災難新聞報導框架與馴化策略之探究－以日本福島核災為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文. Master’s Thesis 政治. 大. 立. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 災難新聞報導框架與馴化策略之探究－以日本福島核災為例. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. A study about Media Frames and Domestication Strategies of Disaster News-Take Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster as an Example. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: Pang-Chieh Bernie Huang 黃邦傑 Advisor: Professor Yi-Ning Katherine Chen 陳憶寧教授. 中華民國 101 年 7 月 July 2013.

(2) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. 災難新聞報導框架與馴化策略之探究－以日本福島核災為例 A study about Media Frames and Domestication Strategies of Disaster News-Take Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster as an Example. 研究生：黃邦傑 Student: Pang-Chieh Bernie Huang 指導教授：陳憶寧教授 Advisor: Yi-Ning Katherine Chen. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 國立政治大學. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程. ‧. 碩士論文. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. v. C h A Thesis U n i e ntogInternational Submitted chi Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 101 年 7 月 July 2013.

(3) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. Acknowledgement I would love to express my gratitude to my thesis advisor Prof. Yi-Ning Katherine Chen. Thanks for instructing my thesis patiently and granting me the flexibility to write the thesis. Besides, I would love to thank Prof. Jing-Hui Huang at National Taiwan Normal University and Prof. Tsung-Jen Shih of IMICS to be in my thesis committee, and provide me with plenty of insightful suggestions. Moreover, I would. 政治大. like to thank Conny, the Secretary of IMICS, for her help and reminders. Lastly, I. 立. would like to thank the people and classmates I met during my two-year study at. ‧ 國. 學. NCCU for inspiring my thoughts and bringing me joy.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i. i n U. v.

(4) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. Abstract. This study attempts to explore how far-away accident is covered by employing domestication strategies in the context of disaster news, and takes Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster as an example.. The majority of Taiwanese do not experience Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster directly. According to the literature, in order to emphasize the importance of international news and render local audience to feel related, media workers may have. 政治大. to employ domestication strategies to create the links between the far-away incident. 立. and the local audience. In this case, this study asks if domestication strategies are still. ‧ 國. 學. employed for covering this tragedy.. ‧. This study analyzed one-year period of newspaper coverage of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster from two major Taiwanese newspapers, the United Daily and. y. Nat. er. io. sit. the Apple Daily. Results showed that Taiwanese media indeed employed domestication strategies to cover Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster by citing local. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. officials, local experts and local celebrities as major news sources. Besides, the. engchi. employment of locating the news into domestic context and narrating the story with concrete words and many adjectives as domestication strategies can also be seen.. This study concluded that domestication has become the inner logic as a routine in the production of international news in Taiwan, and it provides the audience with a sense of relevance, and transforms the not so much related event into a national issue for the local Taiwanese audience.. Keywords: content analysis, disaster news, domestication strategies, frames, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, news sources ii.

(5) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION TABLE OF CONTENT 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………..……….1 1.1 Research Background…………………………………………………....1 1.2 Rationale………………………………………………………………....2 1.3 Contribution to the Field…………………………………………………4 2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………..5 2.1 Disaster News……………………………………………………………5 2.1.1 Definition of Disaster…………………………………………...5 2.1.2 Related Terms of Disaster……..…….…………………………..6 2.1.3 Definition of Disaster News…………..…………………………7 2.1.4 Roles of Disaster News………………..………………………...8 2.1.5 Related Studies of Disaster News…..………………………….10 2.2 Domestication…………………………………………………………..12 2.2.1 Definition of Domestication……………………………..…….13 2.2.2 Introduction of Domestication Strategies…………………..….14. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 2.2.3 Strategy of Domestication: Selection of News Sources……….15 2.2.4 Strategy of Domestication: Locate the News into domestic Context.….……………………………........…………………17 2.2.5 Strategy of Domestication: Narrate the News to be Vivid with. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Concrete Words...………………………………………..…...17 2.2.6 Related Studies of Domestication………………………….….19 2.3 Framing………..……………………………………………..…………20 2.3.1 Three Paradigms of Framing Research…………….………….20 2.3.2 Definition of Frame……………………………………...…….23 2.3.3 Inductive Approach and Deductive Approach of Analyzing Frames……………………………………..………………….24 2.3.4 Five Frames as Measurement Scheme…………..…………….25 2.3.5 Related Studies of Framing…………………………..….…….28. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2.4 Research Questions…………………………..….……...………………29 3. Research Method……………………………………………………………….33 3.1 Introduction of Content Analysis…………………….….…..…..……..33 3.2 Defining the Study Population………………………..…………...……34 3.3 Sampling Method……………………………………………………….37 3.4 Unit of Analysis…………………………………………………………38 3.5 Defining Content Analysis Variables……………….…………………..39 3.6 Intercoder Reliability……………………….…………………………..41 3.7 Data analysis……………………………………………………………42 iii.

(6) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION 4. Findings…..………………………………………………………..…………...43 4.1 Frames……………………………………………………..…..……….43 4.2 Domesticated Sources…………………………………………………..44 4.2.1 What Are the Sources that Media Use to Cover Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster?....................................................................................................44 4.2.2 Are the Sources Used to Domesticate Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster? …………………….……………………………...................................45 4.3 Domestication Strategies……………………………………..…………46 4.3.1 Do Media Employ the Domestication Strategy by Locating the News Story into domestic Context? …………………………………………..46 4.3.2 Do media employ the domestication strategy by narrating the news story with concrete words in vivid description?.....................................................47 4.4 Frames and Domestication Strategies……………………………..……47 4.4.1 What is the Relationship between Frames and Domesticated Sources?...... ………………………………………………………......................47. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 4.4.2 What Is the Relationship between Frames and the Domestication Strategy Locating the News Story into domestic Context?...................................50 4.4.3 What Is the Relationship between Frames and the Domestication Strategy Narrating the News Story with Concrete Words in Vivid. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Description? ………………………………………………….……………...…....51 5. Discussion………………..……………………………………………………..53 6. Limitation and Suggestion…………………………………………………...…54 7. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………56 Reference…………………………………..………………………………..59 Appendix A: Selection of news items for content analysis……..……….…65 Appendix B: Codebook for content analysis………………………………..67 Appendix C: Coding sheet for content analysis………………………….....72. Ch. engchi. iv. i n U. v.

(7) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION LIST OF TABLE Table 3-1 Theoretical and operational definition for content analysis variables…….39 Table 3-2 Results of intercoder reliability coefficient for each variable……….…….42 Table 4-1 Frames in covering Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster………………….43 Table 4-2 The primary sources used in covering Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster………………………………………………………………………….…….45 Table 4-3 Employment of domestication strategies…………………………….……46 Table 4-4 Crosstab analysis of frames and local official…………………….………48 Table 4-5 Crosstab analysis of frames and local celebrity…………………..……….49 Table 4-6 Crosstab analysis of frames and local people………………………..……50 Table 4-7 Crosstab analysis of frames and local expert………………………..…….50 Table 4-8 Crosstab analysis of the frames and the domestication strategy of locating the news story into domestic context…………………………………………...51 Table 4-9 Crosstab analysis of the frames and the domestication strategy of narrating the news with concrete words in vivid description………………………………….52. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. v. i n U. v.

(8) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION 1. Introduction 1.1 Research Background At 2.46 pm, on Friday March 11, 2011, an earthquake struck the northeastern part of Japan (Yasunari et al., 2011). The center of the earthquake was located on the Pacific Ocean, 130 kilometers offshore the city of Sendai. With magnitude 9.0 on the Richter scale according to the Japan Meteorological Agency (Takemura et al., 2011),. 政治大. the earthquake caused subsequent 15-meter tsunami (Buesseler, Aoyama, &. 立. damaged the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant.. 學. ‧ 國. Fukasawa, 2011), which led to severe destruction in northeastern Japan, and seriously. ‧. The reactors in the Daiichi nuclear plant were seismically robust; however, they. Nat. io. sit. y. were vulnerable to the tsunami. Due to the loss of power supply, the cooling facilities. er. at Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant for nuclear fuel almost broke down (Takemura et. al. n. v i n al., 2011). Venting of gases andC hydrogen destroyed the buildings which h e nexplosions gchi U contain the reactors, resulting in the release of radionuclide contaminants that can. harm agriculture and human life for decades (Takemura et al., 2011). Nearby sea area was also contaminated with radioactive discharges of fresh water and seawater used to cool down the reactors (Zheng, Aono, Uchida, Zhan, & Honda, 2012). With high release of radionuclide which may leave ill effects on people’s health and environment, this accident was rated 7, which is the severest level, on the. 1.

(9) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION International Nuclear Events Scale (INES). This scale runs from zero to seven: zero for nothing happened, and seven for a major accident. Historically, there are two accidents rated 7: the one is Chernobyl disaster, happened on 26 April, 1986 (Nikiforov & Gnepp, 1994), and the other is Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Estimation of death in this disaster exceeds 19,000, and at least 7,000 people are missing (Takemura et al., 2011). Over 100,000 people were forced to evacuate. 政治大. from their homes for fear of causing radiation diseases. Besides, this disaster has. 立. caused serious pollution of the marine environment (Zheng et al., 2012), and the. ‧ 國. 學. highly radioactive liquid wastes have even detected at distant locations such as. er. io. sit. y. Nat 1.2 Rationale. ‧. Europe and North America (Takemura et al., 2011).. al. n. v i n C hvalues since a disaster Disaster itself is full of news e n g c h i U itself is a newsworthy. source that is intense, unpredicted, and continuous (Peng, Fang, Su, & King, 1997). Huge disasters can even leave a great impact on human’s life. With the colorful, unusual and attention-grabbing nature, the media therefore vigorously promote those dramatic images (Wenger, 1985). The fear toward the disaster is also deeply coined into our mind, and transformed as our collective memories (Chen, 2012).. 2.

(10) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION After the huge earthquake hit Japan and caused the following nuclear disaster, Taiwanese media put lots of emphasis on this issue, and people are increasingly worried about the possible effects of the radioactive contaminants that can harm the fishing industry, agriculture and the air in Taiwan (Fu, 2011). Disaster news is essential in its “warning role” (Tsang & Chung, 2000) to deliver information and alert to the audience, in order to mobilize outside assistance,. 政治大. distribute general information about the disaster, disseminate warning, and function as. 立. public education program (Wenger, 1985). People rely on the media to deliver the. ‧ 國. 學. information regarding the disaster, and media also function as the “disaster forum” in. ‧. discussing the rescue actions and reconstruction after the disaster happened (Tsang &. io. sit. y. Nat. Chung, 2000).. er. As a disaster happened in Japan, audiences in Taiwan don’t actually experience. al. n. v i n C hin person. In orderUto hype the international news Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster engchi and render local audience to feel related, domestication strategies are employed to create the links between the news stories and the local viewers (Cohen, Levy, Roeh, & Gurevitch, 1996). Although Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is a far-away issue, with the media coverage, the disastrous images, cause and effect of the disastrous issue, and the flux of issue development can still be accessed and understood by the local 3.

(11) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION audience (Yu, 1997).. 1.3 Contribution to the Field To summarize, the goal of this study is to explore how Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, a disaster happened in Japan, is covered by Taiwanese media with domestication strategies.. 政治大. This study sets out to make a contribution to the development of domestication. 立. research by exploring how domestication strategies are employed to create the links. ‧ 國. 學. between the far-away Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and the local viewers in the. ‧. context of disaster news.. Nat. io. sit. y. Chan, Lee, Pan, and So (2002) brought up several strategies for domesticating. er. international news in their study. This study is the first domestication research to fully. al. n. v i n operationalize the domesticationCstrategies by Chan et al. (2002). By fully h e n gproposed chi U. examining the domestication strategies brought up by Chan et al. (2002), what/how domestication strategies are used in the context of disaster news is to be explored.. 4.

(12) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION 2. Literature Review 2.1 Disaster News A disaster can always draw people’s attention with its huge impact on people and our living surroundings (Tsang & Chung, 2000). Not only people who are involved in the disaster, but also people who are far away from the disastrous place can witness the devastating scenery through media coverage. Some disasters, such as. 政治大. Sichuan Earthquake happened in China in 2008 (Lin, 2009) and the Tsunami Disaster. 立. in South Asia in 2004 (Tu, 2005) are hugely covered by the media, and the fear. ‧ 國. 學. toward the disaster is deeply coined into our mind, and transformed as our collective. Nat. io. sit. y. ‧. memories (Chen, 2012), not matter you are present or not.. er. 2.1.1 Definition of Disaster. al. n. v i n Cresearch Disaster, has long been the and material for researchers for its h e n interest gchi U. huge impact on people and our living surroundings (Tsang & Chung, 2000). We have already witnessed so many disasters in this decade, which include, but are not limited to earthquakes, hurricanes, wars and terrorist attacks. With the observation from scholars, natural disasters seem to increase worldwide during recent decades, no matter in frequency, amounts of damage, or numbers of people affected (Rubin & Rossing, 2012). 5.

(13) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION Tsang and Chung (2000) define disaster as “social events happened in certain time and space, which cause damage to the society or its self-sufficient area, loss of people and materials, and breakdown of important social functions.” Barton defines disaster as the situation when “members of a social system fail to receive expected conditions of life from the system,” and can be classified by dimension of scope (national, regional, segmental and local) and concentration in time (sudden, gradual. 政治大. and chronic) (Barton, 1963; cited from Rodriguez et al., 2007).. 立. Except for the four dimensions of scope proposed by Barton, researcher in this. ‧ 國. 學. study also discovers that, nowadays, some disasters can transcend national borders. ‧. and cause damage to more than one country. For example, Severe Acute Respiratory. Nat. io. sit. y. Syndrome (SARS) stroke Taiwan in 2003, and this transnational epidemics also. er. caused people’s death in plenty of nations (Ling, 2004). This observation corresponds. al. n. v i n C h start to worry about with the case in this study that people e n g c h i U the possible effects of the radioactive contaminants from Japan that can harm the fishing industry, agriculture and the air after Taiwanese media cover Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Fu,. 2011). Disasters are not limited to national events, and can transcend national borders and leave transnational effects, and therefore trigger media’s attention.. 2.1.2 Related Terms of Disaster 6.

(14) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION Some related terms, such as “crisis” and “hazard” are used as synonyms of disaster. However, each of these terms contains subtle differences, and therefore needs to be clarified. Fearn-Banks (1996) regards a crisis as "a major occurrence with a potentially negative outcome affecting an organization, company, or industry, as well as its publics, products, or good name." Faulkner (2001) considers that the essential. 政治大. difference between a crisis and a disaster lies in whether the situation is attributable to. 立. the organization itself or not. The cause of a crisis is self-inflicted, and organization. ‧ 國. 學. has to manage the crisis in order to maintain the function of organization.. ‧. On the other hand, a hazard is a term commonly used by geographers and. Nat. io. sit. y. geography scientists, and it focuses on the disastrous process associated with the. er. target agent (Quarantelli, 1998; cited from Rodriguez et al., 2007). Therefore, hazard. al. n. v i n focuses on the disastrous naturalCevent h eand h i UIn summary, disaster is a n gitscprocess.. comprehensive term to describe the social event and human vulnerability to extreme events and natural threats.. 2.1.3 Definition of Disaster News A disaster can trigger not only people’s attention but media’s emphasis as well. Some of the disasters, like the 911 terrorist attacks in 2001(Nord & Strömbäck, 2006) 7.

(15) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION and Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Robinson, 2009), are hugely covered by the media, and the fear toward the disaster is deeply coined into our mind, and transformed as our collective memories (Chen, 2012). Larson (1980) defines disaster news as “media coverage about specific disastrous incident, which include disaster itself, alert, reconstruction, and number of death and injury.” The information provided by the media can influence public. 政治大. opinion, perception and understanding toward the disastrous incident.. 立. With the empirical analysis, it has been estimated that news regarding disaster. ‧ 國. 學. constitute 25 percent of all news stories (Gans, 1979). The reason why mass media. ‧. put emphasis on disasters so much is because disaster news is inherently a natural. Nat. io. sit. y. source of emotional, colorful and attention-grabbing story (Wenger, 1985). Harrison. er. (1993), therefore, regarded that disaster news can promote the audience rating, and. al. n. v i n C hadvertisers (cited from bring viewers and audiences to the e n g c h i U Lin, 2009). However,. disaster itself is an unexpected event which is out of media’s routine; in this case, covering disaster also poses challenges on the media workers (Kitzinger & Reilly, 1997).. 2.1.4 Roles of Disaster News During the period of disaster, media play an important role of “warning 8.

(16) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION transmitter” (Perez-Lugo, 2001). With the ability to reach a wide range of heterogeneous population in a short time, media can distribute needed information, and inform the salience and seriousness of a disaster to the public (Sood, Stockdale, & Rogers, 1987). Media’s coverage of disaster therefore leads to people’s “disaster awareness,” and people can attain general impression of the disaster. Besides, media provide the justification for official actions, and governors or crisis managers can use. 政治大. the media as the tool to issue mitigation and contingency plans in order to manage the. 立. disaster (Tierney, Bevc, & Kuligowski, 2006).. ‧ 國. 學. Wang (1992) lists seven components of disaster news, which include (1). ‧. numbers of causality/injury, (2) loss of valuable belongings, (3) cause of the disaster,. Nat. io. sit. y. (4) description of rescue, (5) description of disastrous place, (6) related events, and (7). er. accountability. Hu and Chen (2002) summarized the previous disaster studies and. al. n. v i n C h “precaution” toUthe audience, and do less found that news media seldom provide engchi. follow-up reports regarding safety issues caused by the disaster. Media seem to focus more on covering the current happenings of the disaster, and somewhat ignore what related incidents happened in the past, and what we should do to deal with the disaster in the future are. According to Wenger (1985), the positive functions of media when covering disaster include (1) mobilization of outside assistance, (2) distribution of general 9.

(17) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION information about the disaster, (3) dissemination of warning, and (4) pre-disaster public education programs. However, media can also be our “enemies” when covering disasters. The intrusion of media crews in disastrous places may cause difficulty in rescuing victims and managing disaster. Besides, the extreme mobilization of outside assistance may cause convergence phenomenon, and the supply overload may be hard to manage. Furthermore, Quarantelli (1981) argued that. 政治大. media depend heavily on “official sources” when covering disaster news, and the. 立. “command post” view of the disaster can distort the media's coverage of the event.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. With the above literature review, when disaster happens, media function as. Nat. io. sit. y. “warning transmitter” (Perez-Lugo, 2001) to deliver the needed information to the. er. audience, and therefore affect public opinion, perception and understanding toward. al. n. v i n C h how disaster happened disaster. This study is eager to explore e n g c h i U in other country is. covered by Taiwanese media, and takes Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster as an example.. 2.1.5 Related Studies of Disaster News Historically, disaster studies initiated from the 1940 to deal with cold war and nuclear attack (Tierney et al., 2006). As the disaster happened more frequently and the 10.

(18) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION impact become increasingly stronger, disasters are largely covered by the media as news materials. Most of the studies in the domain of disaster news “look at the external impact of the mass media, rather than internal dynamics of the mass communication system in disaster (Phillips, 1986, p. 8).” What news frames are used by the media to cover in the disaster are generally investigated.. 政治大. Dimitrova and Strömbäck (2005) made a cross-national framing study to. 立. compare elite newspapers’ framing of Iraq War happened in 2003. Swedish elite. ‧ 國. 學. newspaper Dagens Nyheter, and the New York Times in the United States are drawn to. ‧. investigate. The results showed that there is distinction between how media cover a. Nat. io. sit. y. national and a foreign event. Conflict frames are used more commonly in U.S. war. er. coverage in the New York Times, and media cover more about the war strategies. al. n. v i n employed to ensure “victory” inC thehIraq War; however, e n g c h i U“anti-war” frames are more commonly shown in the Swedish war coverage in Dagens Nyheter, and. “responsibility” of the war is emphasized. Lin (2009) examined how Sichuan Earthquake happened in China in 2008, which killed nearly 9,000 people in Sichuan County, is covered. The data are drawn from Xinhua News Agency in China and Central News Agency in Taiwan in order to compare the different construction of the disaster news across both sides of the 11.

(19) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION Taiwan Straits. The results showed that there is huge distinction between the coverage of these two news agencies. Xinhua News Agency put more emphasis on “government actions,” while Central News Agency covered more about “rescue actions” and “funding.” In contrast to the above studies, Tierney et al. (2006) took a different route by examining the internal dynamics of the mass communication system in disaster. The. 政治大. relationship of media framing and the public impression of Hurricane Katrina. 立. happened in 2005 is examined. Media’s coverage of looting, social disorganization,. ‧ 國. 學. and deviant behaviors lead to “disaster myth,” affecting people’s perception toward. Nat. io. sit. exaggerate the severity of accidents on people’s mind.. y. ‧. the disaster. Media’s employment of the “looting” and “social unrest” frames can. er. Although the divergent routes of research emphasis, it is important to note that. al. n. v i n most of the studies are commonC in h the case selection. With e n g c h i U huger impact on people and our living surroundings, disasters which are larger in scope and happened suddenly are generally selected as the case to examine (Tsang & Chung, 2000).. 2.2 Domestication Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster is an issue which is far away in distance and foreign to the local viewers. In this regard, how to introduce the international 12.

(20) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION news to the local audience becomes essential when media cover international news (Hung, Liao, & Lin, 2007). If the media want the audience to pay attention to, or even understand the stories which are far away from them, media workers will have to “create the links between the stories and the history, culture, politics, society, etc. of the viewers” (Cohen et al., 1996, pp. 174 - 175).. 2.2.1 Definition of Domestication. 立. 政治大. Domestication, a word which was originally used to describe “the initial stage. ‧ 國. 學. of human mastery of wild animals and plants1,” is now referred to media’s logic of. ‧. selecting/reconstructing international news for local audiences. Eide and Ytterstad. Nat. io. sit. y. (2011) define domestication as “a way of providing foreign (global) news with a. al. er. dominating national framework (P.56).” It is a way of reporting foreign news which. n. v i n C hrelevant to, understandable render news stories to become more for, and/or resonant engchi U with local viewers (Lee et al., 2011). Gurevitch, Levy, and Roeh (1996) regard domestication as a counter-conceptualization to globalization, and explained it as follows: Media maintain both global and culturally specific orientations - such as by. casting far-away events in frameworks that render these events comprehensible,. 1. Cited from Merriam-Webster dictionary (http://www.merriam-webster.com/concise/domestication) 13.

(21) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION appealing and relevant to domestic audiences; and second, by constructing the meanings of these events in ways that are compatible with the culture and the dominant ideology of societies they serve. (Gurevitch et al., 1996). Not all of the audience have the knowledge and ability to understand international news (Chan et al., 2002). Domesticated news can facilitate target. 政治大. audience’s comprehension toward international news since it is put under domestic. 立. contexts (Cohen, 2002). For the media workers, by adapting international news into. ‧ 國. 學. relevant structure, foreign agendas are converted and put into home agendas (Lee,. ‧. io. sit. y. Nat 2.2.2 Introduction of Domestication Strategies. al. er. 2005).. n. v i n C hcan hype international Domestication is a way which e n g c h i U news, and render local. audience to relate themselves to international issues (Chan et al., 2002). For media workers, in order to effectively domesticate international news, some strategies are employed. Chan et al. (2002) identified several strategies for domesticating international news, which are listed as follows: (1) rely on well-known figures, such as anchors, critics, and experts to raise audiences’ interest and attention; (2) rely on high-ranking 14.

(22) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION officials from their home countries to raise audiences’ interest and attention; (3) give voice to general public from their home countries to tell the news story; (4) locate the news story into domestic context to cover; and (5) narrate the news story to be vivid with concrete words.. 2.2.3 Strategy of Domestication: Selection of News Sources. 政治大. Broadly speaking, news sources can be referred to any information used as. 立. news materials, or narrowly referred to “the people” who provide information in the. ‧ 國. 學. news article (Cheng, 1991). Cross (2010) defines news sources as “those who provide. ‧. information and context to the news narrative, offer official or unofficial opinions,. Nat. io. sit. y. and give eye-witness accounts of events.” News sources, such as well-known figures,. n. al. er. high-ranking officials, and general public, are often used to domesticate international news (Chan et al., 2002).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. With the fame and public familiarity, well-known figures can draw audience’s attention. Fame is regarded as the result of development of industry and commodity culture by Walter Benjamin. By wielding marketing strategies, fame is granted with popular and novel characteristics in order to stimulate consumption. The fame possessed by well-known figures therefore constructs a mysterious image and triggers people’s curiosity, and it also corresponds with consumers’ needs to pursue popularity 15.

(23) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION and novelty (Benjamin, 1999). Besides, cultural workers, such as experts, produce commodities as valuable as their possession of knowledge and social reputation. The possession of knowledge, social contact and fame are the characteristics of cultural workers (Lin, 1996). Besides, uncertainty of international issue renders authoritative government officials to garner more chances to interpret the issue. Government officials’. 政治大. interpretation can render the international news to be more relevant to the local. 立. audience (Chan et al., 2002). In order to make news credible and authoritative,. ‧ 國. 學. sources that possess higher political and/or economic power are favored by journalists. ‧. (Bennett, 1990; Kim, 2006), especially when they cover international issues.. Nat. io. sit. y. Moreover, media can domesticate the far-away issue by giving voice to general. er. public from our own country. With general public as the source, media provide. al. n. v i n C hpeople (DimitrovaU& Strömbäck, 2012), and diverse viewpoints spoken by local engchi audiences can perceive the authenticity and relevance toward the issue (Chan et al., 2002). Overall, the selection of news sources, including well-known figures, high-ranking officials, and general public, can eliminate local audience’s resistance of far-away news, and enhance the issue relevance to the local audience (Chan et al., 2002). 16.

(24) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. 2.2.4 Strategy of Domestication: Locate the News into Domestic Context Locating the news story into domestic context to cover is another strategy of domestication. For example, CNN respondent Mike Chinoy proposed that, when covering international news, such as Hong Kong’s handover to china in 1997, media workers shouldn’t simply regard the issue as a regional politics (cited from Chan et al., 2002).. 立. 政治大. Instead, media workers should connect the international issue with domestic. ‧ 國. 學. framework, or compare the international issue with domestic incidents that we are. ‧. familiar with so as to highlight the issue relevance, and illuminate the meaning of the. Nat. er. io. sit. y. international issue and possible effect to the local audience (Hu, 2010).. al. n. v i n 2.2.5 Strategy of Domestication:CNarrate to be Vivid with Concrete Words h e nthegNews chi U When the media cover soft news, personal stories are frequently used. Media workers colorize the news, and polish the texture of news story to be vivid by narrating the news to be vivid with concrete words (Chan et al., 2002). Viewers are accordingly transported into a narrative world with an integrative melding of attention, imagery, and feelings (Green & Brock, 2000). Imagery is referred to “intrinsic message characteristics that evoke mental images in the mind of a person” (Bone & 17.

(25) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION Ellen, 1992). Imagery processing involves coding information in the form of sensory, imagistic, and concrete representations (Epstein, 1994). Concreteness can be defined as a measure of the extent to which "a material object as opposed to an abstract quality, state, or action" (Hawkins & Allen, 1991, p. 303). Imagery is regarded as a multidimensional construct which varies in terms of sensory modality (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory), affective meaning or valence (negative or. 政治大. positive), quantity (number of images evoked), and vividness (the clarity, intensity,. 立. and/or distinctiveness of images) (MacInnis & Price, 1987). Comprehended and. ‧ 國. 學. imagined by people’s mental process, news stories are personally relevant and. ‧. persuasive (Chang & Chang, 1997), so as to create the emotional linkage between the. Nat. io. sit. y. news stories and the viewers.. er. To summarize, domestication is a way which can hype international news. al. n. v i n C hthe links betweenUthe stories and the history, (Chan et al., 2002)., so as to “create engchi culture, politics, society, etc. of the viewers” (Cohen et al., 1996, pp. 174 - 175). The ways of employing domestication strategies include: selection of news sources (including well-known figures, high-ranking officials, and general public), locating the news story into domestic context to cover, and narrating the news to be vivid. This study sets out to explore how these strategies are used to domesticate Fukushima Daiichi unclear disaster, a disaster happened in Japan, by Taiwanese media. 18.

(26) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION. 2.2.6 Related Studies of Domestication Domestication is a rather new concept, and was first brought up by Cohen et al. (1996). Domestication is deemed as a framing device or mechanism for the media to connect the local audience to the importance of international news. Studies in the domain of domestication usually take specific and huge international event as the case. 政治大. in order to understand how domestication is employed.. 立. Amid the studies in the domain of domestication research, of common way to. ‧ 國. 學. assess the extent of domestication for the researchers is to measure whose voices are. ‧. quoted in the coverage (Eide & Ytterstad, 2011). Concentration on national sources is. Nat. io. sit. y. a domestication strategy generally used when covering international news. Eide and. er. Ytterstad (2011) measured which voices are quoted in the coverage of the Bali. al. n. v i n C h newspapers, U summit by investigating two Norwegian e n g c h i and found out Norwegian national politicians are strategically selected as news sources. The strategy of domesticating the foreign news by citing domestic sources can be seen. Kuo (2005) explores how the Iraq War, which happened in 2003, is covered by Taiwanese media by the examination of sources, themes and content of the news. The results showed that “reporters affiliated to the newspaper” and “foreign news agencies” are the most commonly used sources in constructing the issue. 19.

(27) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION In addition to many studies in the domain of domestication addressing how domestication is employed in the international news, Lee et al. (2011) conducted a cross-national comparative study to examine the determinants which affect the degree of domestication. The results showed that higher country’s level of participation in the Olympic Games, and larger size of ethnic Chinese population within the country lead to higher domestication of media coverage.. 立. 2.3 Framing. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. In the process of news construction, media tend to use specific frames to. ‧. “domesticate” the audience by strategically arranging frames. Frames are “interpretive. Nat. io. sit. y. packages” for audiences to understand the issues and can affect “how they think and. er. talk about issues in the news” (Pan & Kosicki, 1993, p. 70). By using specific frames,. al. n. v i n C h reality prominent,Uand domesticate the issue to media make certain partially selected engchi. be more relevant to, understandable for, and/or resonant with the local viewers (Lee et al., 2011).. 2.3.1 Three Paradigms of Framing Research There are three paradigms in the domain of framing research, which are cognitive perspective, critical perspective and constructivist perspective (Reese, 2007). 20.

(28) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION Under the three paradigms, frames are conceptually said to have two different pedigrees, which are sociological frames and psychological frames. The cognitive perspective focuses on frames’ individual-level power by dealing with people’s ‘‘negotiation’’ to news elements in order to create semantic associations within individual’s schemata (D'Angelo, 2002). Individuals are deemed to be capable of decoding frames in order to make decisions and judgments.. 立. 政治大. Frames in the cognitive perspective are conceptualized as psychological frames.. ‧ 國. 學. Psychological frames focus on “how individuals perceive, organize, and interpret. ‧. events and issues”(De Vreese, Peter, & Semetko, 2001, p. 107). Through the. Nat. io. sit. y. information processing, people develop a “particular conceptualization of an issue or. er. reorient their thinking about an issue”(Chong & Druckman, 2007, p. 104), and. al. n. v i n C hactions and decisions. embody their thoughts into further e n g c h i U “Personal frame” and. “audience frame” are under this category. The critical perspective views frames are controlled by, and tied to political and economic elites (Reese, 2007), and news are the outcome products of elites’ values and perspectives. By purposely emphasizing and neglecting some information, news frames support viewpoint of the status quo, and constrict political consciousness (D'Angelo, 2002). 21.

(29) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION The constructivist perspective regards frames as “interpretive packages” for audiences to understand relevant issues. Interpretive packages reflect the positions of politically invested “sponsors” (e.g., sources) in order to both reflect and add to the “issue culture” of the topic (Gamson & Mogdiliani, 1989). Frames in the critical and constructivist perspectives are conceptualized as sociological frames. Sociological frames focus on how issues are presented in the. 政治大. news (De Vreese et al., 2001), and especially how “words, images, phrases, and. 立. presentation styles” (Druckman, 2001, p. 227) are used to cover news stories.. ‧ 國. 學. Sociological frame “organizes everyday reality” (Tuchman, 1978, p. 193), in order to. ‧. encourage “target audiences to think, feel, and decide in a particular way” (Entman,. Nat. io. sit. y. 2007, p. 164). “Frame in communication” (Chong & Druckman, 2007), “news. n. al. er. frames”(D'Angelo, 2002) and “media frame” (De Vreese et al., 2001) are under this category.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Nowadays, framing research don’t differentiate different paradigms specifically, and researchers usually examine framing in a paradigmatic synthesis way (D'Angelo, 2002). In a paradigmatic synthesis way, this study also tries to explore how Fukushima Daiichi unclear disaster, a disaster happened in Japan, is covered by sociological frames, namely, the frames created by the media. However, this study caters to constructivist perspective, which aims at examining how the specific frames, 22.

(30) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION which can affect how audience think and talk about issues in the news, are used in this issue.. 2.3.2 Definition of Frame Gitlin (1980, p. 7) defines frames as “persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation, and presentation, of selection, emphasis and exclusion by which. 政治大. symbol handlers routinely organize discourse.” Entman (2007) regards the core. 立. functions of frame are to select and to emphasize. By selecting some aspects of a. ‧ 國. 學. perceived reality and make them salient in communicating text, journalists promote. Nat. io. sit. “treatment recommendation” (Entman, 1993, p. 52).. y. ‧. “particular problem definition,” “causal interpretation,” “moral evaluation,” and/or. er. Pan and Kosicki (1993, p. 57) consider “framing, therefore, may be studied as a. al. n. v i n C h news discourseUor as a characteristic of the strategy of constructing and processing engchi discourse itself.” Framing, accordingly, can be seen as a strategic process of. presenting the partially selected reality in order to construct the central ideas of the event. There is no single definition of news frame; however, the definitions used by previous studies all point out similar characteristics of framing. News frames are “conceptual tools which media and individuals rely on to convey, interpret and 23.

(31) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION evaluate information”(Neuman, Just, & Crigler, 1992, p. 60).. 2.3.3 Inductive Approach and Deductive Approach of Analyzing Frames With roughly the same meaning, the word frame, framing and framework are commonly used when conducting the research. Framing research, therefore, is called a “fractured paradigm,” which shares little conceptual ground and embraces many. 政治大. methodologies to analyze frames (Entman, 1993). Generally, there are two ways of. 立. conducting framing research: one is inductive approach, and the other is deductive. ‧ 國. 學. approach (De Vreese, 2005).. ‧. The inductive approach involves analyzing news stories in an attempt to find. Nat. io. sit. y. out possible frames in the text. Possible ways of how an issue is framed can be. n. al. er. detected, but this method is labor-intensive, suitable for small-sample research, and. Ch. engchi. hard to replicate (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000).. i n U. v. The deductive approach, however, involves pre-investigating and operationalizing certain frames as content analytic variables, in order to verify the extent to which these frames occur in the media text. This approach may overlook the frames which are not predefined, but is suitable for large-sample research, and easy to replicate .(Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000). This study combines both inductive and deductive approaches. Certain frames 24.

(32) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION are predefined in this study, and the extent to which these frames occur in the media text is under investigation. Besides, by repeated reading news stories in Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, possible frames in framing the issue are to be found as measure scheme as well.. 2.3.4 Five Frames as Measurement Scheme. 政治大. This study tries to decode the news coverage of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear. 立. disaster by the frames proposed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000). Semetko and. ‧ 國. 學. Valkenburg (2000) investigated the following five frames that have been identified in. ‧. several early studies, which largely account for all the frames that have been found in. Nat. io. sit. y. covering the news. The five frames are “conflict frame,” “human interest frame,”. er. “economic consequences frame,” “morality frame,” and “responsibility frame.”. al. n. v i n With the repeated readingC ofh news articles regarding e n g c h i U Fukushima Daiichi nuclear. disaster, researcher in this study also found out the five news frames identified by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000) can largely account for all the frames used in reporting Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. In this case, this study tries to explore how Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is covered in a deductive approach with these frames. Conflict frame focuses on the conflict between groups, institutions, or 25.

(33) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION individuals in order to grasp audience attention (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000). Jamieson (1992) proposed when an issue is covered in conflict frame, the focal point of news is to cover who wins the debate, instead of the effect toward the citizens or the content of policy (cited from Lin, 2009). Huang (2003) discovered when media cover the 4th nuclear power plant controversy, the conflict frame is used and the controversy of constitutional system and political invasion account for majority of the. 政治大. news coverage. With the emphasis on conflict, the news media have been criticized. 立. for intriguing mistrust and public cynicism (Capella & Jamieson, 1997).. ‧ 國. 學. Human interest frame presents a problem, issue, or event with an emotional. ‧. angle. Media’s use of human interest frame can dramatize, personalize, or. Nat. io. sit. y. emotionalize the news, so as to grasp and retain audience attention (Semetko &. er. Valkenburg, 2000). Cho and Gower (2006) discovered that human interest frame can. al. n. v i n C h to the crisis, andUis a significant predictor of influence viewers’ emotional response engchi blame and responsibility in a crisis.. Economic consequences frame presents a problem, issue, or event in relation to the consequences it will have economically on a country, region or individual (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000). In the examination of how Foxconn suicides incident is framed, Guo et al. (2012) also extend economic consequence/development frames to the global context and examine whether the incident is framed as a global economic 26.

(34) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION problem. Graber (1993) proposed economic consequences are often of wide impact and news values (cited from Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000) Morality frame reports an issue, problem or event in the religious or moral perspective (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000). With the professional norm of being objective, media workers often use moral frames in an indirect way, such as using quotation or inference from the sources, in order to tell the audience “how to behave”. 政治大. (Neuman et al., 1992). Lin (2009) observed the use of morality frame is common,. 立. especially when media portray the image of a specific group. Weng (1997) discovered. ‧ 國. 學. the media portray the image of married women in the conservative and moral. ‧. perspective, proposing women should stay in the position of taking charge of. Nat. io. sit. y. household activities.. er. Responsibility frame presents an issue or problem in a way to attribute. al. n. v i n C h to an individual,Ua group or the government responsibility for its cause or solution engchi (Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000). Iyengar (1991) identified the episodic frames (focusing on specific individuals or certain events) and the thematic frames (reporting issues in the larger societal or governmental level). Level of responsibility (individual's or society's responsibility) media present can also shape public opinion about who is responsible for causing or solving the problems (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987, cited from An & Gower, 2009). 27.

(35) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION This study tries to decode how Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is covered by using a deductive approach based on the pre-defined frames proposed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000). Besides, researcher in this study inductively sorted out additional frames that applied to the case, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, by repeatedly reading all news articles.. 2.3.5 Related Studies of Framing. 立. 政治大. In the domain of framing research, there are plenty of studies. These studies. ‧ 國. 學. usually take one major campaign or issue as the case in order to see how the frames. ‧. are applied.. Nat. io. sit. y. Lin (2009) examined protest news in Taiwanese media by taking the protest. er. against President Ma Ying-jeou’s 100th day in office as the case. Five prevalent news. al. n. v i n C h and predefined U frames in earlier studies are identified e n g c h i as content analytic variables,. and the results showed that the human interest was the most commonly used frame in this issue. Chang (1992) examined the effect of strategy frames and issue frames toward the audience during the campaigns of Taipei mayoral election in 1998. The results showed strategy-framed stories are used commonly by the media workers when covering the news of Taipei mayoral election. Besides, one characteristic that these studies all share is the frames are mostly 28.

(36) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION pre-defined and therefore the studies are deductive in nature. Wu (2001) takes the fourth nuclear power plant in Taiwan as the case, trying to explore how news sources and news frames are used to construct the media reality. Eight frames are predefined with the “list of multidimensional concept” approach, and they are frames of national security, economic development, law and order, unclear referendum, environment protection, energy policy, and political stance. The results. 政治大. showed that of all the frames employed, political frame is the most commonly used. 立. frame in constructing the nuclear controversy. Media frames are used and emphasized. ‧ 國. 學. differently with different sources as well.. ‧. De Vreese et al. (2001) takes the introduction of Euro in the currency market as. Nat. io. sit. y. the case, and conducts a cross-national comparative study to explore framing of the. er. issue in four European countries. Frames of conflict and economic consequences are. al. n. v i n C hshowed that conflict predefined in this study. The results e n g c h i U frames are found to be used more in political and economic news in general. Economic consequences frames are more prominent than conflict frames, and are used by media workers when constructing the issue of introduction of Euro.. 2.4 Research Questions This study tries to explore how Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, a disaster 29.

(37) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION happened in Japan, is covered by Taiwanese media with domestication strategies. After the literature review, research questions are brought up:. First, frames are used and constructed in order to cover the news. This study tries to decode the news coverage of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster by the five frames proposed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000), and the frame(s) inductively. 政治大. sorted out by the researcher. In this case, the first research question is:. 立. ‧ 國. 學. RQ1: What are the dominant frames in covering Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster?. ‧. Nat. io. sit. y. Besides, although media construct and deliver the issue to the audience, media. er. workers are seldom the ones who witness the incident. Media workers rely on news. al. n. v i n C h information,Uand in turn, news sources are sources to provide them with issue-related engchi strategically used so as to domesticate the local audience. In this vein, how news sources are used as domestication strategy to eliminate audience’s resistance of far-away news, and enhance issue relevance to the audience is under examination. The second research questions are therefore brought up:. RQ2-1: What are the sources that media use to cover Fukushima Daiichi nuclear 30.

(38) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION disaster? RQ2-2: Are the sources used to domesticate Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster?. In addition to news sources, locating the news story into domestic context by comparing the similar domestic issues and narrating news story with concrete words in vivid description may be employed as strategies to domesticate the issue. Links. 政治大. between the news and the viewers are therefore created so as to render local audience. 立. to perceive the issue importance and understand the issue. In this regard, the third. ‧ 國. 學. research questions are:. ‧. Nat. io. sit. y. RQ3-1: Do media employ the domestication strategy-locating the news story into. er. domestic context when covering Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster?. al. n. v i n Ch RQ3-2: Do media employ the domestication the news story with e n gstrategy-narrating chi U concrete words in vivid description when covering Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster?. Moreover, frames are used when media cover the news in order to make certain partially selected reality prominent, and render the issue to be more relevant to, understandable for, and/or resonant with the viewers (Lee, Chan, & Zhou, 2011). The 31.

(39) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION relationship between domestication strategies and news frames is under examination to see whether specific domesticated strategies are employed in specific frames. In this regard, the fourth research questions are:. RQ4-1: What is the relationship between frames and domesticated sources? RQ4-2: What is the relationship between frames and the domestication strategy by. 政治大. locating the news story into domestic context?. 立. RQ4-3: What is the relationship between frames and the domestication strategy by. ‧ 國. 學. narrating the news story with concrete words in vivid description?. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 32. i n U. v.

(40) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION 3. Research Method 3.1 Introduction of Content Analysis This study sets out to explore the employment of domestication strategies in the context of disaster news, and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is chosen as the case. How Taiwanese media employ domestication strategies in Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is under quantitative examination by conducting a content analysis.. 政治大. Walizer and Wienir (1978) define content analysis as “any systematic. 立. procedure devised to examine the content of recorded information” (cited from. ‧ 國. 學. Wimmer & Dominick, 2010). Content analysis is a systematic, objective and. ‧. quantitative way of examining media content, and suitable for testing message. Nat. io. sit. y. characteristics (Wimmer & Dominick, 2010). Wang (1996) proposed that content. er. analysis is suitable for communication studies by exploring the characteristics, effects,. al. n. v i n CContent trend, and essence of the content. is a useful tool for organizing and h e nanalysis gchi U estimating large amount of content of media production in a specific time frame. Wang (1989) specified the procedure of conducting a content analysis as the following steps: (1) form research questions or hypotheses, (2) define the study population, (3) define the sampling method, (4) define unit of analysis, (5) construct. content analysis variables, (6) establish a quantitative system, (7) predict the outcome, (8) establish reliability, (9) record the content by definition, and (10) analyze and 33.

(41) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION explain the data. The content analysis conducted in this study followed the above procedure in order to produce scientifically-objective outcomes. The goal of this study is to explore the employment of domestication strategies in the disaster news. News frames are also examined in order to discover whether specific domesticated strategies are employed in specific frames. The “list of multidimensional concept approach” proposed by Tankard, Hendrickson, and Bliss. 政治大. (1991) is used in this study. The “list of multidimensional concept approach” first. 立. later used as analyzing tools to examine the articles.. 學. ‧ 國. analyzes the news discourse in order to establish content variables. The variables are. ‧. In addition to the five frames proposed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000), this. Nat. five frames by repeatedly reading all news articles.. al. er. io. sit. y. study inductively sorted out additional frames which are not included in the above. n. v i n Eventually, technologicalC frame and operationalized as content h eisndiscovered gchi U. analysis variable. Technological frame can render the selected scientific and technological explanation or knowledge to be prominent.. 3.2 Defining the Study Population This study wants to explore how Taiwanese media cover Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster by using domestication strategies via conducting a content analysis. 34.

(42) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION This content analysis collects the news of the “Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster” published on the Taiwanese newspapers. Choi and Becker (1987) discovered that comparing with television, newspapers, with larger space for illustrating the news and the characteristic that viewer can access to the news information repeatedly, can facilitate audiences’ ability of processing the information regarding the issue (cited from Liang, 2003). In this vein, newspapers can. 政治大. be accessed without the limitation of time and space, and the information provided is. 立. comparatively intact.. ‧ 國. 學. Time frame. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster happened on March 11, 2011. ‧. (Yasunari et al., 2011). According to researcher’s own observation, media coverage,. Nat. io. sit. y. after one year when Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster happened, can still be seen.. er. Chen (2012) also discovered when the anniversary of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear. al. n. v i n Disaster approached, the amountCofhnews reports increased e n g c h i U gradually. In this case, this study wants to explore one-year period media coverage of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Media source. Given the circulation rate of printed news media, Apple Daily, Liberty Times, United Daily and China Times are the four dominant newspapers in. Taiwan. Two newspapers are selected as the objective of content analysis, which are United Daily and Apple Daily. The reasons are stated as followed. 35.

(43) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION United Daily is a non-state owned newspaper publisher, which launched from 1951. United Daily started to publish its overseas edition since 1963, and it has stretched out its business territory over 126 countries in the world. Besides, in the Gulf War in 1991 and Afghanistan War in 2001, United Daily dispatched correspondents to cover the disasters. Comparing with other printed media, United Daily is a news media which provides abundant international news to the audience. 政治大. (Lee, 2005). Overall, given the business territory in the world, and experience in. 立. covering international news and disaster news, United Daily is chosen as the media. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. source.. Apple Daily is affiliated to Hong Kong-based Next Media, and it stretched out. Nat. io. sit. y. its business territory and published its Taiwanese edition in 2003. Unlike traditional. er. newspaper, Apple Daily uses color printing on all pages of the newspaper, contains a. al. n. v i n C h and the presents U large numbers of pictures and charts, e n g c h i to the audience with the content full of sensation and exaggeration (Lin, 2008). According to the survey “2011 Media. Chart” conducted by college of communication at Shih Hsin University, Apple Daily is ranked No.1 on “most viewed newspaper” five years in a row. With the large amount of readership, Apple Daily is an influential printed media to the local viewers, and therefore, is chosen as the media source.. 36.

(44) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION 3.3 Sampling Method The sampling is conducted by collecting all the candidate news articles with the aid of two comprehensive news databank, udndata.com, and WiseNews databank. Databanks can be accessed by logging in the website of library at National Chengchi University. News reports of United Daily are collected from the databank udndata.com, and News articles of Apple Daily are collected from WiseNews databank.. 立. 政治大. The function of advanced research is utilized, and keywords involving. ‧ 國. 學. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster are used.. ‧. In stage one, keywords such as “Japan,” “Fukushima,” and “disaster” are used.. Nat. sit er. io. and “meltdown” are used.. y. In stage two, keywords such as “nuclear,” “nuclear disaster,” “radionuclide,”. al. n. v i n Cthe In stage three, “funding for and “accountability” are used. h enuclear n g disaster” chi U In stage four, previously-selected articles involving earthquake and other events. which are not related to nuclear disaster itself are ruled out. This study includes straight news, feature story news and editorials related to Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster from the databanks, and selects news articles with the following principles. Unqualified articles are excluded. Straight news. Straight news is covered in an objective way in order to provide 37.

(45) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION the viewers with truth, and comments, pictures and graphs are not included. Feature story news. Feature story news aims at analyzing and augmenting the news by in-depth reports. Special reports, special interview and feature story are in this category and noted out. Editorials. Editorials are the critical opinions toward an incident or an issue, which represents the stance of the press.. 政治大. In the next phase, news articles selected are examined to see whether the article. 立. is relevant to the event-Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Unrelated News articles. ‧ 國. 學. which consist of the key words are excluded.. ‧. The criteria of examining the event include:. Nat. io. sit. y. 1. Reports about Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster: such as the cause and. n. al. er. consequence of the disaster, description of the disastrous spots, number of the injured,. Ch. engchi. casualty number, words from the victims and etc.. i n U. v. 2. Reports about the following actions: such as international concern, rescue movements, government actions, accountability, and etc. 3. Reports about the historical review of the disaster: such as scientific research and prediction of disaster, historical review of related disasters and etc.. 3.4 Unit of Analysis 38.

(46) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION The sampling unit is thus a single news article. More specifically, the sampling unit is a news article published on-line with a particular URL.. 3.5 Defining Content Analysis Variables The basic theoretical and operational definitions for the variables used in the content analysis in this study are summed up in Table 1. More detailed information. 政治大. regarding content analysis variable and examples can be found in the full codebook. 立. (Appendix A). ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 3-1. Theoretical and operational definition for content analysis variables The news item’s case identification number The name of the medium the news item appeared in Date of news report shown in the news article People who either directly or indirectly quoted in the news to provide information, opinions, and context to the news narrative. The number ranges from 00001 to 99999. News sources. n. Time frame. al. Ch. engchi. sit. io. Medium name. y. Operational definition. er. Item number. Theoretical definition. Nat. Variable. v. (1) United Daily (2) Apple Daily Day/Month/Year. i n U. (1) Local official (2) Japanese official (3) Foreign official (4) Local celebrity (5) Japanese celebrity (6) Foreign celebrity (7) Local expert (8) Japanese expert (9) Foreign expert (10) Local people (11) Japanese people. 39.

(47) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION (12) Foreign people (13) Local organization (14) Japanese organization Conflict frame. Human interest frame. 立. 政治大. country, region or individual Morality frame reports an issue, problem or event in the religious or moral perspective. n. al. Ch. sit. i n U. Responsibility frame presents an issue or problem in a way to attribute responsibility for its cause or solution to an individual,. engchi. Locate the news. a group or the government Technological frame renders the selected scientific and technological facts to be prominent by providing scientific and technological explanation. It connects the international issue. story into domestic context to cover. with domestic framework, or compares the international issue with domestic incidents that we. Technological frame. 40. er. io. Responsibility frame. (1) Does the story contain any moral or religious message, or suggest any social prescriptions about how to behave? (yes/no) (1) Does the story suggest that individual/organization has the responsibility for the issue, or solutions to alleviate the problem? (yes/no). y. Nat. Morality frame. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Economic consequences frame. (15) Foreign organization Conflict frame focuses on the (1) Does the story reflect disagreement conflict between groups, between institutions, or individuals in order parties/individuals/groups/countries or that to grasp audience attention one party/individual/group/country reproaches the other? (yes/no) Human interest frame presents a (1) Does the story generate feelings (such problem, issue, or event with an as outrage, empathy-caring, sympathy, emotional angle compassion, joy or fear), or emphasize how individuals and groups are affected by the issue? (yes/no) Economic consequences frame (1) Is there a mention of financial losses or presents a problem, issue, or event gains now or in the future, or a reference to in relation to the consequences it economic consequences of being affected will have economically on a by the incident? (yes/no). v. (1) Does the news story provide the technological/scientific explanation to explain the nuclear disaster? (yes/no). (1) Does the news story refer the international issue, incident or situation with the similar domestic issue, incident or situation? (yes/no).

(48) A STUDY ABOUT MEDIA FRAMES AND DOMESTICATION are familiar with Narrate the news It colorizes the news and polishes story to be vivid the texture of news story to be vivid by narrating the news story with concrete to be vivid with concrete words words and adjectives in order to create the emotional linkage between the news stories and the viewers. (1) Is the news story narrated in a vivid way with concrete words and many adjectives, which somehow brings to mind mental pictures? (yes/no). 3.6 Intercoder Reliability. 政治大. “Intercoder reliability refers to the extent to which two or more independent. 立. coders agree on the coding of the content of interest with an application of the same. ‧ 國. 學. coding scheme” (Lavrakas, 2008). The results are more reliable if the coders reach. ‧. more agreement.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 20% of the articles (n = 106) are collected from Apple Daily and United Daily as pre-test articles. The researcher in this study and a student from National Chengchi. n. al. Ch. University are recruited as coders.. engchi. i n U. v. Cohen’s kappa is the coefficient used as the measurement to access intercoder reliability, and generally a coefficient greater than 0.75 is acceptable (Wimmer & Dominick, 2010). Table 3-2 shows the results of intercoder reliability coefficient for each variable.. 41.