精品手錶之平面廣告訴求研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文. Master’s Thesis. 精品手錶之平面廣告訴求研究 The Study on Advertising Appeal of Luxury Watches Print Advertisements. Student: Kuo-Yu Wang Advisor: Professor Chien-Tu Jeff Lai 賴建都教授. 中華民國 101 年 9 月 September 2012.

(2) 論文題目 The Study on Advertising Appeal of Luxury Watches Print Advertisements. Student: Kuo-Yu Wang Advisor: Professor Chien-Tu Jeff Lai 賴建都教授. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. A Thesis Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 101 年 9 月 September 2012 1.

(3) Acknowledgement. The thesis owes its completion to assistance of many people.. First, I am obliged to my advisor, Professor Chien-Tu Jeff Lai, who spent a wealth of time and efforts facilitating me to revise my thesis in the whole process. With the guideline from my advisor, I am able to complete my thesis.. Second, I want to take this opportunity to show my gratitude toward those participants who shared their experiences and feedback with me. Their contribution to the analysis of my thesis is what I will not forget.. The unconditional support from my family, acquaintances and friends help me to go through the process. They provided me with constructive ideas and suggestions that illuminate me as I confronted the bottleneck. Without you, it is unlikely for me to complete the whole thesis process.. Thank you again!!!. 2.

(4) Table of Contents. Acknowledgement Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….. 5 Chapter I Introduction …………………………………………………………….... 6 1.1 Background …………………………………………………………………… 6 1.2 Research Questions …………………………………………………………… 7 1.3 Research Purpose …………………………………………………………...… 8 1.4 Research Rationale and the Significance of the Study ………………...…….. 10 Chapter II Literature Review ……………………………………………………… 12 2.1 Current Environment ……………………………………………………… 13 2.1.1 Selling Reports Regarding Luxury Goods in Taiwan ………………. 13 2.1.2 Academic Researches for Luxury Goods Buyers in Taiwan ……….. 14 2.2 An Analysis of the Content in the Luxury Goods Advertisement …...…… 16 2.3 Dual Process Model of Persuasive Information …………………………... 19 2.3.1 The Introduction of Elaboration Likelihood Model ……...…….…… 20 2.3.2 Value- laden or Utility laden ………………………………………… 21 2.3.3 Different Processing Owing to Media Platforms ……………………. 22 2.4 Advertising Appeals Laid in the Advertisement ………..…………………. 23 2.4.1 The Origins of Advertising Appeals …………………………...…….. 24 2.4.2 The Roles Advertising Appeals Played in the Advertisement ………. 24 2.4.3 Sex Appeal …………………………………………………………… 25 2.4.4 Aesthetic Appeal …………………………………….………………. 26 2.4.5 Warmth Appeal ……………………………………………………… 27 2.4.6 Status Appeal ………………………………………………………… 28 3.

(5) 2.4.7 Luxurious Appeal ………………………………………………….… 29 2.4.8 Celebrity Endorsement ………………………………………….…… 30 2.4.9 Functional Appeal …………………………………………………… 33 2.5 Effects or Functions Mass Media Have on Audience ……………………... 34 2.5.1 Recall and Attitude…………………………………………………… 35 2.5.1 Self- pleasure or Self- avoidance …………………………………….. 37 2.5.2 Catharsis or Escapism …………………….………………………….. 38 2.5.3 Reinforcement Theory ……………………………………………….. 39 2.6 Summary …………………………………………………………………… 40 Chapter III Research Methodology ………………………………………………… 42 3.1 Research Framework ………………….…………………….……………… 42 3.2 Research Procedure …………………………………………………..………… 44 3.2.1 First Stage- Textual Analysis ………………………………………… 45 3.2.1.1 Sampling …………………………………………………………. 46 3.2.2 Second Stage- In-depth Interview ………………………….………… 48 3.2.2.1 Sampling ……………………………………………………….… 49 3.2.2.2 In-depth Interview Procedure ……………………………………. 52 3.2.2.3 Interview Questions ……………………………………………… 53 Chapter IV Analysis and Interview Findings ………………………………………. 55 4.1 Textual Analysis ……………………………………………………………. 55 4.2 In-depth Interview ………………………………………………………….. 69 4.2.1 The Analysis of In-depth Interview ………………………………...… 71 4.2.1.1 Meanings of Luxury Watches …………………………………… 72 4.2.1.2 The Recognition of Advertising Appeals ………..………………. 74 4.2.1.3 The Recall and Attitude of Print Ads with Advertising Appeals ... 76 4.2.1.4 Other Findings …………………………………………………… 86 4.

(6) Chapter V Conclusion and Suggestion ……………………………………………... 88 5.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 87 5.2 Suggestions for Future Research and Implications ……………………….... 90 References ………………………………………………………………………….. 92 Appendix ………………………………………………………………………...…. 98. 5.

(7) List of Figures and Tables Table 3-1 Research Framework ……………………………………………………. 44 Table 3-2 The brand of Luxury Watch Found in the Data ………………………… 47 Table 3-3 Information Regarding Participants in In-depth Interview……………….50 Figure 3-1 The Example of Luxurious Appeal, Celebrity Endorsement, Status Appeal and Functional Appeal ……………………………………………………………... 51 Figure 3-2 Steps for Interview Session …………………………………………….. 51 Figure 4-1 Sex Appeal (Calvin Klein) ……………………………………………... 57 Figure 4-2 Sex Appeal (Emporio Armani) ……………………….………………... 57 Figure 4-3 Aesthetic Appeal (Piaget) ……………………..……………………….. 59 Figure 4-4 Warmth Appeal (PATEK PHILIPPE_ GENEVE) …..………………… 60 Figure 4-5 Status Appeal (Rolex) …………………………..……………………… 62 Figure 4-6 Status Appeal (Jaeger-Lecoultre , Louis Vuitton)……...……………….. 63 Figure 4-7 Celebrity Endorsement (OMEGA, LONGINES, MONT BLANC, ORIS and TAG Heuer) …………………………………………………………………..... 64 Figure 4-8 Luxurious Appeal (A. Lange& Sohne) …………..…………………...… 68 Figure 4-9 Functional Appeal (EDOX) …………………………………………….. 68 Figure 4-10 Other Appeal (AIGNER, LICORNE) …..…………………………….. 69. Abstract This study investigated the different advertising appeals that are applied in luxury 6.

(8) watch print ads. With the expanding market of luxury goods, the studies on this category have become significant. However, most prior studies investigated consumer behavior to luxury goods and few of them focused on aspect of content. In fact, advertising appeals are indispensible elements for composing print ads since luxury watch advertisers attempt to lead the readers to process messages via central or peripheral route, arousing positive feeling without concentrating the only price itself. To fully understand the notion, the study has developed research process in terms of two aspects. The first step is to understand the frequency of advertising appeals and analyze collected stimuli to examine different contents in each advertising appeal. The analysis demonstrated luxury watches are just more than high- end commodities; instead, they are transferred into various symbols, which are embedded in the print ads to arouse readers’ emotions while exposed to stimuli. The second step is to interview how target consumers process those stimuli, their recall and attitude change. The result articulated discrepant advertising appeals possess different degrees of recall based on specific target groups. Luxurious appeal, the most frequently used advertising appeal may have difficulty in being recalled because of fierce, similar visual competition. Besides, the strong recall, e.g. sex appeal does not necessarily lead to positive attitude. Each advertising appeal has its strengths and weaknesses in recall and attitude change based on various types of consumers, which shows the importance of making use of suitable advertising appeal for promoting luxury watch to reach the greatest effect. Keywords: Advertising appeal; Luxury watch; Persuasion; Recall, Attitude change. Chapter I Introduction. 7.

(9) 1.1 Background. The word “luxury” was derived from the Latin root “luxus”, which originally meant extraordinary fascination. Luxury goods, different from the necessities, are classified as dispensable items that often representing the highest quality and lowest quantity and are what everyone is dreamed of but few can possess of (Kapferer, 1997). With feudalism system falling apart and knowledge and industrial system building up, bourgeois society accumulated their assets and showed great interests in luxury goods. The fact that luxury goods flow in social status hierarchy not only discloses the phenomenon of consuming upgrade (Zygmunt, 2001) but reflects the transition of consumer behaviour among the world. Atwal and Kahn (2008) illustrated the significance of rapid growth of bourgeois in India and they were no longer at a financial distance from luxury goods and were trading up to meet their aspirations. More and more middle class nowadays engages their salaries in luxury goods to gratify their vanity and sense of superiority. The consumption of luxury goods was acknowledged and conceived as a status seeking and motivated by temptation to impress others (Dubois& Duquesne, 1993) while Vigneron and Johnson (2004) claimed that the consumption of luxurious commodities could be regarded as the mean of self- representation for individuals. Nowadays, luxury goods advertisement is here to stay. Luxury brand enterprises e.g. LVMH and Gucci Group, have invested more than ten billions NT dollars annually in the worldwide for fashion magazine advertisement (Vogue, 2008, pp, 68). Some scholars such as Marx stated that advertisement was always accompanied with the Capitalism, triggering audiences’ false needs toward commodities. However, several previous studies suggested that advertisement exposure is not necessarily leading to purchasing behaviour. In fact, researches demonstrated that advertisement, 8.

(10) as one of mass media contents, served as many varied dimensions in formulating audiences’ cognition, attitude and behaviour which heavily depend on how the promoted products are portrayed and how audiences read and process the presented messages. Therefore, these studies have aroused my great interest and curiosity about how readers view luxury watches’ print ads. With the aid of textual analysis as well as in-depth interview, the researcher is able to observe those various advertising appeals employed in the advertisement of luxury watches and whether these tactics have influenced or not readers on the way they view the presented messages. Besides, gender differences can be another factor that affects the perception of print ads. The male and the female consumers may react differently to luxury watches’ advertisements featured to discrepant appeals. Whether these tactics can attract or distract consumers’ attentions toward the promoted commodities, luxury watches, and in turn whether increase or decrease the effectiveness of advertisement is a key emphasis of this study.. 1.2 Research Purpose. The purpose of this study is to understand how advertising appeals are being employed within the context of luxury watches via the channel of print ads in several well-known magazines in Taiwan. In the first stage, luxury watch advertisement is being collected from three major magazines in the dimension of both Fashion& Entertainment, Business& Finance during specific period of time. From March, 2010 to March, 2011 and being analyzed by three coders on the basis of defined advertising appeal technique. In the second stage, these commonly used appeals in the luxury watch print ads have been discovered as well as analyzed and questions are being raised aiming at understanding how different advertising appeals are being expressed 9.

(11) in the advertisement and also how readers would respond to those advertising appeal tactics through the aid of in-depth interview. The objectives of this study are stated as follows: 1.. Arousing readers’ emotions as they are exposed to media content and advertisement is the first goal in marketing communications to make impressions on audiences among all stimuli they received. The first objective is to discuss various advertising appeals, which are harnessed in the luxury watch advertisement.. 2.. This study is conducted to excavate the presentation of luxury watch advertisement. After analyzing the print ads the researcher gathered, the author found out the advertising appeals are harnessed differently based on the certain promoted watches and brand equity. The third objective is to initially investigate the relationship between advertising appeals and promoted commodities. The author analyzed the luxury watches print ads that are emotionally attached to readers and examined the symbols of meaning embedded on the print ads through textual analysis.. 3.. Advertising appeals are employed by advertisers to stand out the promoted commodities among other stimuli. However, the effectiveness of these appeals is questioned since readers’ reaction may be different from what advertisers have expected. Therefore, the fourth objective in the study is to understand how advertising appeals mean differently towards magazine readers while they view luxury watch print ads through the aid of in-depth interview. Thus, the author is capable of comprehending the quality of advertising appeals in the print ads from customers’ perspectives.. 10.

(12) 1.3 Research Questions. Research questions are formulated in order to further clarify the purposes of this research and the research framework. Research questions are listed as follows. - First Stage: First Stage: We analyze the tactics used in the domain of luxury watches print ads (status appeal, luxurious appeal, celebrity endorsement, functional appeal and etc.) to see how the characters or products are being presented in the advertisement. RQ1. What are the different elements laid in luxury watches print ads on the basis of discrepant appeals? RQ2. What are the embedded symbols representing the luxury watches in the print ads? - Second Stage: We evaluate the way subjects read those print ads through intensive interview. RQ3. Will the readers identify the symbols of luxury watches through reading the print ads? RQ4. Whether the interviewees comprehend the token of luxury watch may affect their future recall and attitude on specific luxury watch?. 1.4 Research Rationale and Significance of the Study. Luxury goods are here to stay in Taiwan and the amount of sales volume in terms of luxurious products have been reaching higher and higher recently. Most Taiwanese 11.

(13) are familiar with luxury brands, especially certain well-known brands such as Louis Vuitton and Gucci, and the concept of consumer behaviors in the aspect of luxury goods is also widely accepted. As mentioned, more and more international luxurious manufactures have arrived in Taiwan, attempting to grasp some market share of luxury goods. Since the competition has become fierce, luxurious manufactures started to pour their budgets in the advertisement so as to reinforce consumers’ condition, formulate attitude and conduct behaviors. Instead of taking a high road and putting advertisement in the new medium platform, most luxurious cooperation depend on the print ads in the magazine because of prior studies indicating the target customers tend to access needed information about luxury goods via this channel. However, although there is an array of academic literatures investigating the strategic use of advertising appeal in high end products, limited study has been conducted to deeply excavate how these luxury goods print ads work when readers expose themselves to the presented information. It is conceivable that there are tactics and appeals to harness when it comes to catching the eye of viewers to stand out the promoted products in everyday visual competition. In this study, the researcher would see how the luxury watches are portrayed from the print ads in several magazines. What are those tactics or the appeals the advertisers employ interest me a lot. In addition, the author also intends to know whether the presentation of promoted product in the advertisement has influenced viewers on the way they read the luxury watch advertisement or not. Subjects’ comprehension toward luxury watches may have great on their future attitude. Through intensive interview, it allows researcher to understand if or how much the most important information, feature has been conveyed to the readers. Take functional appeal or celebrity endorsement as an illustration. Most luxury watch manufactures are inclined to use the tactics of advertising appeal to attract viewers’ attention in the print ads. The former is able to 12.

(14) elicit the unique features of one particular watch; the latter is capable of associating positive attitude with new-coming watch or brand itself with the aid of correspondence inference. Nevertheless, questions are raised to observe whether subjects neglect the detailed description in which it is located in certain position in page layout or whether people spend more time appreciating the celebrities than luxury watches. Besides, whether readers’ process presented messages carefully and what kinds of psychological reflections are raised interest the researcher. These phenomena are likely to increase or decrease the effectiveness of the advertising. In addition to various appeals used in the ads, gender differences can also be another crucial variable to explain how people recall and project attitude change to the luxury watch advertisement differently. This study can answer the aforementioned speculations and facilitate us to know what readers see the luxury watch advertisement with the execution of textual analysis and in-depth interview.. CHAPTER II Literature Review. 13.

(15) The literatures with regard to luxury goods advertisement as well as the application of customers’ perspectives are rather immense. Some of researches analyzed and decoded the presentation of luxury goods in the print ads and discovered the similarities and differences among these luxury goods advertisement. Other researches emphasized the psychological aspect of each consumer and found out how these advertisements influence consumers’ cognition, attitude and behavior. This study attempts to probe into the interrelationship between the advertisement with certain advertising appeals and how the viewers read the advertisement. Therefore, the literatures are reviewed and are divided into five facets: the past and current state of luxury goods market in Taiwan, the analysis of luxury watches advertisement, readers’ information processing, the origins of commonly-used advertising appeals, the effect on customers after exposed to advertisement. In the first section, the researcher would describe how the luxury goods market has been booming for the last few years and mention the two well-known studies, which aim to decode the meaning or symbols in the luxury goods advertisement and see how the image of luxury can be conveyed in various ways. The author would also disclose the most well known domains of dual process model and certain aspects that will influence magazine readers’ cognition, attitude and behavior. Later on, the author would explore the frequently harnessed advertising appeals in the advertisement and how these tactics work to make good impressions on target customers via advertising arousal. Then, the researcher would further elucidate prior studies regarding discrepant effects of media exposure on distinct processing engagement.. 2.1 Current Environment. 2.1.1 Selling Reports Regarding Luxury Goods in Taiwan 14.

(16) Even though Taiwan is just a small island (35,980 km2) with population of twenty-three millions people (2010, Ministry of Interior), it has always been playing a prerequisite role when it comes to the luxury goods market. With the rapid growth of Information Technology industries and enhancement of international trade, the economic growth in Taiwan had been tremendously significant in the year of 1990s. The population of middle class in Taiwan had been increasing within several years, and the consequence of their raising income and financial flows have reflected the sales reports in luxury goods market. According to the report of Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton (LVMH Group) in 2002, Taiwan was ranked as the top fourth market, standing for 2.2 billion NT dollars, for Louis Vuitton around the world (Albatross, 2010). As for the luxury Jewelry and watches, the revenue in Taiwan has also constantly stepped up. Taiwan was regarded as one of the top ten largest markets in terms of Cartier’s jewelry and watches lines in the year of 2004 and 2005 (Fashion Guide, 2005). Cartier’ Trinity Ring and Love Bracelet were seen as extremely hot items and act as a token of affection and wealth. According to the official report in Switzerland, Taiwan market in 2004, ranked as thirteenth, accounted for 1.8% of the entire Swiss-made watch manufactures’ revenue and it represented approximate 8.5 billion NT dollars. In fact, one of Swiss luxury watch brands- Vacheron Constantin, established in 1755, discovered Taiwanese consumers’ purchasing potentials and provided exquisite and exclusive services for the top of pyramid consumers. In 2006, Taiwan was the second largest market for Vacheron Constantin. Besides, the same phenomenon can be reflected to Georg Jenson, the market in Taiwan had accounted for approximately 10 percent of entire market around the globe and was evaluated as the second largest market followed by Japan for Georg Jenson. Another French jewelry brand, Bouchern, ranked Taiwan as the third market in 2006. To the company’s surprise, there was only 15.

(17) one store in Taiwan, located in the capital of the country- Taipei, but the store’s annual sales reached more than 4 hundred million NT dollars. From the numbers of evidences and data mentioned above, Taiwan’s domestic needs and purchasing index has been significantly booming especially for luxury goods such as sophisticated watches and limited jewelry. What’s more, these presented selling reports reveals contemporary luxury goods market in Taiwan during 2005-2006 when market focused on the domestic needs. Nowadays, with the transformation and democratization of political as well as diplomatic policies, frequent interactions and interflows between Mainland China and Taiwan have echoed the consensus of “facing-up the reality, mutual non-denial, working for the benefit for people and cross-strait peace” (Romberg, 2009) recently. Cross-strait relationship has been enormously improved which can in turn stimulate Taiwan luxury goods market because of considerably visitors from China coming to Taiwan and consuming products. Therefore, the ministry of economic affairs, R.O.C (2010) suggested that more than 40 percent of luxury goods sales in Taiwan would be contributed owing to people from Mainland China.. 2.1.2 Academic Researches for Luxury Goods Buyers in Taiwan. However, the luxury goods market had already been quite matured and cultivated for years and younger generations in Taiwan, at the age of 18-30, enjoyed aesthetic experiences in exposing themselves to the luxury goods ads and more than 73 percent of population had possessed luxury (defined as items that were worth of more than 15,000 NT dollars) hand bags, watches or jewelry either by themselves or from others (Zhan, 2006). Taiwanese, particularly people aged 25-40 are acquainted with luxury goods advertisements and more willing to spend their money on luxurious products 16.

(18) (Chen, 2004) than we had expected. The stunning sales reports and high revenue in Taiwan luxury market impressed Luxury manufactures and therefore attracted more companies to Taiwan and compete over each other. Due to the fierce competition in the luxury goods market, each luxury goods manufacture increase their marketing budgets in Taiwan and their advertisement expense has reached about 3.2 billion NT dollars (jewelry and watches were 7.8 hundreds of million NT dollars) and print media accounted for 62 percent of total luxury goods advertisement expenditures (Nielson, 2005; Taipei Association of Advertising Agency, 2005). Under this circumstance, readers are more easily being exposed to luxury goods advertisement, which may directly or indirectly enhance their cognition and brand recall in terms of luxury goods. Moreover, Chen (2004) claimed that the value, self-centered perspective, commonly held within the individuals in the Generation Y was apparently distinct from older generation which mainly conducted purchasing behavior on the basis of needs of family or others first and this existing discrepancy was likely to result in attitude to behavior change in terms of purchasing luxury goods. Besides, peer pressure and group conformity, for undergraduate or graduate students in Taiwan, can be other key factors to elaborate why young adults considered purchasing luxury goods to be a common behavior or even a routine (Chung, 2008). Chung’s study indicated that young adults in Taiwan were primarily influenced by peer (friends/ class/workmates or siblings) and media content when it comes to perceiving luxury goods purchasing intention. Chou (2009) further explored a phenomenon in Taiwan through an aspect of sociology, positing the fact with the establishment or formulation of reference groups and consumer tribe, the luxury consumption may be a regular pattern, constant ritual in one’s community.. 2.2 An Analysis of the Content in the Luxury Goods Advertisement 17.

(19) Even though the advertising expenses or budgets have been distributed not only just for traditional media such as newspaper and television but for alternative media, e.g. the Internet, the magazine channel is the principal means for consumers to access content or information in the aspect of luxury goods. Albatross, one of professional luxury goods survey agencies, conducted the China luxury forecast report in 2010 and the finding asserted traditional print media continued to be an effective channel for luxury goods consumer in China (including Hong Kong and Taiwan). Luxury goods companies put more than 60 percent of their advertisement and marketing budgets in print media and more than half of consumers access the coming release of luxury goods via the channel of magazine in spite of the emergence of Internet advertising (Albatross, 2010). Magazines provided a short cut for advertisers to reach a well-defined segment of people that shared similar consumption-related symbols (Terpstra& David, 1991). Several studies (de Mooij, 2003; Nelson& Paek, 2007) have been conducted and claimed that the dimension of fashion and beauty was relatively culture-free compared to the products categorized as necessities, such as food, which were always supposed to take social and culture value into consideration, and therefore companies in these industries were inclined to employ standardized print ads in the global context. Downplaying culture-specific content, the images portrayed in luxury goods advertisement were similar or even identical because of shared consumer traits, such as cosmopolitan and the strong motivation to grow into members of global village. In addition, Harris and Altour (2003) discovered that more and more media as well as marketing campaigns are not only partially standardized but also fully standardized after the analysis of content of the magazine Cosmopolitan across six different nations. Moreover, the benefits of multinational images and low-cost rendered luxury goods companies spend less marketing resource in terms of 18.

(20) producing unified appeals (Zhou and Belk, 2004; Levitt, 1983). Levitt further pointed out the appearance of global marketing strategy not just in the context of luxury goods but other commodities as the world’s preference structure was homogenized step by step. With our local culture becoming globalized, a marketing plan was commonly employed in all the countries where it operated. In addition to the analysis implying luxury goods ads being less tailored for each culture, other researches investigated how the image of “luxury” emerged as readers exposed themselves to certain content. Through the immersion of atmosphere and imaginary experiences created within the luxury goods advertisement, viewers or readers are likely to accomplish sensorial pleasure and intertwine the real and virtual lifestyle together (Chou, 2009). The projection of luxury is highly associated with exclusiveness and self-assure lifestyle and the main purpose for advertisement is to sell dreams within brand culture as a marketing strategy (Brioschi, 2006). Gradually, viewers or potential consumers are deeply involved in the process of mutual defining and creating value, and the co-created and co-sharing experiences would become the focal point on the marketing basis (Tsai, 2005). Flueckiger (2009) further analyzed lifestyle, aesthetics and narration in luxury domain advertising and pointed out the evocation of pure sensation was widely harnessed and it resembled the strategies in the context of avant-garde during 1920s. Chances are those presented images in the luxury goods advertisement internalize or shift readers’ perception or attitude toward luxury brands, attach individuals’ consciousness or affirmation to advertisement and shape personal preference (Chou, 2009). Aside from the presentation of promoted commodities, luxury has been traditionally associated with exclusiveness, status and quality (Vickers& Renand, 2003). Luxury goods ads encode explicit or implicit symbols so as to highlight the value of products and brand equity. Mortelmans (1998) examined luxury watches and 19.

(21) jewelry advertisement and categorized several major codes, divided as quality code, golden code and jewelry code based on the presented content. In the ads of high-touch watch, the functionality is easily observed through detailed narration or visual image. Gold is the color that signifies royalty as well as scarcity, which held in consumers’ minds; hence, gold watches are more commonly presented than any other color in the advertisement. Jewelry code refers to the transformation usage for a watch, which is no longer a time-centered instrument but a piece of adornment that implies one’s social economic status and extraordinary taste. Some researchers and studies highlighted the connections between the inside domain of individuals and the outside domain of society through purchasing luxury goods, which is regarded as the action being taken because of the influence of products’ uniqueness and social impact. Amaldoss and Jain (2005) found out social need played an important role in terms of purchasing conspicuous goods that captured the spirit of consumer desire fro uniqueness and conformity. Their results indicated that the consumers’ perception toward the uniqueness of luxury goods depended on the pricing. The higher price commodities were set, the more exclusive customers would feel toward specific products. Their researches asserted that there was a positive correlation between perception of uniqueness and the pricing; however, it was a negative correlation between the demands of conformity and the pricing. Moreover, Zhang and Wang (2010) introduced a SCE model to explain and decoded the meanings of luxury goods in the dimension of society, culture and economy. In the aspect of social dimension, luxury brands equipped themselves with certain characteristics, showing-off, uniqueness, elite and conformity while promoting products. Conspicuous consumption, lifestyle construct and exclusive value played pivotal parts in triggering the mass’s self correction and in turn submission toward group behaviour. As for culture, luxury goods represented distinctiveness (Dubois, 20.

(22) Laurent, 1994) and the value of self-improvement or a sense of power or achievement was largely held. In the economic attribute, the expression of quality and function could be encoded in the luxury goods advertisement (Zhang& Wang, 2010).. 2.3 Dual Process Model of Persuasive Information 2.3.1 The Introduction of Elaboration Likelihood Model. Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983, 1986) is one of the most widely used models concerning information and persuasion processing. In advertising contexts, the audience is likely to take two relatively distinct routes in terms of advertisement effectiveness process. One is known as “central route,” in which the audience has ability, motivation or intention to process or elaborate presented information. The audience focuses on their attention on interpreting information to subsume into their existing frame or structure and in turn formulate their attitude. The other route is known as “peripheral route,” in which the audience is low-motivated and has little ability to elaborate the message. Under this circumstance, the audience may not pay too much attention on the message content but other perceptual cues attached to this message such as source credibility, the multi-colored graphics in the printing media, or the euphonious music in broadcasting media. Either central or peripheral route relies on people’s attention to the content (Just& Carpenter, 1980). Other than ability and motivation, the sub-concept of involvement, e.g. self-relevance, autonomy and social network, can also have tremendous effects on audience’s determination of using either central or peripheral route to process information. Relevance represents the degree of connections between messages and audiences. Petty and Priester (1996) suggested that perceived personal relevance motivates effortful processing and lead to encoded exposure (by virtue of affecting 21.

(23) depth of processing and facilitating storage in memory). Increased perception of the personal relevance of a message is associated with increased thinking about the message. That is, the more relevant the topic is to the audience, the more likely it is to enhance audience’s involvement and resort to central processing. As for autonomy, it is most frequently used in the online context. The Internet users have their autonomies to control what type of messages they are absorbing in. The autonomies result in audiences’ high involvement because people are able to choose the topics they are interested in (Fortin& Dholokia, 2005; Claypool, 2004). In the aspect of social network, conversations with others about the topics of advertisement may arouse our involvement once exposed to the relevant messages. Social networks play important roles in shaping a person’s involvement with certain topics, their retention to such content, and their actions as a result of the involvement (Hagen& Wasko, 2000; Hornik, 1988; Wright, 1986). However, Krugman (1965) indicated that both low and high involvement in the individual’s mind could be effective in terms of triggering the purchasing behavior. Low involvement emphasized the gradual shifts in customers’ perceptual structure, aided by moderate repetition and formulated or changed the attitude after activated by behavioral- choice situations. As for high involvement, customers intended to look for the classic and more familiar contents or ideas ingrained in the level of cognition or recognition. Individuals formed attitude before he/ she conducted behavior.. 2.3.2 Value-laden or Utility- laden. In the past decades, more and more academic researches have been focused on the phenomenon of symbolic consumption as a token of post-modern society (Baudrillard, 1998). Commodities, especially items fell into the labels of luxury goods were 22.

(24) transformed into a set of signs, which were consumed by all walks of lives in this symbolic system. The school of postmodernism demonstrated the meanings and labels as the evasion of sub-conscious and consumption has become a defining feature of post-modern society. People attached themselves to society through the process of symbol consumption, establishing the relationship among others. In the aspect of luxury goods, purchasers can be mainly divided into two groups, value-laden and utility-laden classes (Johar, 1991). The former group takes logo and brand value into the prior consideration; whereas the latter group takes material and functional benefits into accounts. These two types of classes may contribute to dual procedures of information processing as reading luxury goods print ads. Readers concentrate on the logo of luxury goods rely more on the peripheral route; conversely those center on the utility of luxury goods depend more on central processing (Petty et al, 1994). Though Petty and Cacioppo devoted themselves to unraveling the complicated operations of humans’ information processing, they acknowledged the possibility of “ parallel processing”, namely using both routines at the same time (Kasmer& Haugtvedt, 1988) Nevertheless, they still assumed there is a trade-off between central and peripheral processing, indicating that a person inclines to favor one route over the other. Based on aforementioned factors, when a person has high motivation, involvement, and abilities to process messages about the issues, he or she will be less inclined to engage in peripheral processing, and more likely to appeal to peripheral route.. 2.3.3 Different Processing Owing to Media Platforms. Different routes for information processing may be distinct individually, since each person has varied degree of motivations, abilities and involvement toward all types of topics or issues. Regardless of the nature of elaboration likelihood model, sometimes 23.

(25) a person may resort to different ways of processing to a single concept because of diverse media forms. Recently, there has been increasing numbers of studies focusing on the differences for the audience to process messages among discrepant media types, mostly classified as Free Press model, Broadcasting model and the Internet (Avery et al, 1998). In the aspect of the free press model, such as newspaper and magazines, the advertisement has relatively limited chances to influence or persuade low-involved or passive audiences because reading only concerned with visual stimulation, e.g. articles in the newspaper and printing ad, and it is a relatively complicated cognition process compared to the others model (Leavitt, 1991). On the contrary, broadcasting model, referring to radio and television, verbal and visual messages are concurrently presented and more sensory organs are highly stimulated in various ways; therefore it is more likely to influence the audience who are not actively-exposure to the messages in advertisement (Macias, 2003). Some studies suggested that free press model can satisfy peoples’ needs, especially those highly-involved audiences. Take the news article from printing and broadcasting media as an illustration. People tend to engage themselves in central processing to news reports in the newspaper rather than on the television or radio (Buchholz& Smiths, 1992). Buchholz advocated that newspaper earned more credibility than television media and printing media have larger information loading compared to news on the radio. Therefore, audiences have greater elaboration on information when they are high- involved and at the same time exposed to print media rather than broadcasting media (Leong et al, 1998).. 2.4 Advertising Appeals Laid in the Advertisement 2.4.1 The Origin of Advertising Appeals. An array of prior studies had conducted to excavate the use of Advertising appeal in 24.

(26) the media content (Yang, 2004; Perse& Nathanson, 1996; Royne& Day, 1995; Gelb, Hong and Zinkhan, 1985). The term “advertising appeal” was originally defined as a conscious attempt to motivate the potential and actual consumers to process information and reach the outcome of great recall and positive attitude (Gelb, Hong and Zinkhan, 1985). Advertising appeal had been substantially harnessed into various settings aiming at stimulating customers’ cognitive processing and producing stronger reaction. Advertising appeal is widely harnessed and its effectiveness is highly correlated to the social and culture value (Hetsroni, 2000). Values are different among each region and the way advertisers plan to present messages needs to be adjusted in correspondence to local values or experience. His research can be partly explained why sex appeal is commonly used in North American than Israeli because sexual attractiveness is being appreciated differently from two places. Another result also indicated more numbers of people, friends or family members, are in the television commercial in Israeli than in U.S. and the differences were related to Hofstede’s cross cultural comparison of collectivism and individualism. Advertising appeal can be mainly divided into two major categories, i.e. rational appeal and advertising appeal (Albers- Miller and Stafford, 1999). The idea of analyzing these two sub-concepts can be tracked back to early 1980s when the terms “thinking” and “feeling” had been proposed by Vaughn in 1980. The former highlights a number of words that completely or precisely send messages the composers intend to convey, whereas the latter focuses on graph design or background illustration to elucidate the meanings through arousing one’s emotion. Voughn (1980, 1986) proposed FCB model to demonstrate an effective advertising appeal with the continuum of thinking versus feeling, high involvement versus low involvement. FCB model, representing concepts of feeling, learn and do, was 25.

(27) constructed with the assumption of consumers’ entry to products through information, attitude and behavior. Luxury watch was classified to the grid of affective planning model which highly relied on consumers’ psychological feedback. Those aforementioned psychological responses triggered customers’ purchasing behavior involving unconscious, indirect emotions and satisfying individuals’ self- esteem or ego- related needs. Zhang and Gelb (1996) pointed out the two different appeals are used discrepantly based on the attributes of the products. They articulated rational appeal is more frequently used in terms of products being utilitarian. In contrast, advertising appeal occurred when the promoted products are not self-revealing. Rational appeal are greatly employed in specific contexts such as health communication or public service announcement where the priority is intellectual information are conveyed to audience while advertising appeal are used in commodities promotion (Perse& Amy, 1996). A number of researches have argued over the effectiveness of rational and advertising appeal. As mentioned earlier, rational appeal functions better in the health communication while advertising appeal is more likely to manipulate the desired consumer behavior (Yang, 2004). Other than different contexts, demographic variables such as age and gender are also important factors in the aspect of influencing the adoption of rational or advertising appeal (Mckay- Nesbitt, Smith, Huhmann, 2011). Prior studies showed that elder citizens relied more on advertising appeal than rational than compared to youngsters did and elder citizens were more influenced by negative advertising appeal, e.g. fear appeal, than positive advertising appeal.. 2.4.2 The Role Advertising Appeals Played in the Advertisement 26.

(28) When it comes to luxury goods print ads, advertisers adopt several techniques to manipulate readers or audiences to use peripheral rather than central processing, because as consumers actively think about products that may think of reasons not to buy them as well mostly owing to the price people pay (Bohner& Schwartz, 1993). The field of psychology posited that the atmosphere created by the ads or characters was capable of holding audiences attention and their attraction allocated to presented information was a function of consumers’ opportunity, ability and motivation. As the aforementioned literature review, Capacity theories of attention articulated the audience accumulated their eyesight and attention which led to following information processing by the means of several advertising tactics such as sex and warmth appeals (Broadbent, 1971). Prior studies showed audiences’ emotions arousal played an indispensable role in print ads; other studies, however, suggested that consumers may as well respond differently to several aforementioned appeals according to their cultural orientations, which had significant impact on the portray of print ads (McCracken, 2005; Aaker& Maheswaran, 1997). Messages encoding and decoding processes are distinct between Collectivism and Individualism (Hall, 1976). Peripheral persuasive cues are more effective for collectivistic people, whereas individualistic people require more cognitive processing. People in Asia (collectivism) incline to value consensus information more since they concern about others’ opinions. Lin (1993) found Japanese advertisement contain less information appeals compared to those of the United States. Similar results have been found that collectivistic Asian advertisement emphasized interdependence, family integrity, in-group goals and concern for others (Chang& Taylor, 1992).. 27.

(29) 2.4.3 Sex Appeal. Sex appeals are one of the most common means, which was added into the print ads to attract audiences’ attentions to stand out from advertising clutter. However, the use of sex in advertising has been increasing at a significant rate for over two decades (Soley and Reid, 1994, 1988). La Tour (1993) suggested that quite often, in the women’s fashion magazine, a scantily clad or nude female model was used to elicit a various experience of sensuality. The fragrance advertisement is the self-evident example in which advertisers sell the smell and images’ association. The advertisement of Tom Ford as well as Calvin Klein fragrance revolves around sensual and sexual ambiance and an experiment demonstrated the males displayed the strongest positive attitude toward print ads and the brands (La Tour, 1993). Another study found that after reading perfume print ads with sex appeals, the female undergraduates wearing perfume were perceived themselves as more attractive by male undergraduates (Baron, 1983). Undoubtedly, the advertisement reaches its purpose to the most since the brand or product recognition is already instilled into audiences’ minds. In the meanwhile, readers’ emotions are drastically aroused, taking in print ads’ messages through peripheral processing.. 2.4.4 Aesthetic Appeal. When it comes to associating sex appeals with advertisement for luxury goods, presented content must enrich the flavor of aesthetic experiences by differentiating themselves from other sex- related information (Venkatesh et al, 2010). Aesthetics (Venkatesh& Meamber, 2008) represents mostly visual form of substances as well as sensory stimuli characterized as order, harmony and beauty. Readers gain aesthetic 28.

(30) experiences in the advertisement where the use of color in the background and the promoted products formed strong and clear contrast or proximity. In addition, the presentation of page layout was artistic-oriented so that most readers regard the print ads as pictures or graphics and process information in the image-based manner. Researchers analyzed the contemporary luxury goods ads, conducted an in-depth interview and discovered readers aspired the pleasure to aesthetic experiences with the notion that high fashion clothing as a wearable art. Through the process of aesthetic production and perception, consumers engaged themselves in luxury goods ads and possibly linked their self- identity to the fashion role models, body and brand images. For readers or consumers, those artistic experiences being featured in the luxury ads were regarded as positive feedback and therefore benefited to commodities manufactures. Nevertheless, aesthetics varied in discrepant social or cultural frameworks and the interpretation of artistic experiences could also differ person to person because people interacted with the reference groups where the individuals belonged (McCracken, 2005).. 2.4.5 Warmth Appeal. Warmth appeals are another commonly- used peripheral cue to provoke audiences’ affective responses in the luxury goods print ads. Warmth is widely defined as a positive, mild, volatile emotion involving physiological arousal and precipitated by experiencing directly or vicariously a love, family, or friendship relationship (Aaker et al, 1986). Warmth appeals operate in much the same way as sex appeals, through association. A product or service is connected to the image of being warm, caring and friendly. Warm appeals are commonly applied to luxury recreational vehicles (RV) and real-estate print ads (Robert, 2009 pp, 289-290). A picture of RV accompanied 29.

(31) with family and a pet construct or connected to friendship elevates the worth of lifestyle and, of course, the RV itself. Real-estate print ads often wield words “charming or cozy” to depict houses for sale. Studies have shown that advertisements using warmth produce temporary mood changes in people, indicating the correlation between warmth and liking of advertisements are substantial and significant (Aaker& Stayman, 1990). In addition, findings by Kroeber-Riel (1974) as well as Choi and Thorson (1983) suggested that emotion arousal, e.g. affection, is accompanied by increased levels of cognitive activity leading to increased recall. Nonetheless, even though warmth appeals seem to be effective, their success to readers’ emotion connections relies on “believability”. Accordingly, these warm images on the advertisement must be portrayed as sincere for the appeals to work; otherwise, they may have counter-effect and interfere with the advertising response (Aaker& Stayman, 1989).. 2.4.6 Status Appeal. Status appeal is another advertising arousal tactic for advertisers to outstand the luxury goods they intend to promote. The effectiveness of this specific tactic is highly associated with readers’ introspection from which self presentation and perception can be both fulfilled and satisfied through owning certain commodities (Belk, 1984; Goffman, 1959). One’s possessions reveal his/ her current social-economic status and people placing themselves in the similar social-economic hierarchy distinguish themselves from others by means of status association with having and doing (Belk& Pollay, 1985). Having tangible products with status symbols or activities, such as playing golf and horseback riding at leisure time contend association with dominated status and those expanding array of characteristics, seen as status appeals, are largely 30.

(32) portrayed in the luxury goods advertisement. In fact, status appeals in the advertising in order to formulate a culture of consumption and possession can be tracked from the late nineteen-century in which people believed those purchasing clothing were superior to those making it. Discrepant status association could be simply made based on how the clothing was possessed (Lasch, 1983). Nowadays, the role advertisement plays for using status appeal is changing and attempting to infuse a would-be status object accompanied with symbolic image desired (Belk& Pollay, 1985). One successful businessman/ businesswoman wearing suits and promoted watch in order to express his/ her expertise and position themselves in higher social hierarchy being parts of background illustrations are frequently used as a status appeal. A symbol of success such as a cigar embedded or lavish life style depicted in the advertisement is considered one of status appeals that correspond to target groups’ tastes as well as life experiences within the promoted products. For example, one of the top luxury watch brands, Rolex, knows how to make use of status appeals in its advertisement. Mortelmans (1998) analyzed Rolex advertisement and discovered more than four-fifth of its print ad accentuated image background of this peculiar brand or made relentless efforts on integrating entrepreneurs’ lives portrayal of yachts or jets together with the view to associating Rolex watches with high status as well as the token of success.. 2.4.7 Luxurious Appeal. The earliest studies with regard to luxurious appeal were closely associated with western culture and society since the economy of this particular region had been highly developed in the early twentieth century. However, more and more recent researches have found out the domain of luxurious appeal was heavily applied in Asia in terms of life context and advertising (Belk et al, 1985; Erkip, 2005; Wong and 31.

(33) Zaichkowsky, 1999). Erikp (2005) identified how the atmosphere which was produced by luxurious appeal within the department store embellishment in Ankara. With the tremendous transition in the aspect of economy and society in Turkey, the role that certain department stores played was more than a location for purchasing intended commodities. Due to the color of socializing, aggregation of citizens was gradually added to the department stores and more connections or emotions were linked between consumers and malls. When it comes to enriching customers’ shopping experiences, luxurious appeal was one of pivotal manners to facilitate the customers to get immersed in imaginative space and indirectly stimulating the sales volume. Similarly, luxurious appeal can be largely discovered in the advertising especially for luxury goods with an eye to building up an immersed imagination for readers and cater to promoted products. Wong and Zaichkowsky (1999) analyzed the marketing strategies of luxury goods in Hong Kong and discovered the use of luxurious appeal in the luxury goods not only significantly reinforced readers’ perception but also enhanced people’s attitude and purchasing behavior. Take luxury watches as an illustration. Some luxurious appeals highlight the promoted product itself with its dial plate or watchstrap surrounded by glowing diamonds or luminous eighteen karat materials. Others luxury appeals take full advantage of background illustration, presenting luxurious substances, such as a silver fur or crystal glasses, and the luxurious watches together with an eye to making the watches even more glorious as well as sumptuous; and others contain a detailed description of exclusiveness and limited watches access in both production and distributions are also important cues for luxurious appeal in the advertisement most of which emphasized watches in the males market or featured as a potential value of becoming collection (Douglas& Sherwood, 1979). As Dubious and Paternault (1995) demonstrated, once luxury goods were 32.

(34) over-diffused, the scarce products were losing their prestigious characteristics.. 2.4.8 Celebrity Endorsement. Celebrity endorsement is another common means for luxury goods advertisement. The great familiarity with consumers and decent images of endorsers are more likely to catch the viewers’ eye and provide a path to shaping positive attitudes toward the commodities or even the companies’ images. The United States is the country where celebrity endorsement is capable of being frequently-detected in the context of advertisement because of its abundant commerce culture. Tripp (2000) articulated that among all the marketing strategies in the States, celebrity endorsement accounted for twenty-five percent, which was the highest proportion compared to other marketing tactics. To researchers’ surprise, although most viewers acknowledge the fact that celebrities have acquired a huge amount of endorse fee or rewards, consumers still claimed that those endorsers were likable, persuasive as well as trustworthy (Atkin& Block, 1983; Frieden, 1984). Given the assumption that correspondent inference (Gilbert& Malone, 1995) may occur, consumers made judgments toward specific products to reach congruent disposition based on the observation of individual’s behaviours. The claim unraveled the statement that the more positive emotion consumers held to endorsers, the more positive attitude people shaped to the endorsed products. Silvera and Austad (2004) demonstrated there was a significant positive association toward the advertised products from the perspective of correspondence inference and reaffirm the assumption as observers would view the product endorser as liking the product better than the averaged person liked the product. The result derived from those aforementioned literatures could partially explain why the tactic of celebrity endorsement was so attracted by co-operations and companies. Nevertheless, 33.

(35) celebrity endorsement also has its weakness. Louie and Obermiller (2002) claimed that the customers would have a negative association or significant attitude toward endorsed products once the endorsers got involved in negative news coverage such as scandalous affairs or drug abuse. Consumers started to raise trust issue to the endorsers and in turn speculated about the effectiveness of products. In addition, Tripp (1994) found out that there was a detrimental impact on the images of manufactures as well as product if one specific celebrity endorsed various products at the same time. The overwhelming publicity of an individual on all sorts of media would more likely to remind the audience of considerable amount of endorsement fees that was accepted by a celebrity. Accordingly, celebrity endorsement is by no means a panacea; instead, it is regarded as a dynamic process where celebrity positive association with products and influence ebb and flow through a period of time. Besides, the presentation of the advertisement is another factor to determine the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement. Compared to the strategy with only one celebrity picture on the advertisement, mixed and diverse coordination such as public relations campaigns would lead to greater influence on consumers’ perception and attitude to products (Cronley et al, 1999). Even though the tactic of celebrity endorsement is mainly harnessed in the context of Northern America, Avant and Knutsen (1993) conducted a research to make a cross-cultural analysis and comparison in the aspect of this specific appeal in Norway. They discovered the dimensions of economy and societies in Norway were pretty distinct from those in the United States, which featured the immersion of commercial culture. Manufactures in Norway showed more concerns for the moral aspect of advertising and not just merely highlighted the effectiveness and the consequence of advertisement. Moreover, citizens in Norway generally felt indifferent to mass culture or even opposed to celebrity system. Even so, the study still indicated 34.

(36) that customers in Norway exhibited correspondence bias in terms of celebrity endorsement. That is, celebrity or popular figures serving as endorsers were more effective than ordinary people when it comes to shaping positive attitude or making positive association to products (Avant and Knutsen, 1993).. 2.4.9 Functional Appeals. The other commonly-seen tactics used in the luxury goods ads is called functional appeal which emphasizes the factual capabilities of this particular promoted product has so as to meet the demands of consumers. Unlike the aforementioned appeals, functional appeal stresses product attributes and the intensity of presented information ought to be adjusted to cater to people to people with different levels of information processing abilities. Lepkowska-White, Brasher and Weinberger (2003) illustrated the notion that functional appeal has more influence on people with stronger motivations and abilities in processing the messages. Compared to other appeals, readers are more likely to engage themselves in central processing and comprehend the attractive features of the product and then in turn persuade themselves to purchase the commodities. Johar and Sirgy (1991) found out the effect of functional appeal can last longer on the customers’ cognitions and the traits of products are more difficult to be substituted; therefore, chances are consumers purchase the commodities eventually. In addition, functional ad appeal was highly correlated with utilitarian needs in which it notifies consumers of the principal functional characteristics of products such as how high the quality is for a product and how these products can be employed (Resnik and Stern, 1977). MacInnis and Jaworski (1989) further explored utilitarian needs as requirements for products, which were able to remove or avoid problems whereas expressive needs accentuated products that provide collectivist as well as 35.

(37) aesthetic utility. The operation system of status and luxurious appeals is more similar to expressive needs; possessing certain product represents the separateness and uniqueness of an individual or to display social acceptance and the importance of relationship with others. Although functional appeal expresses utilitarian needs and prompt readers to rely on central route for information processing, a question is being raised when we put functional appeal into luxury watch advertisement. Take the well-known brand, Victorinox, as an illustration. The company promoted a new men’s watch in July, 2010 and they wielded functional appeal to claim that this watch was featured as it could endure the water pressure under five hundred meter. This peculiar function or characteristic make this new watch stand out and be different from other watches. However, only a few specially-made submarines can dive or go under as deep as five hundred meter not to mention the fact that few people have the opportunity to be situated in that rare condition. The function of this luxury watch is more than resolving problems; instead, it becomes an appeal that empower practicability and conspicuousness which target consumers resort to not only central route but also peripheral route. Moreover, functional appeal is largely harnessed on the men’s watches rather than women’s watches. Mortelmans (1998) posited that this difference in terms of appeal distribution could be attributed to the discrepant consumer behaviour. Men tend to highlight practicality and functionality of goods or service. Nevertheless, women are more emotion-oriented, purchasing commodities on the basis of their exterior display direct feedback or instincts.. 2.5 Effects or Functions Mass Media Have on Audience. Many researches have been conducted to explain or observe the intersection between 36.

(38) mass media content and audiences’ psychology transformation. One sophisticated research was the studies probing into the effect of media content on the children in 1960s. It was claimed that an audience’s mental transitions would be enormously obvious when they expose themselves to mass media and elaborate messages in the presented content with too much violence. The following are the review of theories that are addressed to the effect or function that mass media content may have on the audience internal level as people are shown the messages. The first and second effects are regarded as receiver-oriented; the last one is considered to be sender (advertisers)-oriented.. 2.5.1 Recall and Attitude. Recall and Attitude are the to principal cognitive responses after the readers or audiences have exposed themselves to media content or stimuli. Recall and attitude have been widely measured in various contexts e.g. product placement television plot (Russel, 2002), images of ads recall (Johar and Sirgy, 1992; 1993), to investigate what variables can enhance audiences’ recall and liking. Russel (1992) measured the audiences’ brand recall and attitude in terms of product placement. His studies claimed brand recall reached the greatest when the audiences did not receive the persuasive attempt. An obtrusive manner of product placement has significant impact on viewers or audiences. In addition, the result of study demonstrated an obtrusive product placement could also have an positive impact on audiences’ attitude even though viewers were not likely to recall brands because of overlooking this intended placement. In contrast, Audience showed no impact in the aspect of attitude as a simple, obtrusive product placement strategy was adopted. Brand recall is one of dependent variables in terms of the effect of media; 37.

(39) another commonly seen recall is copy point recall, which is harnessed in the effect of image ads. Copy point recall refers to a measurement which subjects must list as many claims or points of the print ads after exposure. Johar and Sirgy (1992) displayed an experiment where readers were requested to recall the points, i.e. promoted product, background, and heading, in the print ads with and without sex appeal. Their study displayed audiences had recalled print ads with sex appeal. However, their recall points were highly related to the sexy models or elements. Sex appeal can reached great recall as the promoted commodities and sexy models were integrated. Other than the measurement of the cognitive responses, several researches had been conducted to investigate the relationship between recall and attitude. Mere Exposure Theory (Zajanc, 1968; 1963, 2001) has claimed that audiences would have great recall and formulate positive attitude as they reached the exposed content more times. Lau and La-Tuor (2004) also demonstrated the notion that recall was the precondition of liking. However, study being conducted by Moreland and Zojanc showed that recall was not the important influencer toward liking but frequency was. As audiences were exposed to the repeated content, the time for them to process presented information was cut down which is the indicator for positive attitude. Even though the relationship between recall and attitude are in controversial condition, there is one direct correlation had been constructed and detected in terms of great recall and positive attitude. The two advertising appeal, value- expressive and utilitarian advertising appeal have significant effect on readers or audiences’ cognitive responses. Sirgy (1982) articulated that the self- congruency process had positive correlation to recall and liking because of high association and connection between audience and products. Johar and Sirgy (1992) also stated the greater the congruence, the greater the satisfaction of self-esteem needs at their study. Print ads involving 38.

(40) value- expressive appeal could achieve audiences’ ideal- self images and associate images toward the real- self image. The elevation of self-esteem generated sense of satisfaction and accompanied with recall and positive attitude. Utilitarian advertising appeal could be applied to functional congruity. Print ads with illustrating the features of products the serve as function to satisfy self functional congruity. Their study posited value- expressive appeal could execute in high- involvement products such as ads of sports car, demonstrating sexy, young images to match consumer’s own self congruity.. 2.5.1 Self-pleasure or Self-avoidance. Self-pleasure or self-avoidance is the two main affective responses, which can be activated after audiences are exposed to media content. The responses are derived from so-called approach system and avoidance system, which result in pleasure and pain respectively (Elliot& Thrash, 2002). What kind of feeling being brought up is significant when it comes to determining audiences’ intrinsic motivation toward media use. Some empirical studies indicated that sensory enjoyment or pleasure can be found in cases of aesthetically appealing (Cupchik &Kemp, 2000, Sparks, 2000). The design and creation of couture or luxury goods from the print ad in the fashion magazine accompanied with steady improvement of photography (e.g. development of camera equipment and photo software) convulse readers’ visual experiences and arouse people self-pleasure especially for those highly motivated. (Wolf, 1999) Audiences acquiring pleasure or enjoyment after media exposure will increase the opportunities to carry out information processing and perform better at cued recall and product recognition (Adrian et al, 2002). In addition, several prior researches showed that there were positive correlation among ads exposure, readers’ interests and recall 39.