俄羅斯聯邦形象塑造研究（2012-2016） - 政大學術集成

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(1)1. 國立政治大學外交研究所 Graduate Institute of Diplomacy College of International Affairs National Chengchi University. 碩士論文. Master’s Thesis 治. 政. 大. ‧ 國. 學. 立俄羅斯聯邦形象塑造研究（2012-2016） ‧. The Study of Russia’s Image-building (2012-2016). n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. i n U. C. v. h e n g cStarichkova hi Student: Anastasia Advisor: Hong-yi Lien. 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June, 2017.

(2) II. Acknowledgements I would like to express gratitude to my advisor Professor Hong-yi Lien（連弘宜） for his invaluable help throughout the whole research process. I appreciate Professor’s guidance, willingness to develop and structure all ideas appearing in my mind, and I hope that I would have a chance to cooperate with him in the future. I would like to thank my committee members, Professor Wu-Ping Kuo（郭武平） and Professor Ming Lee （李明） , for their constructive feedback, valuable advising, and for fascinating classes I had the honor of attending. I am very grateful to my parents, Sergey Starichkov and Svetlana Starichkova, who support. 治政 I am thankful to Inga Krupinova, who believed, I was大 eligible to apply for the Master’s 立 program and stayed by my side during the times of joy and sorrow. all my endeavors and share my love for Taiwan.. ‧ 國. 學. Special thanks to Gabby Chang（張倢禕）, the warm-hearted person and the talented specialist in Russian Studies, who agreed to proofread the Mandarin parts of the study, and to all. ‧. respondents, who participated in my sociological survey and sent me messages with their personal experience and suggestions.. y. Nat. sit. Finally, I dedicate my work to the blessed memory of my grandfather Sergey Seryogin,. n. al. er. io. who loved me and believed in me till the very end.. Taipei, Taiwan. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Anastasia Starichkova.

(3) III. Abstract Since the beginning of the 21st century, development of telecommunication and information technologies has resulted in the substantial expansion of media coverage, greater information accessibility, and sophistication of control over the information. Abundance of facts concerning any issue makes it multidimensional, provoking a plentitude of opinions. The image of a country is a succinct and ready-for-apprehension informational phenomena or entrenched perception of a country by foreign partners, which offers a particular expectation of its behavior, thus, it is one of the major factors influencing international cooperation. In addition, state image identifies a country’s political weight abroad and its status among other members of global community, including the capacity to defend national interests.. 政治大 strategic tasks for each contemporary government. Trustworthy international image speaks for a 立 The significance of the image-building is determined by the fact that it is one of the. country’s economic and cultural development and creates a formula of its success abroad and. ‧ 國. 學. within national borders, serves as a criterion of its stability and transparency. Recently Russia has experienced a substantial shift in its apprehension by the foreign public.. ‧. The particular study is focused on how global community perceived the Russian Federation from. y. Nat. 2012 till 2016, the period that correlated with the latest tenet of President Vladimir Putin.. sit. The research is focused on the origins of Russia’s international image along with the. al. er. io. evaluation of governmental attempts to enhance it and create transparency and mutual trust under. v i n C hthe Russian Federation how the world academia and media portray e n g c h i U and collected opinions among n. existing conditions, including the course of the country’s public diplomacy. The author analyzed. students, alumni, and professors of the National Chengchi University.. The paper aims to define the most distinctive factors, which form the image of the Russian Federation on the international arena and to elicit the fields of Russia’s public diplomacy, which lack attention the most, as well as to offer a roadmap for overcoming the existing misunderstanding..

(4) IV. 摘要自第 21 世紀初以來，由於電信與資訊科技的積極發展，使資訊取得更容易。於此同時，資訊來源的多樣性也使思想和觀點多元化。國家形象是簡潔且通俗易懂的概念，它包含一國的國内經濟、政治發展程度、國際體系上的地位、合作行爲、文化和歷史價值。此外，國家形象也把國家利益反映到國際舞臺，允許領導人與外國夥伴鞏固關係、創造共贏局面。該背景下，國家形象塑造是每個政府的迫切目標之一，蓋因和平且可靠的國際形象可以保證國家永續發展。最近幾年當中，俄羅斯的國際形象惡化。因此本論文的目標為研究自 2012 年至. 政治大作者研究俄羅斯形象塑造及公衆外交政策，分析俄羅斯聯邦與其他國家及國際組織立的正式文件、國際學者文獻理的推論，也解析臺灣國立政治大學來自不同國家學生、畢 2016 年中（現任總統普京的任職期間）的國際公衆對俄羅斯聯邦的態度。. ‧ 國. 學. 業生、老師與教授的立場。作者根據上述資料推論出俄羅斯國際形象受損的原因及國家公眾外交有哪些需要改善的部分；並以強調形象改革政策計畫中，哪些交流能夠使俄羅. ‧. 斯聯邦與國際社會關係暖化來作為結論。. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(5) 1. Table of Contents Chapter 1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 3 1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research................................................................... 3 1.2 Significance of the Topic and Research Objectives ..................................................... 5 1.3 Theoretical Framework............................................................................................... 7 1.4 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 14 1.5 Methodology and Empirical Basis ............................................................................. 28 1.6 Scope and Limit ........................................................................................................ 29 1.7 The Main Research Questions to Defense ................................................................. 31. 治政大 Chapter 2. The Historical Analysis and the Theoretical Background立 of Russia’s International Image .......................... 35. 1.8 Chapter Arrangement ............................................................................................... 33. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1 Historical Review of the Attitudes towards Russia from 1991 till 2015 ..................... 35 2.2 Characteristics of Russia’s Public Diplomacy: from Nascence till Present ............... 54. ‧. Chapter 3. The Contemporary International Image of the Russian Federation .................................................................................... 68. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 3.1 Russia in International Mass Media: Cold War Rhetoric vs. Constructive Cooperation ............................................................................................... 68 3.2 Public Attitude Towards Russian Government and Russian People ......................... 79. n. al. v. Chapter 4. The Main Issues of Image-Building in Russia n i ................................ 92 C. hengchi U. 4.1 Prospects of Russian Public Diplomacy and Roadblocks to a Successful Comprehension of the Country ..................................................................... 92 4.2 Possible Ways to Overcome Misunderstanding and to Develop an Auspicious Image ......................................................................................... 98. Chapter 5. Conclusion .................................................................................... 104 5.1. General Findings on Russia’s Image-building ........................................................ 104 5.2 Comparative Analysis: Image of Russia in Foreign Media vs. Image Among Foreign Populace ................................................................................... 106 5.3 Recommendations for Policy Reforms .................................................................... 109 5.4 Closing Remarks ..................................................................................................... 112. References...................................................................................................... 115 Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................... 128 Appendix 2 ..................................................................................................... 131.

(6) 2. List of Figures and Tables Table 1. Traditional and 21st Century Public Diplomacy Compared……………………..……9 Figure 1. The Nation Brand Hexagon…………………………………………………………11 Table 2. Models of Public Diplomacy………………………………………………………...17 Figure 2. Dynamics of Russia’s Image in Western Countries………………………………...48 Figure 3. The System of Public Diplomacy Agencies in the Russian Federation…………….63 Figure 4. Apprehension of Russia in the Northern hemisphere countries…………………….91 Figure 5. Russia’s gradual rejection of the hegemonic discourse of soft power……………...96. 政治大. Figure 6. Frequency of references to gastronomic brands in tourist advertisements………...100. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(7) 3. Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research Even a passive onlooker, who has no professional connections with international politics or diplomacy, must have noticed that, in comparison to the beginning of the 21st century, international situation has become more complicated and such complicacy is growing in scale and pace. In the globalized world of diversified ecological, social, humanitarian, economic problems, as well as of new challenges and threats, a certain state has little opportunity to promote one’s interests in isolation from the international community. In this regard, the international relations are progressing in versatility, intensiveness, and development dynamics. A number of issues which traditionally belonged to the sphere of domestic regulation, such as education and science,. 政治大. employment, crime prevention, healthcare, and regional economy have crossed mental and. 立. physical frontiers and serve as a crucial part of state-to-state agenda.. ‧ 國. 學. Development of telecommunication and information technologies resulted in the substantial expansion of media coverage, greater information accessibility, and sophistication of control over the information. Abundance of information concerning any issue makes it. ‧. multidimensional, provoking a plentitude of opinions. Thus, the process of positive image building. sit. y. Nat. and its sustaining on the international arena cannot avoid modification and complication either. Nevertheless, information abundance has its advantages. Media and communication facilities. io. n. al. er. availability, speeding-up informatization of society, and virtualizing of mass media simplify the. i n U. v. process of image building in general and national image building in particular, because it is a rich. Ch. engchi. scope of social activities for decision-makers.. The alternative side of information revolution1 is the acceleration of the decision-making process on all levels, including domestic and international spheres. Nowadays, a decision that authorities take must be not only correct, but also well-timed. In inter-state relations, where time pressure is a norm of life, the image of a country is a succinct and ready-for-apprehension informational phenomena or entrenched perception of a country by foreign partners, which offers a particular expectation of its behavior (Lyabukhov2, 2012). Or, to put it differently, a country image is the complete set of descriptive, inferential and informational beliefs about that given. 1. Information revolution is the Development of technologies (such as computers, digital communication, microchips) in the second half of the 20th century that has led to dramatic reduction in the cost of obtaining, processing, storing, and transmitting information in all forms (text, graphics, audio, video). The term describes current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial Revolution and frequently referred to as the trigger event for the post-industrial society formation. 2 Ilya Lyabukhov is a PhD in Political Science, an acting career diplomat of the Russian Federation. He has an experience working in diplomatic missions of Russia in the Commonwealth of Independent States and in the South Asia..

(8) 4. country (Martin, Eroglu, 1993). That is why international image is one of the major factors influencing international cooperation. In addition, state image identifies a country’s political weight abroad and its status among other members of global community, including the capacity to defend national interests. Under these circumstances, international image is a compilation of attitudes towards the country collected in different spheres of interaction. Smirnov, Kapustin, and Isaev3 (2012) structured the state image into several components: •. political – general description of a country’s political system based mostly on informal perceptions and judgements, like “In North Korea there is a totalitarian regime, while the USA is an advanced democracy”;. •. 政治大. economic – informal judgement by international public concerning economic development of a country, which could adhere some statistical data, such as “Cuba is not economically. 立. prosperous, but Canada is one of the developed states”;. related to resources – divided into natural and anthropogenic components. The former. ‧ 國. 學. •. implies the visual image of a country’s territory, landscape, natural resources etc., the latter •. ‧. includes infrastructure, historical sights, life in biggest cities, convenience of transport; social – characteristics of a country’s population, like the level of amity, education, their. Nat. sit. y. attitude towards government and other states, the level of bureaucracy.. io. er. The particular study is focused on how international public perceives the Russian Federation since the 2008 South Ossetian Conflict 4 and during the latest tenet of President. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Vladimir Putin started in 2012 till present. It is true that the international image of Russia was. engchi. fluctuating from negative to positive opinions throughout the history of the state, which appeared on the world map in 1991. However, there are some key events after which the appalling attitudes and Russophobia reach their climax, like it happened after the reunification of Crimea with the Russian Federation 5 , the following Ukrainian crisis, and the antiterrorist operation of Russian Aerospace Forces in Syria. The study also intends to research, whether all components of the. 3. Sergey N. Smirnov – Doctor of Sciences, a Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Director of Centre for Social Programme and Risk Analysis in National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia. Aleksey K. Kapustin – PhD. in Economics, Chief analyst of Centre for Social Programme and Risk Analysis in National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia. Nikolay I. Isaev - PhD. in Economics, Chief analyst of Centre for Social Programme and Risk Analysis in National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia. 4 Also referred as to the Russo-Georgian War. A conflict between Georgia, Russia and the Russian-backed selfproclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The war took place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations between Russia and Georgia, both formerly constituent republics of the Soviet Union. 5 The term is used likewise in the official rhetoric of the Russian Federation. The international community prefers to use the notions of ‘the annexation of Crimea’ or ‘intervention into Crimea’..

(9) 5. international image listed above provoke dissatisfaction with Russia in the eyes of international community. We have chosen the topic of the research after Russian Athletics team was not permitted to take part in 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.6 Russian sports authorities announced that the Russian side was ready to acknowledge the disqualification of the guilty athletes, but asked the Federation not to punish the whole team of ‘clear’ contestants and to abstain from joint punishment principle, especially when members of other national teams, who were accused of using prohibited substances and had served their punishment, were permitted to appear on track.7 In the meantime, Russian athletes, who had never violated the laws of the Olympic movement were deprived of the chance to perform on the Games.. 政治大. Surprisingly, but the event, which was created to stop war and violence, to build ties of friendship all over the world became an apogee of hatred and distrust, as not only members of the. 立. whole Russian national team, but also Russian volunteers and contest spectators were standing. ‧ 國. 學. under the cold shower of sarcasm and loathing from representatives of foreign states of different statuses and positions. Thus, the research is focused on the origins of Russia’s international image. ‧. along with the evaluation of governmental attempts to enhancing the image and creation of transparency and mutual trust under existing conditions.. y. Nat. io. sit. 1.2 Significance of the Topic and Research Objectives. n. al. er. The significance of the topic is determined by the fact that image building is one of the. i n U. v. strategic tasks for each contemporary government. Trustworthy international image speaks for a. Ch. engchi. country’s economic and cultural development and creates a formula of its success abroad and within national borders. Besides, positive international image of a political subject is one of the key factors of its beneficial dialogue with foreign counterparts, as well as a criterion of its stability and transparency. In the end of 1950s Kenneth Boulding (1956) claimed, image in general is a stereotype, which people create about themselves, basing not on facts, but on opinions, illusions, prestige, or understanding of historical heritage and visualization of future. Such phenomenon influences the. 6. On 17 June 2016, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) announced that Russia will not be permitted to field competitors in athletics due to the November 2015 doping-related temporary suspension of the All-Russia Athletic Federation (ARAF) from the IAAF, due to state-sponsored doping. Only Russian athletes tested mainly outside of the country under stringent measures would be allowed to participate in the 2016 Olympics. On 24 July 2016, the IOC rejected the IAAF and the World Anti-Doping Agency recommendation that if allowed Russian athletes could only compete as "neutral" athletes under the Olympic flag. Under Olympic Rules only nationally selected athletes could compete in the Olympics. Out of the 68 ARAF submitted athletes, only Darya Klishina was allowed to compete. 7 Tyson Gay (USA), Justin Gatlin (USA), Yelyzaveta Bryzhina (Ukraine), Marin Cilic (Croatia), Sun Yang (China), Yohan Blake (Jamaica)..

(10) 6. behavior of individuals, social groups, and whole nations. Applying the above-mentioned explanation to interstate realities, one may say that any judgement created within a society could be projected onto the outer space, where it shapes a common attitude towards it, often supplemented by local cultural superstitions. However, in the digital century, the image of a state in the minds of foreign people could be ‘edited’ in compliance with the interests of international political elites. In such case, the direct dialogue with the members of foreign communities, also known as public diplomacy8, gains importance among traditional tools of communication with the world. In the epoch of geopolitical turbulence and instability international image of the Russian Federation becomes a topic of interest for international relations (IR) academia, especially for Russian scholars and students of IR.. 政治大. Nowadays international audience perceives our country controversially: some still preserve. 立. warm attitude towards the state and its people, some stay indifferent and focus on the events in. ‧ 國. 學. their own country, and some express aggressive stance towards Russia. Unfortunately, the latter prevails with CNN’s9 accusations of President Putin’s attempts to influence the USA presidential. ‧. elections (Zegart, 2016) or to launch an aggressive attack on European countries (Shirreff, 2016). In Asia, we can find the same negative attitude. For example, Taiwanese media coverage,. sit. y. Nat. using resources from Western allies, describes Russia as a hostile environment for foreigners,. io. er. where one cannot trust the police and other authorities (TVBS 新聞網，2016). Under such circumstances, the international image of the Russian Federation needs critical. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. analysis for further understanding of the image building pitfalls and relevant practical steps for. engchi. their correction. Thus, the main research question of the particular study is what are the main problems which prevent the Russian Federation from the development of the positive impression among foreign audiences; and is the image of Russia directly correlated to its foreign and domestic policy? The aim of the paper is to define the most distinctive factors which form the image of the Russian Federation on the international arena and to elicit the fields of Russia’s public diplomacy, which lack attention the most.. 8. Public diplomacy (PD) is a notion introduced by an American diplomat Edmund Gullion in the mid-1960s. PD is a strand of state relations with foreign audiences shaping their attitude towards a particular country, which is exercised via information activities, open exchange of ideas, interests, multiple educational and cultural exchange programs etc. 9 The Cable News Network (CNN) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. By April 2016, a CNN executive officially described the channel as "no longer a TV news network" and instead as "a 24-hour global multiplatform network. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories..

(11) 7. The main research objectives are to: 1. explore how the image of the Russian Federation had been changing since the dissolution of the USSR up through the beginning of Putin’s latest office in 2012; 2. identify the main features of Russia’s public diplomacy; 3. summarize the current public attitude towards Russia on the international arena; 4. define the spheres of international cooperation or domestic development which provoke concern of foreign audiences; 5. offer the blueprint for Russia’s successful image-building and a better understanding of her policy abroad.. 1.3 Theoretical Framework. 政治大. The given paper aims at determining the correlation between the foreign policy, domestic. 立. policy line of the Russian Federation, persuasion technologies used by international mass media. ‧ 國. 學. and the impression they leave on global public, which further shapes the attitude towards the country and its people. In order to exercise the research, theoretical framework of the study bases. I.. ‧. on five variables.. Public diplomacy. sit. y. Nat. The first usage of the notion of public diplomacy (PD) dates back to 1965, when the US diplomat Edmund Gullion defined it in the pamphlet of the Edward R. Murrow Center at Tuft’s. io. n. al. er. University Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy (Badie, Berg-Schlosser, Morlino, 2011; p.. i n U. v. 1269). Public diplomacy was referred as “the influence of public attitudes on the formation. Ch. engchi. and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations beyond traditional diplomacy…[including] the cultivation by governments of public opinion in other countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with those of another…(and) the transnational flow of information and ideas”. In comparison to traditional state-to-state diplomacy, which is aimed at engaging into negotiations, meetings and communication only with the counterparts’ authorities and official representatives, which are rarely revealed to general public, the public diplomacy attempts to foster positive relations and cooperation between government officials of a country with the public of another country. Nicholas J. Cull (2009) emphasizes that public diplomacy approach draws influence through the selected tools or organizations for establishing cordial relations. The essential instrument incorporated in public diplomacy efforts is media. Media can affect people’s thoughts and perceptions significantly..

(12) 8. He also sets out the main components of public diplomacy (Ibid.; p. 10): 1. Listening is an actor’s attempt to manage the international environment by collecting and collating data about publics and their opinions overseas and using that data to redirect its policy and PD approach; 2. Advocacy is an actor’s attempt to manage the international environment by undertaking an international communication activity to actively promote a particular policy, idea or that actor’s general interests in the minds of the foreign public; 3. Cultural diplomacy is an actor’s attempt to manage the international environment through making its cultural resources and achievements known overseas and/or facilitating cultural transmission abroad. This work often overlaps with cultural. 政治大. exchanges, but these two terms must be distinguished;. 4. Exchange diplomacy is an actor’s attempt to manage the international environment. 立. by sending its citizens overseas and reciprocally accepting citizens from overseas for. ‧ 國. 學. a period of study and/or acculturation;. 5. International broadcasting (news) is an actor’s attempt to manage the international. ‧. environment by using the technologies of radio, television and Internet to engage with foreign publics.. sit. y. Nat. According to Hocking (2005) public diplomacy obtains several functions: 1. influential – orientation of the public diplomacy on changing people’s mindset to form. io. n. al. er. positive attitude of the foreign audiences towards goals and progress of the domestic. i n U. and foreign policy implementation by a particular state;. Ch. engchi. v. 2. communicational or informational – the ability of the public diplomacy to deliver the initial message to the recipient audience; 3. relational – the ability of PD to provoke personal attitude among the members of the foreign audience; 4. promotional – the ability of the public diplomacy to improve a country’s image among international public; 5. convincing – the ability of the policy to persuade the target audience to freely enter into the dialogue with the PD creator. II.. New public diplomacy. The “new public diplomacy” is a relatively new trend in the framework of public diplomacy, representing the way of communicative impact on foreign audiences through Web 2.0 technologies (social networks, blogs, video sharing, etc.)..

(13) 9. The emergence of public diplomacy in the second half of the 20th century originated governmental and scholarly discourse during the following decades and was eventually superseded by the paradigm of the new public diplomacy in the early 21st century. According to experts and observers (Pamment, 2012), globalization and new media landscape challenged traditional understanding of international relations, as solely the business of acting diplomats and governmental entities, partially devolving the right of communicating foreign policy into the hands of non-governmental structures. Nowadays, diplomacy is increasingly accountable to public debate, interest-group lobbies, and new ways of assessing influence over international agenda. The new public diplomacy is dialogical, collaborative, and inclusive. It represents the shift away from ‘broadcasting’ models and makes use of social media to establish two-way engagement with the public.. 政治大. 立. Gyorgi Szondi (2008; p. 11) listed differences between the public diplomacy and the. ‧ 國. Diplomacy. sit. y. Conflict, tensions between Peace states Political and economic To achieve political change in interest promotion to create target countries by changing receptive environment and behavior positive reputation of the country abroad Building and maintaining Persuasion, managing publics relationships, engaging with publics One-way communication Two-way communication (monologue) (dialogue) PD based on scientific Very little, if any research where feedback is also important Ideologies Ideas Interests Values Information Collaboration ‘General’ public of the target Segmented, well-defined nation; publics + domestic publics; Sender and receivers of Participants messages Old and new media; often Traditional mass media personalized Sponsored by government Public and private partnership. io. al. n. Strategies Direction of Communication Research. Message Context. Target Audiences (Publics). Channels Budget. Diplomacy. er. Nat. Goals. 21st Century Public. Traditional Public. ‧. Conditions. 學. new public diplomacy in nine spheres.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Table 1. Traditional and 21st Century Public Diplomacy Compared (Szondi, 2008).

(14) 10. One of the distinguishing features of the new PD is its interconnectedness with the term ‘soft power’ formulated by Joseph Nye at the end of the Cold War. It is an ability of an actor to realize its interests on the international arena, for its culture is rather more attractive than its military or economic leverage (Nye, 2004). In addition to the previous factors, Joseph Nye (Ibid.) has ascertained three dimensions of the public diplomacy. They stem from the quality of the information communicated to the target audience of the policy. 1. Regular relationship. This dimension implicates clarification of positions and actions in a state’s foreign policy to the counterparts and their nations. 2. Strategic communication. Focused discussion of the highest priority issues.. 政治大. 3. Long-term communication building international ties with people responsible for the decision-making process in foreign states. Such ties-creation is not limited by the. 立. communication with acting career diplomats, authorities, leaders of popular movements. ‧ 國. 學. and cultural ambassadors. The investment into the future amicable relations environment could be done via scholarships, exchange programs, seminars, conferences, and advanced. Nation-branding. sit. y. Nat. III.. ‧. training courses.. As a consequence of globalization, all countries are competing with each other for the. io. al. er. attention, respect and trust of investors, tourists, consumers, the media, and the governments of. n. v i n C h of many countries During the latest decade governments e n g c h i U started to use unconventional. other nations. A powerful and positive nation brand provides a crucial competitive advantage.. methods and tools to manage their reputations. In many cases, governments now hire public relations firms and apply brand management theory, which was formerly the domain of corporate communications departments and business-school seminars. Kerr and Wiseman (2013; p.354) define nation branding as “the application of corporate marketing concepts and techniques to countries, in the interests of enhancing their reputation in international relations.” Branding efforts have branched out beyond simple efforts at attracting tourism. States now hire expertized companies to help them launch sophisticated branding campaigns aimed at luring foreign investment, facilitating trade, improving private-sector competitiveness, or even securing geopolitical influence. As Dinnie (2008) notes, nation-branding is a complex and controversial phenomenon: complex, for it encompasses multiple disciplines beyond the limited realm of conventional brand.

(15) 11. strategy and controversial, because it is a highly politicized activity that generates frequently conflicting viewpoints and opinions. The notion arises from the relative concept of ‘brand’. Doyle (1992) gave his definition to the brand, claiming that a successful brand is a name, symbol, design, or some combination, which identifies the ‘product’ of a particular organization as having a sustainable differential advantage. Nevertheless, the brands do not exist in vacuum, thus, increased cooperation of global community contributed to the appearance of the nation brand. As Simon Anholt10 (2013) puts it, the nation brand is the sum of people’s perceptions of a country across six areas of national competence: tourism, exports, governance, investment and immigration, culture and heritage, people. Together, these areas make the ‘Nation Brand Hexagon’.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1. The Nation Brand Hexagon, Anholt (2000). Retrieved November 20, 2016 from Anholt – GfK Nation Brands Index, http://nation-brands.gfk.com/ In contrast to public diplomacy, the nation-branding accentuates a country’s identity, reflects its aspirations, but could not move beyond the margins of existing social realities. Nationbranding only projects national identity onto the international level and tries to make its image acceptable abroad, while public diplomacy creates a smooth environment for international relations in different spheres of cooperation. To put it differently, a good ‘marketing’ strategy of. 10. Simon Anholt is an independent policy advisor who has worked to help develop and implement strategies for enhanced economic, political and cultural engagement with other countries. He is the founder and publisher of the global annual research studies: Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brands Index, Anholt-GfK Roper City Brands Index and Anholt-GfK Roper State Brands Index, three major surveys which use a panel of 30,000 people in 25 countries to monitor global perceptions of 50 countries, 50 cities and the 52 States of the Union..

(16) 12. a state cannot solve problems caused by inconsistent foreign policy and premature public diplomacy, while it rather creates a beautiful wrapping for selected course, than a policy itself. 4. International image of a country The image building as the targeted perception management, which now has been enriched with other functions and transformed into the public diplomacy, has accompanied humankind from the advent of its evolution. However, the earliest lines of discourses about public images belong to the scholarly of public relations and political studies, and the notion of ‘image’ has become a subject for studies only in the first half of the 20th century, when the aftermaths of both World Wars uncovered the cost to be paid for creating, promoting and spreading an ‘image of an enemy’ (Ayvazyan, 2010).. 政治大. Zamyatin (2003; p.93) defined political and geographical image of a country as “compaction and concentration of leading characters, symbols and features of individual. 立. countries, regions or political and military alliances in political terms”.. ‧ 國. 學. Nurtazina, Zhumashov, Tomanova (2014) add that image is a purposefully created concept granting political object (person, organization, country, etc.) certain social and. ‧. political values and promoting more emotional perception.. Many of the works dedicated to the concept of international image have a conceptual focus.. sit. y. Nat. For example, Kunczik (1990; p.44) elaborates that “an image of a nation constitutes the totality of attributes that a person recognises (or imagines) when he contemplates that nation.”. io. n. al. er. The scholar proceeds his research with the idea that such image presupposes three analytically distinguishable components: I. II. III.. Ch. engchi. a cognitive component relating to what we know;. i n U. v. an affective component relating to how we feel about the nation; an action component that relates to actual behavior towards the nation. Meanwhile, with the development of international society structure, globalization. acceleration, and the spread of modern media societies marketing and social psychology have devoted some attention to the constitution and effects of country images from their fields’ perspectives. Alexander Buhmann (2016; p. 16) presented the four-dimensional model (4D Model) of the international image of a country, which is “a subjective stakeholder attitude towards a nation and its state, comprising specific beliefs and general feelings in a functional, a normative, an aesthetic and an emotional dimension.” Notwithstanding the fact, that IR scholars agree on international image’s sociological components, there is no widely accepted model and measurement instrument available. That is.

(17) 13. why the concept of international image of a country is as controversial and multilayered, as the plurality of opinions and beliefs it consists of. 1. People-to-people diplomacy11 With the expansion of transport infrastructure all over the globe costs of shipment and travelling relatively decrease, and the variety of the means of transportation strikes with abundance. Computerization of education and its internationalization makes it affordable and accessible worldwide. Not least, visa regime among the certain states has been simplified or even denounced. All in all, nation borders became more transparent, travelling abroad is now not only a prerogative of the rich, and many people are now able to speak the most widely spoken languages, like Chinese, English, Spanish, Arabic.12 The rise of peoples’ exchange gave rise to the term people-to-people diplomacy.. 政治大. The US Center for Citizen Diplomacy (2016) defines the term as follows: “citizen. 立. diplomacy is the concept that every global citizen has the right, even the responsibility, to. ‧ 國. person interactions.”. 學. engage across cultures and create shared understanding through meaningful person-to-. ‧. Federal Agency for Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 13 Affairs, Compatriots Living Abroad and International Humanitarian Cooperation of the Russian Federation. sit. y. Nat. “Rossotrudnichestvo” (2016) offers its own rendering: “People-to-people diplomacy is the range of multifaceted activities aimed at cooperation with the civil society of foreign states for. io. n. al. er. expansion of a country’s international links. The tools of such diplomacy include twin-towns. i n U. v. and sister-cities contacts, sociopolitical movements, and international non-governmental organizations.”. Ch. engchi. Unofficial contacts like in the former definition, or the structuralized exchange, like in the latter, they both imply face-to-face personal contacts, which makes diplomacy more approximate to general publics. Some scholars are sure (Walker, Gaynor, 2014), nations that invest in people-to-people diplomacy are better positioned to reap the awards of the information economy. With advancements in communications technologies, nations would be wise to bring their citizens into the fold, particularly through international exchanges in fields like entrepreneurship, science and technology.. 11. Also known as the ‘citizen diplomacy’ Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2016. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. 13 The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization formed during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Nine out of the 15 former Soviet Republics are member states, and two are associate members (Ukraine and Turkmenistan). Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008, while the Baltic states (Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia) refused to participate. 12.

(18) 14. To put it in a nutshell, people-to-people diplomacy could unleash a new wave of innovation and economic growth in the century of global transfusion.. 1.4 Literature Review I. Public Diplomacy a) Public Diplomacy Public diplomacy (PD) is a fairly common subject of academic research in Western schools of international relations, that is why the quantity of publications on this topic is abundant. PD is defined in different ways by different scholars, but the broad understanding of the term used in its birthplace – the USA is used to describe “the government’s efforts to conduct. 政治大. foreign policy and promote national interests through direct outreach and communication with the population of a foreign country” (Nakamura, 2010; p.1).. 立. Robert S. Fortner in the book entitled “Public Diplomacy and International Politics: The. ‧ 國. 學. Symbolic Constructs of Summits and International Radio News” (1994; p. 37) names language as the main tool of the public diplomacy. Since the end of the World War I linguistic constructs. ‧. allowed to “conjure up” images in response to either stimuli, or evocative thinking. In his opinion, the wording of the USA President Woodrow Wilson’s “Fourteen Points” was the key element in. sit. y. Nat. communicating ideas of peace settlement and foundation of the League of Nations. Furthermore,. io. public diplomacy.. n. al. er. the invention of radio facilitated the development of propaganda, which later outgrew into the. i n U. v. Nevertheless, in contrast to propaganda and information warfare PD is not designed for. Ch. engchi. destroying the adversary’s moral by psychological means, so that the opponent begins to doubt the validity of his beliefs and actions (Ellul, 1973). Thus, “Making Diplomacy Work: Intelligent Innovation for the Modern World” (Hare, 2015) distinguishes the aims of public diplomacy as follows: •. to differentiate one’s country from others;. •. to increase people’s familiarity with one’s country via accessing information about it through global communication systems;. •. to engage with overseas publics;. •. to project a clear message to overseas public for promoting common understanding of international issues..

(19) 15. Engagement and communication with foreign general public, according to Nye (2004), is exercised on the three levels: •. Regular relationship (clarification of positions and actions in a state’s foreign policy to the counterparts and their nations);. •. Strategic communication (discussion of the highest priority issues);. •. Long-term communication (building international ties with people responsible for the decision-making process in foreign states.). Supporting such position and pointing out that PD is the tool lying beyond the borders of traditional state-to-state diplomacy, Malone (1988) claims that the inevitable condition to understand others is to comprehend the motives, culture, history, and psychology of other nations. 政治大. through dialogue. Recognition via feedback from foreign public is important for public diplomacy to be successful, but it should be coupled with a certain amount of positive feelings. 立. and a great deal of relevance to prospective partners.. ‧ 國. 學. Within the scope of a positive feedback creation, Sussman (2010; p. 24) comes to the conclusion that public diplomacy is “an image-building tool, designed for the purpose of helping. ‧. to improve negative public opinion abroad”, and it is the task for decision-makers to tame the informational flaws and utilize cultural resources, so that they would work for the national interests.. Nat. sit. y. Although, public diplomacy could also be an interpretative tool. The 2013 Foreign Policy. io. er. Concept of the Russian Federation proclaims “[o]ne of priorities of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation is the information of international general public regarding official positions. n. al. i n U. v. of the Russian Federation towards main international issues, foreign policy initiatives and. Ch. engchi. activities of the Russian Federation, the plans and processes of internal socioeconomic development, and scientific and cultural achievements. Russia would be attaining objective perception by the World community with the help of public diplomacy mechanisms, using the capabilities of modern information and telecommunication technologies.” b) New public diplomacy Elaborating on the 21st century vision of PD, Zaharna, Arsenault, and Fisher (2013) recognize the complexity of the interconnected world we live in, where many challenges straddle borders and continents. Development of telecommunications created multi-hub, multi-directional frameworks that link communities around the world. As a result, public diplomacy adopts an approach based on cooperation and collaboration with these interconnected communities, while relational strategies become a core imperative for PD. The authors called this phenomenon the “connective mindshift”..

(20) 16. According to Potter (2009; p. 39), the environment in which public diplomacy takes place changed radically, which resulted in the emergence of the new public diplomacy. The rethinking of the concept during the past decades was due to: •. the increased importance of public opinion;. •. the spread of democracy throughout the world;. •. the rise of a more intrusive and global media;. •. more diaspora communities;. •. a broadened definition of security;. •. increased global transparency brought about by advances in communications and the related phenomenon of a more activist civil society;. 治政 • an alteration to the definition of state power. 大立 Under such close relations between the concept in question with social affairs, Snyder. the rise of a global culture leading to a reflexive desire to protect cultural diversity;. 學. ‧ 國. •. (2013) states that at the core of PD lies a paradox: public diplomacy is fundamentally a creative endeavor and depends on creative people using creative tools, which are applied to achieve. ‧. essentially political ends. To reach public audiences it needs to harness the art, languages, the academy, journalism, civil society, the Internet – nearly everything that is not connected to state. sit. y. Nat. authorities.. al. er. io. Though, Paul Sharp (2009) denies contradiction between traditional diplomacy and the. n. public diplomacy and its new version. As far as he is concerned, new PD may pose a challenge to. Ch. i n U. v. certain conceptions of diplomacy, and even to certain types of diplomats, but it does not pose an. engchi. existential challenge to diplomacy per se. In other worlds, two phenomena are relative in core mission and stimuli. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in the series of pamphlets entitled “Better Policies” (Promoting Green and Inclusive Growth in Canada, 2016) has touched upon seven objectives for the new public diplomacy: •. attract investments and mutually beneficial science and technology collaboration;. •. to encourage beneficial immigration;. •. to increase tourism;. •. to promote scholarly exchanges on different academic levels (students, professors etc.);. •. to promote good governance through the rule of law, respect for diversity, accountable and transparent government;. •. to create support for international trade;. •. to ensure a country’s security policy;.

(21) 17. •. to promote national identity and reflect it onto international audiences. Upon the diversity of objectives and functions, one may trace that the new public. diplomacy is active on three levels or models (Kelley, 2009; p.80): information, influence, and involvement. Russian scholar Dolinsky (2011) explicated Kelley’s contention and connected the models of PD with communication styles. As a result, he detects which model is oriented on reaction, and which model preoccupies preemptive actions from policy-makers.. Communication style Timeframe. Advocacy of Interests Model Information Influence Transparent Propagandistic Long-term/ shortLong-term/ shortterm term Reactive Proactive. Consultative Model Involvement Transparent Long-term. Reactive/ Proactive 政治大 Table 2. Models of Public Diplomacy (Dolinsky, 2011) 立. Orientaton. Since 2004 the digital information has become the vital part of the new public diplomacy,. ‧ 國. 學. thanks to Web 2.0 technologies (Marchukov, 2014), for a user gained an opportunity not only to read text materials, but also to express one’s opinion concerning their contents via leaving a. ‧. comment or ‘like’ or ‘dislike’ buttons. The named technologies gave rise to nascent social-. y. Nat. networks, videoblogging, which later provided for Public Diplomacy 2.014 origination.. sit. The new approach to PD envisaged usage of social networks, blogs, mobile game. al. er. io. applications involvement in the foreign policy tasks realization, especially in the counterterrorism. n. v i n Taking into account all shifts inC international perception, the role of global society h e n grelations hi U c in political agenda, and technologies development, the new public diplomacy comprises several operations (Glassman, 2008).. groups of actors which play a decent role in shaping international image of a state (Shaduntz, 2014):. 14. •. individuals;. •. non-governmental organizations;. •. non-commercial organizations;. •. media;. •. states;. •. inter-governmental organizations;. •. transnational corporations.. The term Public Diplomacy 2.0 was introduced in 2008 by James K. Glassman, the then US Under Secretary of State in his speech entitled “Public Diplomacy 2.0: A New Approach to Global Engagement”.

(22) 18. c) Soft Power Power is an essential element of human existence and one can find signs and manifestations of power in every dimension of social life, from interpersonal relations through economic transactions, to cultural or political disputes. Power has a variety of forms and features. Professor Joseph Nye developed the concept of soft power in 1989, when he was writing the book “Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power” (1990), in which he separated the state power into two strands – ‘hard power’ and ‘soft power’. In “Soft power: The means to success in world politics” (2004) he describes the soft power, as appealing to other’s values, interests and preferences which can, in certain circumstances, replace the dependence on carrots and sticks15.. 治政 violence and force. Persuasion, example, seduction, and myth: 大 these are the resources of soft power 立convince or persuade others to follow your example, to want (Pallaver, 2011). It is being able to A state, an organization or a single person can exercise power with means other than. ‧ 國. 學. what you want, rather than coercing them. Soft power is about a world in which international institutions matter, in which war is not the only way to settle conflicts and in which the ones to. ‧. succeed are the most powerful, in terms of natural, economic and financial resources and are not necessarily the best equipped.. Nat. sit. y. Soft power has several instruments, which help to exert influence and obtain ideas for the. er. al. international institutions (if a country uses institutions and follows rules that encourage. n. •. io. policy creation (Kondo, 2015):. Ch. i n U. v. other countries to channel or limit their activities in ways it prefers, it will not need as many costly carrots and sticks); •. engchi. culture (when a country’s culture includes broad and widely perceptible values and its policies promote values and interests that others share, it increases the probability of obtaining its desired outcome because of the relationship of attraction and duty that it creates);. •. economic resources (although economic power is traditionally believed to be the tool of hard power, some economic values, like consumption products of good quality and design, or intangible markers, like living standards, the quality of healthcare and life expectancy. 15. The "carrot and stick" approach (also known as "carrot or stick approach") is an idiom that refers to a policy of offering a combination of rewards and punishment to induce behavior. It is named in reference to a cart driver dangling a carrot in front of a mule and holding a stick behind it. The mule would move towards the carrot because it wants the reward of food, while also moving away from the stick behind it, since it does not want the punishment of pain, thus drawing the cart. The idiom is used in the field of International Relations to describe the realist concept of 'hard power'. The carrot can stand for tax cuts or other benefits, the stick can stand for the use of (psychological) violence and threats by the government..

(23) 19. may induce public interest to a particular country and advance its standing among other states); •. political values and policies (domestic or foreign policies that appear to be hypocritical, arrogant, indifferent to the opinion of others or based on a narrow approach to national interests can undermine soft power). To understand the key drivers behind soft power better and how countries accumulate it. over time, the variables that define soft power are organized into three major categories (Ernst & Young, n.d.): •. global image (a measure of a country’s global popularity and admiration, especially that of its culture. Countries possessing more global admiration have far more soft power. 政治大. influence in the world; variables that reflect a country’s global image include its export of media goods, the popularity of its language, the number of Olympic medals it has. 立. earned, the number of its citizens who are global icons and the number of its companies. ‧ 國. •. 學. that are globally admired);. global integrity (measures how much a country adheres to an ethical or moral code; the. empower their people and treat their neighbors with respect);. Nat. y. global integration (gauges how interconnected a country is with the rest of the world;. sit. •. ‧. world respects countries that protect their citizens, uphold political and social freedoms,. the number of people who come to visit, study or live in a country and how well a country. io. n. al. er. is able to communicate with the world are the key components behind a country’s. Ch. i n U. v. connectivity with the rest of the globe and its subsequent ability to wield influence).. engchi. In addition to the mentioned postulates Andrey Bobylo (2013) gives an important remark that the variety of initiatives and projects should receive the substantial financial support and be of a medium or large scale, lest al the efforts of soft power implementation fail. d) Smart Power The term ‘smart power’ was first introduced by Joseph Nye, as he clams, in 2003 meaning “…smart strategies that combine the tools of both hard and soft power” (Nye, 2009). Suzanne Nossel (2004) is also thought to be one of the scholars, who coined the term. In her rendering, smart power is “an agenda that marshals all available sources of power and then apply it in bold yet practical ways to counter threats and capture opportunities”. Proceeding with the smart power elaboration, Nye (2011) explains that its narrative for the 21st century is not linked to maximizing power or hegemony. The strategy seeks to combine resources of all types into successful strategies in the new context of power diffusion (p. 208). In the new IR background the smart power strategy could provide the answers to five questions:.

(24) 20. •. what goals or outcomes are preferred? (the answer to this question implicates setting priorities which would structure trade-offs and to understand relations between tangible possessions goals and general structural goals);. •. what resources are available and in which contexts? (understanding of the resources availability and the availability modification in different situations);. •. what are the positions and preferences of the targets of influence attempts? (an accurate view of the capabilities and proclivities of potential opponents);. •. which forms of power behavior are most likely to succeed? (in a given situation, which tactics, i.e. hard power, co-optive behavior of agenda setting, persuasion, attraction, or their combination would succeed at reasonable time and cost);. •. 政治大. what is the probability of success? (analysis of eventual time and costs needed, how the probability of success would affect consequences).. 立. In sum, the smart power is the synonym of the rightful, efficient, exemplary policy, which. ‧ 國. 學. has interdisciplinary understanding of the conditions on the international arena, that is why it gains popularity among academics and decision-makers (Chikharev, 2011).. ‧. The smart power strategy is not a distinguishing feature of one type of IR actors, for either states, or intergovernmental organizations voiced their support to the named power stratagem.. y. Nat. sit. Mikhnevich (2015) argues that smart power affects international politics within the scope of. al. er. io. contextualized collective cognition and comprehension. In that case the states are in critical need. n. to influence other nations to preserve one’s identity. Under such conditions, smart power is an additional factor of the enforced nowadays.. v i n international institutionalization, Ch engchi U. which one may witness. Thus, the scholar defines four areas of smart power application (Ibid; p. 106): •. opposition to the competitive actors’ influence;. •. increase of influence on competitive actors;. •. increase of influence on non-competitive actors;. •. increase of influence within IR system/subsystem.. Notwithstanding the increasing role of trans border cooperation and global internationalization, society development dynamics and decision-making process are formed under the stimulus of the ‘path dependence’ effect. This effect could be understood as “a limitation of choice existing at the moment of speaking, due to historical experience” (Nort, 2010; p.83). The ‘path dependence’ effect is strongly connected with the stable character of values existing in a community and with the ranking of information flows which would affect the policy.

(25) 21. creation. In sum, the impact of smart power influence is higher when the policy is implemented into the environment with identical cultural codes and social values. II. International Image of a Country a) International image Nowadays each country in the world is willing to enhance, reverse, adapt or otherwise manage its international reputation. In the crowded global space, most people and organizations are too busy to learn much about other places, so that they substitute unfamiliarity with stereotypes. These clichés – positive or negative, true or false – fundamentally affect one’s behavior towards other territories, people, and their products. So, all responsible governments on behalf of their people, institutions, and business entities monitor the world’s perception towards their nation and. 政治大. develop strategies for managing it (Anholt, 2011; p. 294).. 立. Erast Galumov in the “Image vs. Image” (2005) lists characteristics of a state’s image: in comparison to a country per se, its image is rather simplistic, but at the same time, it. ‧ 國. 學. •. reflects its unique character; •. image is symbolic, for much information about a state could be ‘packed’ into a set of. ‧. symbols;. image has concrete character, but it is changeable and adapts to certain conditions;. •. to some extent, the image idealizes its object emphasizing its advantages or even inventing. al. n. •. er. io. them; it casts a veil over a state’s disadvantages;. sit. y. Nat. •. i n U. v. image combines both the reality and desiderata, existing and invented features.. Ch. engchi. Nikolayeva and Bogolyubova (2014) complement the above-mentioned explanation with the notion that the image of a country encompasses several key elements: •. image of its power and authorities;. •. image of the political leader;. •. image of national economy;. •. image of military forces;. •. image of information policy;. •. image of foreign policy. At the same time, Kiselev and Smirnova (2006) present their own conception arguing that. one should distinguish between ‘state image’ and ‘state vision’. State vision or ‘Me’ vision’ is a general, aggregate, and homogenized picture of a state which forms in the minds of foreign public on the basis of visual attributes lying on the surface, like official documents of a government,.

(26) 22. speeches and statements made by leaders etc. Basically, it could be traced with the help of sociological tools. In its turn, state image or ‘Me’ image’ is a specially created policy, designed in accordance to expectations, the branding campaign of a particular state. In the scholars’ theory, international image obtains only three-level structure: •. national identity (a state’s unique geographic location, organization of its political and economic system, military power, culture and history, ethnic and confessional population composition, common values);. •. international status (membership in international organizations, amicable or hostile relations with other state-actors);. •. 政治大. international role (the functions a state exercise on the international arena, such as a mediator, a peace-keeper, a world policeman etc.).. 立. Analyzing the concept from the perspective of a representative of foreign general public,. ‧ 國. 學. it is also important to scrutinize the international image under the contentions of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen, Fishbein, 1980), which assumes a somewhat rational process in which. ‧. what one knows about an object affects how one feels towards it. In contrast to other models and theories, which stipulate on the functional and normative attributes of the image, the named theory. Nat. sit. y. pays much attention to emotional appeal towards a state. It may derive either from the beauty and. io. al. n. its territory.. er. attractiveness of its culture and picturesque landscapes, or from pleasant personal experience on. i n U. v. Accordingly, the country image consists of four dimensions: •. functional;. •. normative;. •. aesthetic;. •. emotional.. Ch. engchi. b) Image of a Country in Mass Media Mass Media is a term which describes the complex of technologies providing mass communication, but at the same time could be used for private or organizational reasons (Chernykh, 2014; p.46). The information flows could differ from social information to private messages, propaganda, advertising etc., and they could be broadcasted by one transmission channel. Upon closer inspection, one may notice the following elements of social reality that directly or indirectly affect media production (Ibid; p.26): •. state (authorities);. •. legal system;.

(27) 23. •. media market;. •. ideological framework;. •. social standards of living;. •. possibility of the control over media from business and financial elites;. •. professional level of media specialists;. •. existence of competing media holdings and organizations;. •. the level of media technologies development;. •. a degree of labor division in media sphere;. •. the level of civil society values development and existence of media employees’ associations.. 治政 two functions. The first is to help the groups and/or political大 elites participating in the political 立 process to communicate with each other, that is to create a focused public opinion. The second is 學. ‧ 國. According to Kunczik (1990; p. 18), the statements made in mass media generally have. to establish themes that may become subjects of public discussion by selecting the topics they consider worth reporting and reporting on them in leading articles.. ‧. In academia circles, there is a controversy over, whether any such phenomenon as world public opinion exists, however, it is undoubtful that international public is an important factor in. Nat. sit. y. interstate relations. Davison (1973; p. 874) exemplifies: “People in several countries must give. al. er. io. their attention to a given issue; they must have sufficient means of interacting so that common and. n. mutually reinforcing attitudes can form; and there must be some mechanism through which shared. Ch. attitudes can be transmitted into action.”. engchi. i n U. v. Recently, foreign and international news broadcasting and its circulation systems became such a mechanism. The news content could form people’s feelings about a country. The knowledge and overall perception provide cognitive and affective cues that can facilitate or constrain general public’s behavior. Such cues are crucial to the art of public diplomacy, where countries have decided to engage in public relations programs aimed at making a country’s people think more positively about them. If news about the country is negative, the country may decide to invest more public diplomacy resources into its information policy to improve its national image within one or many countries. Accordingly, when media cover a foreign country in a positive light, people tend to think, the country is stronger and more favorable (Shoemaker et al, 2012; pp. 346-347). Confirming the above-mentioned suggestion, Belousova (2015) tracks down the image of the United States of America in Soviet mass media. During the Soviet era the country was.

(28) 24. associated with the enemy, in contrast, in the Perestroika period 16 the US was referred as the “country of liberty”. The attitudes towards the country among the USSR public corresponded with the introduced images or, to some extent, reflected the perception of the state which existed in the society. In recent decade, mass media has been used as a tool of information warfare and one of the main sources of anti-image construction or conflicts “mediatization”. Mediatization theory has been deployed in media studies over the past years to conceptualize how the media have permeated practically all institutions and organizations to an extent that the media can no longer be regarded as an institution outside culture and society, exerting an influence on the way culture and society are perceived (Mortensen, 2015; pp. 39-40).. 政治大. Mediatized conflict is theorized as an interrelation process between the two dimensions: •. media and state/military;. •. media, conflict, and participation;. 立. ‧ 國. 學. The first dimension utilizes the top-down approach by the institutionalized news media interacting with political and military elites in order to gain access to sources of information and. ‧. the front line. The political and military institutions adapt to, make strategic use of, and develop communication technologies of the media.. Nat. sit. y. The second dimension is associated with the bottom-up movement facilitated by non-. io. er. professional actors producing and distributing media content, which attracts attention when political and military framings of conflict are challenged. Such actors do not possess institutional. n. al. i n U. v. ties and may act contrary to the policy of information management, that is why they often become the target of information warfare.. Ch. engchi. All in all, the mass media do not constitute a liberal pluralist arena for participatory democracy. The media are an ideological state apparatus designed to produce the citizenry that accepts the existing economic and social power relations (DeLuca, 2012; p. 87). Such an opinion, a rather cynical one, nevertheless, puts mass media onto the top of a country image building instruments. III. Nation-branding Indisputably, a nation’s reputation has long been recognized for its effect on relations between countries and as a tool of foreign policy. Consequently, nation image is a basis for alliance-building, and it binds together domestic political community. While a state image results. 16. Perestroika was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s, widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform. The literal meaning of perestroika is “restructuring”, referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system..

(29) 25. mostly from its geography, history, proclamations, art, famous citizens, and other features, there are many other inputs into this image centric calculus, for example nation-branding. Thus, nation brand or nation-branding is defined as the sum of all descriptive, inferential and informational beliefs one has about a particular country (Saunders, 2016; p.44). Practitioners and scholars also view nation-branding as an attempt to “commodify the physical and symbolic dimensions of place and space, as well as the ideas of collective identity and solidarity associated with nationhood” (Kaneva, 2011; p. 131). The relationship between nation-branding and public diplomacy has been examined by Szondi (2009). The analysis resulted in several conclusions: •. PD and nation-branding operate as separate areas of practice (nation-branding produces symbols, signs, and spaces for consumption which is manifested in consumers’. 政治大. investing into a country; conceptually, economic exchange principles differentiate. 立. nation-branding from public diplomacy); public diplomacy is an integral part of nation-branding, while nation-branding is thought. ‧ 國. 學. •. of as a master term (Ibid; p.19);. nation-branding fits into the strategic public diplomacy practice;. •. nation-branding and PD are actually separate models sharing tactical practices and. ‧. •. Nat. sit. public diplomacy and nation-branding are not synonyms, because PD has to do with. io. other spheres of cooperation, except for economy.. n. al. er. •. y. playing pivotal roles in construction of a state image;. i n U. v. Notwithstanding the fact that nation-brand is crated for enhancing a nation’s economic and. Ch. engchi. investment attractiveness, it, as has been mentioned previously, adopts the concepts inherent to PD and a country image. Dinnie (2008; p.49) introduces the three-layered conceptual model of the nation brand. The first layer is ‘nation-brand identity’, which key components are culture, history, territory, political regime and other parameters of the nation image. The second layer is entitled ‘communicators of nation-brand identity’ that implies several branded exports, such as sporting achievements of a country, cultural artefacts, governmental policy, tourism experience, and renown personalities. The third level ‘nation-brand image’ deals with the audiences that are targets of the nation-branding design: domestic and external consumers, business entities, governments of other states, inward investors, media. Bearing multiple features from economics and marketing, nation-branding has an established roadmap for designing a brand for a certain state. It is envisaged in the algorithm below (Jansen, 2008): •. creation of a working group comprised of representatives of government, industry, the arts, education, and the media to agree upon an initiative;.

(30) 26. •. detection of the apprehension of a state domestically and abroad using qualitative and quantitative methods;. •. consultation upon the country’s strength and weaknesses and compare the results with the survey on apprehension mentioned in the previous step;. •. identification of the core strategy of the campaign and creation of its central idea (basically takes the form of a slogan);. •. development of the visual design and attachment it to everything that represents a nation abroad;. •. correlation and adjustment of the message to target audiences, like tourists, internal and external investors;. 治政 government, commerce, industry, the arts, and the media. 大立 After the creation of the nation-branding program it is implemented into a country’s agenda.. •. creation of a public-private liaison group to launch the program and keep it active in. ‧ 國. 學. People are constantly make observations about the world around them. When these observations are related to a brand they are called brand contacts, which are collected from different sources.. ‧. One way of the brand contacts classification was introduced by Moilanen and Rainisto in the book “How to Brand Nations, Cities and Destinations: A Planning Book for Place Branding” (2008; p.. Nat. sit. y. 14). The first group is ‘planned messages’, including advertising and brochures. The second one. io. er. is ‘product messages’, such as physical settings and features of the brand. The third – ‘service messages’ is represented by contacts in the service process. and the last, but not the least –. n. al. i n U. v. ‘unplanned messages’ preoccupy word-of-mouth way of information distribution and newspaper articles.. Ch. engchi. Under the conditions of everything listed above, it is rather important to mention that one of the conception advantages is that it makes a strong case for the preservation of nation-state as a legitimate political entity, for it has the ability to define, safeguard, and promote economic health and competitiveness of a nation (Scher, 2014; p. 98). It leaves no question that economic growth and profusion is one of the main factors of a successful government. IV. People-to-people Diplomacy In history of Russia the term ‘people-to-people’ or ‘citizen diplomacy’ first appeared in the Soviet era during the Cold War period. Eisenhower and Khrushchev administrations made mutual advances towards peaceful coexistence17 of two systems. One of the steps was organization of 17. Peaceful coexistence was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War by Khrushchev in the context of primarily Marxist–Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet allies that they could peacefully coexist with the capitalist bloc (i.e., non-socialist states). This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The Soviet Union.