survey populations (Baltar & Brunet, 2012; Marpsat & Razafindratsima, 2010). The method is known to have having some pitfalls. Firstly, population surveys are limited to internet users, secondly social media is typically dominated by youth. Snowball sampling also has the tendency to skew the results towards socially active people (with larger friend bases). One particular problem, regarding this study is the propensity for foreigners who've been teaching in Taiwan longer, to know more teachers in PPIs. The most concerning pitfall of online snowball sampling is the high rate of non-respondents argued to be caused by the perception of e-mail being spam (Baltar & Brunet, 2012). This is exacerbated by the inability to adequately measure non respondents. Recommended measures (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981) were taken to ensure the quality of the respondents and the validity of the results. Candidates were screened according the following criteria (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981); respondents had to be holding an ARC, from a native speaking country, and demonstrating a passive knowledge of the market. Respondents found through the first link in the chain were people who were known to the researcher. Further respondents were sourced and vetted from known ESL recruitment Facebook pages. Finally, although the actual population of kindergarten teaching NESTs in Taiwan is unknown, responses were seen to be in approximate relation to the existing expatriate population (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981). Snowball sampling has been used successfully in numerous studies utilizing the Theory of Planned Behavior. Both deviant behaviors (Gu et al. 2009) and teachers (Underwood, 2012) have been sampled successfully. 34.

(44) Chapter 4 Data Analysis The following details and organizes the results of the pilot study, primary questionnaire, and interview data. Before delving into the individual variables; attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, this chapter first discusses respondent demographics.. 4.1 Populations measures The 80 primary survey respondents demonstrate a wide diversity in regard to NESTs teaching in PPIs in Taiwan. Respondents were 77.8% male and 22.2% female (See Figure 5).. Figure 5 Survey. Respondent Gender (Source: Author.). 35.

(45) The population was majority (81%) Caucasian with 9% of population being of Asian descent, 4% of African descent, 4% Hispanic, and 2% responding as other (Indian, Arabic etc., or mixed) (Figure 5).. Black 4%. Hispanic 4%. Respondent Ethnicity. Other 2%. Ethnicity origin (or race) please specify. Asian 9%. White or Caucasian Anglo European Italian American etc. Hispanic Asian or Taiwanese American Chinese European etc. Black or African American African European etc.. White 81%. Other. Figure 6Ethnicity. of Survey Respondent (Source: Author). Americans made up the largest portion of respondents at 59%, followed by Canadians 15%, British at 12%, South Africans at 10%, Australians 3%, and a lone Irish respondent at 1% (Figure 7). 36.

(46) Australia / New Zealand 3%. Ireland 1%. Respondent Nationality. United Kingdom 12% Canada 15%. United Kingdom United States. South Africa 10%. South Africa Canada Ireland United States 59%. Figure 7 Respondent Nationality 1. Australia / New Zealand. (Source: Author). NESTs had an average age of 31.6 years with notable older outliers being 47.5 years old (with the youngest respondents being 22.5 years of age) (See Figure 8). The mode age for NESTs in Taiwan was 27. Respondents spent an average of 6.5 years in Taiwan, with notable outliers of 18 years in Taiwan, and several scores of less than 6 months. The mode time spent in Taiwan was 7 years. Conversely the average NEST taught in a PPI for 3.9 years with a mode score of 2. Scores ranged between 16 years of PPI experience to less than six months.. 37.