政治演說中之溝通策略特色-以歐巴馬及普京對國會演說為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)Department of Diplomacy (M.A. Program) National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan, Rep. of China. Communicative strategy characteristics in political discourse – Evidence from President’s Messages of B. H. Obama and V.V. Putin. 立. to the Parliament 治政大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. By Anna Kortoshkina (柯葦葳: 98253040). Supervisor: Professor Hong-Yi Lien July, 2013.

(2) CONTENT:. Introduction………………………………………………………………………...3 Chapter I. Theoretical foundations of strategy and tactics research of modern political discourse 1.1.. The concept and nature of political discourse………………………….......10. 1.2.. Special aspects of political leader’s speech image development…………..21. 1.3.. Genre. characteristics. of. President's. Message. in. the. context. of. communicative strategy…………………………………………………….26. 政治大. Chapter II. Communicative strategy methods of representing the main strategy of the government in the political discourse of Barack H. Obama. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1. Communicative strategy of the USA in public speeches and State of the Union Address to Congress of Barack H. Obama…………………………………………………………………………..…32. ‧. 2.2. Political discourse as a reflection of the Obama’s political image development………………………………………………………………………38. Nat. er. io. sit. y. 2.3. Communicative strategy characteristics in the political discourse of Barack H. Obama……………………………………………………………………………..43. n. Chapter III. Communicative strategy methods of representing the main strategy of a v l discourse of Vladimir the government in the political n i V. Putin. Ch. i U. e nRussian g c h Federation in State of the Nation 3.1. Communicative strategy of the Address to the Federal Assembly of Vladimir V. Putin…………………………..56 3.2. Political discourse as a reflection of the Putin’s political image development............................................................................................................61 3.3. Communicative strategy characteristics in the political discourse of Vladimir V. Putin……………………………………………………………………………66 Chapter IV. Comparative analysis of political discourse of Barack H. Obama and Vladimir V. Putin.............................................................................................…...77 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...83 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………86. 2.

(3) INTRODUCTION. The relevance of the research. The study of political discourse, its subject, features of political language and used discursive practices is the most important task of political science and political linguistics. It is known that the object of study of linguistics is speech activity aimed at promoting the emotional impact on the citizens of the country, the awakening of political activism. The development of new methods of analysis of political texts and their application make it possible to get adequate data on the state of public consciousness, dominant political attitudes on the current socio-political issues. In political communication, language becomes. 政治大 and thus a tool of understanding political phenomena. It can be assumed that the 立 a tool of influence and manipulation, the most important means of categorization,. neutral use of language in politics is impossible in principle. That is why the power. ‧ 國. 學. in its abstract sense and if to take some particular officials often appears as the. ‧. object of reflection, interpretation and criticism. Since any power creates its own speech practice, plays its own “language game”, it is important to analyze the. Nat. sit. y. “language of power” or “discourse of power” for the study of political discourse.. er. io. People with different power positions have different opportunities to master. n. more advanced linguistic a mechanisms, and a personvwho has the highest authority may at any time. i l C n decide which h e n linguistic g c h i Umechanism. is the most useful.. Consequently, a person who has power determines the use and meaning of words and expressions (power tools) to a large extent. Speaking of language as a tool of social power, it is meant the inherent ability of language to structure and impact (choice of expressions carried out by the sender affects the understanding of the recipient). It is known that in some types of discourse there are certain genres that are available only for “professionals”, where “a customer” can’t be a subject like preaching for the priest, a lecture for the teacher, the sentence for judges, etc. These types include most of the genres of political discourse (public speech of a politician, parliamentary debate, program of the party, all genres of presidential rhetoric, etc.). 3.

(4) The relevance of this research is caused by the priority of studies in the field of political communication and discourse in order to findings processing and systematization of information on specifics, methodologies and techniques of communicative influence on public opinion and consciousness. A special place in this area is taken by the strategy of political discourse in the context of the message of the President to the Federal Assembly, the great keynote speech of the head of Russia. The stated positions of the Head of State on matters of domestic policy are taken into account by the parliament and the government in planning lawmaking activities, determining the positions of deputies on bills. Evaluation and priorities formulated in the message have a significant impact on public opinion in key areas. 政治大 Study of features of communication strategies in the political discourse on 立. of domestic policy.. the example of the Russian President’s message to the parliament taking into. ‧ 國. 學. account the comparative analysis of similar specificities of the same message of. ‧. the American President will help to form in today's society the basic criteria of rational critical positions and ideologies on the language behavior of political. Nat. sit. y. leaders and will help to strengthen aspects of the political consciousness of the. er. io. society as well as to modernize the methods of influence through political discourse in the public consciousness. a. n. iv l C n the comparison h e n g of i U president’s c hRussian. The choice of. message with the. American is not occasional. Russian Federation and the United States are historically bound since the end of World War II., when Cold war started. This term is used to describe the relationship between America and the Soviet Union from 1945 to 1980. Neither side ever fought the other - the consequences would be too appalling - but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using client states who fought for their beliefs on their behalf e.g. South Vietnam was anticommunist and was supplied by America during the war while North Vietnam was pro-Communist and fought the south (and the Americans) using weapons from communist Russia or communist China. In Afghanistan, the Americans supplied the rebel Afghans after the Soviet Union invaded in 1979 while they never physically involved themselves 4.

(5) thus avoiding a direct clash with the Soviet Union. The Cold War was to dominate international affairs for decades and many major crises occurred - the Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam, Hungary and the Fall of Berlin Wall Thus, the language behavior of modern political leaders now is a specific, multi-dimensional phenomenon that requires special detailed study. Modern methodology of language impact allows us to study the linguistic phenomenon of communication strategies in close relationship with a political leader, his culture, a biography, way of thinking and political views. It’s necessary to remember that the political message of the president or another important document on the instructions of the head can be made by a large. 政治大 takes responsibility for its contents. The recipients of the text are interested in the 立. group of professionals. However, making the text public or signing it the president. opinion of the President, but not his assistants, and possible criticism of the theses. ‧ 國. 學. and assessments contained in the document, as well as ways of expressing it will. ‧. be addressed to the President, but not to his assistants.. Theoretical and methodological basis of the study is represented by. Nat. sit. Political linguistics (Eduard Budaev 1 , Lyubov Postnikova 2 , Anatoly. er. io. •. y. researches of Russian and foreign scientists in such fields of knowledge as:. n. Chudinov 3, Max Black 4,aRichard Carpenter 5, Roberti vGray6);. •. The theory of. Sheigal9);. l C n 7 U h e(Nina discourse Arutyunova , ngchi. 1. Leonid Makarov 8 , Elena. Eduard Budaev. The metaphorical image of Russia in the world today. - Ekaterinburg: Urals State Pedagogical University, 2009; Budaev E.V., Chudinov A.P. The rhetorical approach to investigating political metaphor / / Respectus Philologicus. - Vilnius, 2006. - № 9 (14); Budaev E.V., Chudinov A.P. Metaphor in political communication. - M. Flint, Science, 2008. 2 Lyubov Postnikova. Prosody of the political discourse in the British and American linguistic cultures. – M.: Librokom, 2011. 3 Anantoly Chudinov. Political Linguistics. - Ekaterinburg: Urals State Pedagogical University, 2006; Chudinov A.P. Russia in the metaphorical mirror: cognitive study of political metaphors. - Ekaterinburg, 2001. 4 Max Black. Models and metaphors. – Ithaca, 1962. 5 Richard Carpenter. America’s Tragic Metaphor: Our Twentieth-Century Combatants as Frontiersmen // Quarterly Journal of Speech. – 1990. – Vol. 76. – № 1. 6 Robert Gray. Archetypal explorations: an integrative approach to human behavior. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 7 Nina Arutyunova. Metaphor and Discourse. The introductory article / / The theory of metaphor. Collection of articles. - Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1990.. 5.

(6) •. Communication studies (Harold Lasswell 10, Roman Jakobson 11);. •. Political Science and Sociology. The review clearly shows that in spite of worked-out theoretical and. empirical aspects of communication strategy, there are not enough political science papers on systemic and holistic analysis of the political discourse. Therefore, this aspect of the problem is of particular interest for the topic of this paper and is in the focus of author's intense attention. Overview and critical assessment of the problem. Works of many foreign and Russian scientists (Gennady Belov, Michael Grachev 12, Valeriy Demyankov13 etc.) are devoted to the study of communication strategies in the political discourse,. 政治大 From a sociological point of view political discourse was studied by such 立. its meaning and function in various areas of public life.. ‧ 國. 學. scholars as Giovanni Arrighi 14 , Manuel Castells 15 , Tatyana Ryabova 16 , Francis Fukuyama 17 and others.. ‧. The nature and role of communication strategies in the political discourse, its kinds have been studied by such foreign researchers as George Campbell 18 ,. Nat. sit. y. Alan Henriksen 19 , Stewart Kingsbury , Wolfgang Mieder 20 , John O'Loughlin,. er. io. Harold Lasswell21 and others.. al. n. v i n C h analysis in a smallUgroup. - Tver Publishing House of the Tver. Michail Makarov. The interpretative discourse engchi University Press, 1998.. 8. 9. Elena Sheigal. Semiotics of political discourse. – M: Gnosis, 2004. Harold Lasswell. Language of power // Political Linguistics. - Ekaterinburg, 2006. - № 20. 11 Roman Jakobson. Two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disorders // Theory of metaphor. – M.: Progress Publishers, 1990. 12 Michail Grachev. Political Communication / / Bulletin of Peoples' Friendship University. Ser. Political science. 1999. № 1. 13 Valeriy Demyankov. Interpretation of political discourse in the media //M. Volodin (ed.) Language Media. - M., 2008. 14 Giovanni Arrighi., Terence Hopkins and Immanuel Wallerstein. 1989: The Continuation of 1968 // George Katsiaficas (ed.). After the Fall: 1989 and the Future of Freedom. - New York: Routledge, 2001. 15 Manuel Castells. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. - M., 2000. 16 Tatyana Ryabova. Political discourse as a resource for the "creation of gender" in contemporary Russia // Personality. Culture. Society. – Vol. 8. – 2010. № 4. 17 Francis Fukuyama. The Great Disruption. M.: LLC "Publishing House of the ACT», 2003. 18 George Campbell. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. New York, 1873. 19 Lance Henriksen. The Geographical 'Mental Maps' of American Foreign Policy Makers // International Political Science Review. Vol. 1 - 1980. 20 Wolfgang Mieder. Proverbs are the Best Policy: Folk Wisdom and American Politics. Utah State University Press, - Utah, 2005. 21 Harold Lasswell. Language of power // Political Linguistics. Ekaterinburg, 2006. № 20. 10. 6.

(7) A special place is occupied by works where linguistic approaches are analyzed within the theory of political discourse. Here we can find works by such authors as Oksana Aleksandrova 22, Eduard Budaev 23, Lyudmila Konstantinova. 24. ,. Umberto Eco 25, etc. So now in political science there is a need for an integrated study of the phenomenon of communication strategies in the political discourse, the processes of its formation and impact on the political and social life. The objective of this research is to identify the communication strategies in the political discourse on the example of Obama and Putin’s messages to the Parliament.. 政治大 to define the concept and nature of political discourse; 立 This goal determines following tasks:. -. to reveal the specifics of speech image of a political leader;. -. to identify particular genre of President’s Message in the context of the. ‧ 國. 學. -. -. ‧. communication strategy;. to present the main features of the communicative strategy of the. Nat. sit. y. government in the political discourse of the American and Russian presidents. -. al. n. Assembly;. er. io. Obama B.H. and Putin V.V. respectively to the Congress and the Federal. C hdiscourses of to analyze the political i e ngch. iv n U H. Barack. Obama and Vladimir V.. Putin from the point of reflection of their image; -. to show specific features of communication strategies in political discourse. of Barack H. Obama and Vladimir V. Putin; -. to make a comparative analysis of the impact of the communicative tools in. the speeches of Vladimir V. Putin and Barack H. Obama;. 22. Oksana Alexandrova. General and specific problems of philology and cognitive linguistics // Conceptual space of language: Scientific issues. - Tambov: TSU 2005. 23 Eduard Budaev, Anatoly Chudinov. Modern political linguistics. - Ekaterinburg, 2006. 24 Lyudmila Konstantinova. Communicative and pragmatic potential of proverbs and sayings in modern AngloAmerican press: Candidate. Philology science. - Tula, 2007. 25 Umberto Eco. No structures: an introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg.: TOO TK "Petropolis", 1998.. 7.

(8) The subject of the study is the communications strategy in the political discourse, techniques of political interaction with society through the political discourse. The object of the study is the message of the American and Russian presidents to the Parliament. The scientific method of research is linguistic, descriptive discourse analysis theory is applied in the study of the topic. The major sources of the research are: 1. Official documents - legal acts of the Russian Federation and the United States, which set procedures for the establishment and functioning of political. 政治大 process, the organization and conducting of elections and referendums. These 立. parties and public associations, governing principles and rules of the electoral. documents include: the Constitution of the Russian Federation, law “On Political. ‧ 國. 學. Parties”, laws on public associations, elections and referendums, guarantees of. ‧. electoral rights, mass media, presidential decrees, official regulations, orders of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Justice . These. Nat. sit. er. io. institutions.. y. sources can detect the change of the legal framework of parties and electoral. n. 2. Materials that areflect the political position,v the activities of the Russian and U.S. presidents:. i l C n U of publications h e nong ctheh isites. political associations, public. speeches of leaders of nations.. 3. Electoral statistics data of the election of the President of Russia and the United States, the number of votes for each leader, etc. 4. Mass media, including electronic ones. Special attention was given to federal newspapers, electronic resources, which contain articles of leading Russian expert researchers, the information on the websites of political parties and public associations. 5. Published sociological researchers. The important sources were the results of the survey of the fund “Public Opinion” (FOM), Yuri Levada’s Analytical Center, All-Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VZIOM), materials of the 8.

(9) center “Panorama” and the database "Labyrinth", the Regional Public Fund “Information Science for Democracy”. Comparative analysis and interpretation of the above studies have revealed the influence of the level of communication strategies in the political discourse of the Presidents on the public consciousness in Russia and the United States. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, conclusion and bibliography. The first chapter represents the theoretical foundations of the study of strategy and tactics of modern political discourse. The second chapter identifies communicative features of representation the. 政治大. main strategy of the government in the political discourse of the American. 立. president Barack H. Obama.. The third chapter reveals communicative features of representation the main. ‧ 國. 學. strategy of the government in the political discourse of Russian President Vladimir. ‧. Putin, also a comparative analysis of the impact of the communicative tools in the speeches of Putin V.V. and Obama B.H. is given.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 9. i n U. v.

(10) CHAPTER I THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF STRATEGY AND TACTICS RESEARCH OF MODERN POLITICAL DISCOURSE. 1.1.. The concept and nature of political discourse. “Discourse” is one of the most difficult concepts in the field of humanitarian sciences. However, it does not exist as a material substance, but it is “a real tool of cognition…. it is real epistemologically, not ontologically” 26 . The concept of “discourse” has now become extremely popular, what resulted in a multiplicity of. 政治大 understanding of French linguists identifies a number of meanings of the term: as a 立. its interpretations. So, Patrick Serio speaking of “discourse” within the. speech in the understanding of Ferdinand de Saussure, a text and a context, a. ‧ 國. 學. conversation, etc.. ‧. T.A. Van Dijk, a famous researcher of discourse analysis, also writes about the difficulties of understanding of the term. “Unfortunately by analogy with the. Nat. sit. y. related concepts of “language”, “communication”, “interaction”, “society” and. er. io. “culture”, the concept of “discourse” is very vague. It is often the case with terms. n. denoting some complicated the definitions we a phenomena when in formulating v. i l C n need a whole discipline. And in hthis e ncase g cithisi a27Unew interdisciplinary research field. of discourse (also called “discourse analysis”) . “According to T.A. Van Dijk, the main difficulty in defining “discourse” is that the phenomenon under study is heterogeneous and tends to include different aspects of communication, what in its turn determines the interdisciplinary study of discourse. “... We have already identified three main dimensions [of discourse]: (a) the use of language, (b) statement of opinion (cognition), and (c) interaction in social situations. Taking into account the existence of these dimensions, it is not surprising that several 26. Lyudmila Cherneyko. The term "discourse": the search for the signified / / Bulletin of Moscow State University. Vol. 10: Journalism. - 2006. № 2. - pp. 34-41. 27 Van Dijk T. A. The Study of Discourse // Discourse as Structure and Process / Edited by Teun A. Van Dijk. – London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1997. – pp. 1-35.. 10.

(11) disciplines are involved in the study of discourse: linguistics (to study the language and its use), psychology (to study opinions and ways of expression) and social sciences (to analyze the cases of interaction in social situations)” 28. It’s important to note that difficulty of defining the concept of “discourse” is determined not only by the complexity of the phenomenon that it denotes, but also by school or direction which gives a definition. As mentioned above, “discourse” is a complex and vague concept and can be used by sociologists (eg, Foucault), by representatives of critical linguistics (eg, Fowler), and finally, by representatives of critical discourse analysis (eg, Van Dijk). All of them give different definitions of discourse according to their disciplinary and theoretical positions” 29. Below there. 政治大 As a rule “discourse” is connected with the concepts of “situation” and 立. are some of the most popular interpretations of the term.. “text”. This approach is suggested by Nina Arutyunova who figuratively describes. ‧ 國. 學. the discourse as “a coherent text in conjunction with the extralinguistic - pragmatic,. ‧. socio-cultural, psychological and other factors; the text taken as an event; speech treated as a purposeful social action, as a component involved in the interaction of. Nat. er. io. speaking, discourse is a “speech in life”30.. sit. y. people and their mechanisms of consciousness (cognitive processes). “Figuratively. n. Sometimes, instead aspect of discourse is a of situational aspect, activity v. i l C n stressed, “discourse is the language and the study of discourse involves h e ning action, hi U c 31 the study both of language and action” .. In addition, discourse can be understood as the dynamic unfolding of the text. “A distinction between text and discourse is often made in linguistics. <...> We can use the term “text” to denote the observed product of interaction: a cultural object, and discourse to denote the process of interaction: cultural activities. <...> The discourse is not a product, it is a process. To analyze it, it is necessary to take into 28. Van Dijk T.A. The Study of Discourse // Discourse as Structure and Process / Edited by Teun A. Van Dijk. – London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1997. – p. 1-35. 29 Andrea Mayr. Language and Power: An Introduction to Institutional Discourse. -London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2008. - p. 7. 30 Nina Arutyunova. Types of linguistic meanings: Evaluation. Event. Fact. – M.: Nauka, 1988. - p. 135. 31 John Blommaert. Discourse: A Critical Introduction. -New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. - p. 99.. 11.

(12) account the actual text, and interaction, and the context in which the given text is placed”32. Vladimir Bogdanov has the similar point of view. He considers discourse to be a combination of two aspects - text and speech. As a result, discourse is understood as what is said and what is written, and there are inclusive attitude between text and speech on the one hand , and the discourse on the other hand,: text and speech are specific concepts in relation to discourse 33. Mikhail Makarov speaks about the different definitions of the concept in terms of formalism and functionalism: from a formal point of view discourse is the language of higher level than a sentence or a word phrase. The functional approach. 政治大 discourse as any use of language. Formally, the functional approach combines both 立. involves an analysis of the functions of discourse in the social context and defines. above mentioned approaches and explores the language units and their contextual. ‧ 國. 學. function 34.. ‧. A special place in interpretations of discourse is occupied by the concept of Michel Foucault, who defines discourse as “a set of anonymous historical rules,. Nat. sit. y. always determined in time and space, which set terms of the performing expression. er. io. in the given period of time and for a given social, economic, geographical or. n. linguistic area”. It is “a set a of statements”, belongingvto a certain age35. As a result, the discourse becomes. i l C n U not only h eand n gnot c hsoi much. situational but much broader. situational and of great historical significance because discourse is also a sociohistorical information, background. That is Foucault tends to philosophical understanding of the term rather than linguistic. Despite the multiplicity of interpretations of discourse, the present work is based on Chernyavskaya’s understanding of the term who highlights two values of the studied concept. In the first case the discourse is a “specific communicative 32. Mary Talbot. Media Discourse: Representation and Interaction. – Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. pp. 9-10. 33 Valentin Bogdanov. Text and text communication. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House, 1993. - pp. 5-6. 34 Michail Makarov. The interpretative discourse analysis in a small group. - Tver, 1998. - pp. 68-70. 35 Michel Foucault. Archaeology of Knowledge. - Kiev: Nick Center, 1996. - pp. 118.. 12.

(13) event, fixed in written texts and spoken language, carried out in a specific cognitive and typological communicative space” 36. Thus, discourse is understood as a single communicative event, analyzed individually, taking into account situational, extralinguistic background - social factors. In this case we can speak of discourse in Arutyunova’s understanding as “a coherent text together with extralinguistic - pragmatic, socio-cultural, psychological and other factors; the text taken as an event; speech taken as a purposeful social action, as a component involved in the interaction of people and their mechanisms of consciousness (cognitive processes)” 37. Here discourse is not opposed to the text, but also it is not identical to the text. Discourse only leads to the formation of the text: “Specific. 政治大 The second meaning implies that the discourse is “a set of thematically 立. texts constitute the empirical basis for the description of discourse”38.. correlated texts: texts that are grouped in a discourse addressed one way or another. ‧ 國. 學. to a common theme”. In this case, the “content of discourse is revealed not by one. ‧. single text, but intertextually in the complex interaction of many separate texts”39. Thus, discourse is not an individual case, but a series of thematically unified texts.. Nat. sit. y. In this sense we can talk about different types of discourse, such as economic, legal,. er. io. media, political, etc., where the same text can be related to various types of. al. n. v i n None of the presentedCvalues h e ncontradict g c h i Uthe other; moreover one can imply. discourse.. or enlarge the other. As a result, summing up the two approaches, we can conclude that “according to the research objectives discourse indicates a single specific communicative event in one case, in the other it implies a communicative event as an integrative set of certain communicative acts which result in meaningful and. 36. Valeria Chernyavskaya. Discourse of power and the power of discourse: the problems of speech influence. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2006. - p. 75. 37 Nina Arutyunova. Types of linguistic meanings: Evaluation. Event. Fact. – M.: Nauka, 1988. - pp. 136-137. 38 Valeria Chernyavskaya. Discourse of power and the power of discourse: the problems of speech influence. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2006. - p. 75. 39 Ibid. – p. 77.. 13.

(14) thematic unity of many texts” 40. So the raw material of discourse research will always be the text, a specific linguistic realization. According to Valeriya Chernyavskaya, “two approaches are complementing each other, and in the practice of linguistic analysis of discourse and illustrating texts we should consider both” 41. The political discourse is one of the best known and most thoroughly studied species of discourse. Such popularity of political discourse is connected with the fact that the subject of its study is one of the most important spheres of human activity – politics as we face it every day. The given concept - politics - is a very heterogeneous phenomenon.. 政治大 a management of society. Politics 立. Researchers have identified a number of levels of the term: 1. Politics as. is an activity of the. administration of any public processes. In terms of content this activity is presented. ‧ 國. 學. as a solution of all problems, except for moral ones, as authoritative allocation of. ‧. values, as a means of conflict resolution.. 2. The substantial level indicates the essence of politics, emphasizes its. Nat. er. io. the struggle for gaining and maintaining power.. sit. y. direct relationship with the government. Politics is either control using power, or. n. 3. Institutional level a suggests the existence of vorganizations that materializes. i l C n power (various government institutions). hengchi U. 4. Sociological level considers society as a structure which consists of a. variety of groups with their own interests and needs, where the main tool of realization is power. The policy in this case is the way of action of social groups to defend their interests and meet their needs. 5. Teleological level indicates the policy as a special form of human existence, associated with the personal goal-achievement and self-organization. Politics, therefore, involves several aspects which superimposed on each other and organize the complex structure of relationships and interdependencies. 40. Valeria Chernyavskaya. Discourse of power and the power of discourse: the problems of speech influence. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2006. - p. 78. 41 Ibid. p. 77.. 14.

(15) Altogether these aspects are an integral part of society and make research in the framework of political linguistics complicated. It is believed that political communication is carried out using a special version of the language which is possible to allocate as a separate, political language. Other researchers on the contrary hold the opinion that political communication does not go beyond the norms of language and is carried out by native speakers. Thus, the separation of political language in a separate subsystem is not justified. Here Anatoly Chudinov fairly notices that the term “political language” has the right to exist, as the terms “spoken language”, “scientific language” have the. 政治大 language is a variant of national language focused on the political sphere” 立. same features as political language, however, they do exist. Therefore “political 42. .. Elena Sheigal agrees with this point of view and adds an element of “sub-. ‧ 國. 學. language” to the formula “discourse= text + context”. So the final formula is the essence of the concept of “political discourse” 43.. ‧. following: “the political discourse = sub-language+text + context” which captures. Nat. sit. y. The intentional base of political discourse Elena Sheigal considers the. n. -. al. v i n C h of group participants Integration and differentiation in the political process; engchi U. discourse: -. er. io. struggle for power. According to this there are five main functions of political. Agony and harmonization of relations between participants in the political. process; -. Function of action (in politics “to talk” means “to do”);. -. The function of interpretation (the creation of the “linguistic reality” of. politics); -. The supervisory and regulatory functions (manipulation of consciousness. and control of actions of politicians and the electorate) 44.. 42. Anatoly Chudinov. Political linguistics. – Ekaterinburg: Urals State Pedagogical University, 2006. - p. 32. Elena Sheigal. Semiotics of political discourse. – M., Gnosis, 2004. - p. 10. 44 Ibid. P. 11. 43. 15.

(16) There is no doubt that all the functions of political discourse are defined by specificity of the political sphere, which it reflects. As can be seen, political discourse is able simultaneously to integrate and differentiate between political actors (political leaders, members of the electorate, etc.) depending on the rhetoric of these participants, what affects in its turn on harmony or agony of relations within the discourse. The communicative orientation of discourse is also stressed as any act is done through communication. Communication can even replace the activity or can be the only expression of activity. In addition to it, political discourse can track the behavior of its members, indicating who uses this or that tool of influence to gain popularity.. 政治大 but also forms its specific characteristics: 立. The fact is that the political discourse not only reflects the political sphere,. -. The dominant role of emotive factor;. -. A significant proportion of real communication (often it is more important. ‧. ‧ 國. The predominance of mass destination;. 學. -. not the message, but the fact that it is uttered);. Nat. y. The semantic uncertainty associated with some phantom denotations (the. sit. -. er. io. significance of the moment of faith as a display of irrational political discourse); Esoteric, which isashown as a pragmatic category, v what leads to the use of. -. Mediate of political communication by mass media. Its members play the. n. -. i l C n such strategies as euphemization h eandn deliberate g c h i Uevasiveness;. role of a mediator, which is expressed in the following functional options: a repeater, a storyteller, an entertainer, an interviewer, a pseudo-commentator and a commentator; -. The theatricality of political discourse;. -. The dynamics of political language due to topicality of reflected realities and. unsteadiness of the political situation 45. The researchers also note the interacting component of political discourse. The “impact” is understood as a socio-psychological activity “aimed at people and 45. Elena Sheigal. Semiotics of political discourse. – M., Gnosis, 2004. - p. 12.. 16.

(17) groups in order to change the psychological characteristics of the individual, group norms, public opinion, attitudes and experiences” 46. So the political discourse is a special kind of discourse that implies the investigation of the political sphere of society and complicated by purely linguistic difficulties and peculiarities. The current direction of political discourse linguistics exists in two versions: a critical discourse analysis and descriptive analysis. Representatives of critical discourse analysis have an active social position. Their work aims “to explore the ways with the help of which social power realizes its dominance in society”, to figure out “how social inequality is prescribed and reproduced through. 政治大 “Critical discourse analysis pays special attention to the interdisciplinary 立. communicative activities”47.. study of discourse, which is the link between linguistic and social studies, and. ‧ 國. 學. considers “social” as something more than just contextual background texts. <...>. ‧. A critical discourse analysis, therefore, is engaged in a wide range of social issues, calls to such external factors as ideology, power, inequality, etc., and is also based. Nat. sit. y. on the social and philosophical theory to analyze and interpret written and spoken. er. io. texts”48. The main representatives of critical discourse analysis are N. Fairclough,. n. R. Wodak, T.A. van Dijk, a R. Fowler, E. Lassan, J.N.vGuards, etc.. i l C n The descriptive discourse analysis, based he n g c h i Uon the fact that scientific research. should be objective, tries to avoid a subjective assessment, tries only to describe and explain the analyzed phenomena, avoiding its own ideological evaluation. Representatives of this school are M. Atkinson, W. Bergsdorf, D. Grieswelle, P.B. Parshin, etc. At this point descriptive line splits into descriptive rhetorical and descriptive meaningful. The first one is based on the works of the great orators of antiquity and studies the language behavior of politicians: an analysis of linguistic means, 46. Vladimir Krys’ko. Social psychology. - M: Omega-L, 2006. - p. 325. Anatoly Chudinov. Political linguistics. - M.: Flynn Science, 2006. – p. 38. 48 Andrea Mayr. Language and Power: An Introduction to Institutional Discourse. -London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2008. - p. 9. 47. 17.

(18) manipulative techniques they use in their speeches. The second line analyzes the content side of the text. A critical approach investigates the problem of social inequality expressed in political discourse49. In the above mentioned interpretations of the term “discourse” understanding of this phenomenon invariably relies on the “text”. For this reason, it is important to define the concept in order to outline more clearly the scope of understanding of “discourse” for this study. Traditionally the “text” is defined as “a unified semantic connection sequence of the units, the basic properties of which are continuity and integrity” 50. By “units” we usually understand verbal signs, and text analysis examines the. 政治大 analysis on the contrary allows “to focus not only on the external formal attributes 立. external formal features of the text itself, and it also ends in them. Discourse. and updating, and it is very important”51.. 學. ‧ 國. of the text, but on a number of extra-linguistic factors accompanying the formation. ‧. Thus, the concept of discourse significantly enhances text description, emphasizing the importance of study of extra-linguistic factors accompanying. Nat. sit. y. communication. “The discourse is not limited only by the scope of language. It. er. io. also examines the entire contents of communication: who, with whom and why is. n. communicating, what social a status they have, and what v socio-historical situation is. i l C n U of communication interact with like, what channels are used, how h e ninvolved h itypes c g 52. each other” .. The fact that discourse studies extralinguistic context, of course, complicates the understanding of the “text”. To have as an object of study the political discourse is even more difficult. The current political discourse is very closely connected with media environment: “... politics, media and publicity has been always viewed as a macro49. Ksenia Nikitina. Manipulation of speech technology in the political discourse media. Dissertation. Candidate. Philology science. - Ufa, 2006. - p. 22. 50 Ibid. 51 Tatyana Dobrosklonskaya. Media linguistics: a systematic approach to language learning media: modern English media speech. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2008. - p. 54. 52 Alan Bell and Peter Garrett. Approaches to Media Discourse. – Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. - p. 3.. 18.

(19) structural phenomenon, and theoretical interpretation of such fields of knowledge as sociology, advertising and political communication have explained the relationship between them” 53. Politics and media are in relations of “symbiosis”. Most part of politics is “hidden” and only some part of it open to the public. At this point politics and mass media come to contact. Politicians are often accused of using media as a tool of influence, and media is accused in denying of playing the role of an independent observer and a critic of the political sphere, as well in having an entertaining nature of giving information. Besides, political discourse and media have rather complicated relations. Gerda Eva Lauerbah and Anita Fetzer, in their book “Political Discourse in the. 政治大 mediated by the media. “Political discourse in the media is viewed as a complex 立. Media: Cross-cultural Perspectives” view political discourse as a phenomenon. phenomenon: an institutional, media and mediated political discourse. As an. ‧ 國. 學. institutional discourse, it is different from everyday conversation by the subject of. ‧. institutional goals and procedures. As media discourse it is different from other types of institutional discourses mainly by the fact that it is a public discourse. Nat. sit. y. addressed to the media audience. It distinguishes political discourse from other. er. io. types of institutional discourses such as medicine, law or education. As mediated. n. political discourse it is the a result of a collision between v two different institutional. i l C 54 n discourses - political and media” h e n. Thus, i Upolitical discourse appears, on the g c hthe. one hand, as an independent institutional discourse, and on the other hand as the. media discourse. When different types of discourses are met, political discourse mediated by the media is formed, which implements its institution by means of another institution – mass media. Elena Sheigal also stresses the fact of jointing the political discourse and the discourse of the media: “discourse of the media plays a special role in the existence of political discourse, which is the main channel of political communication in modern time” 55. 53. Anita Fetzer, Gerda Eva Lauerbach. Political discourse in the media: Cross-cultural perspectives. – Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007. – pp. 3-31. 54 Ibid. – p. 14. 55 Elena Sheigal. Semiotics of political discourse. M., Gnosis, 2004. - p. 11.. 19.

(20) For this reason there are broad interpretations of discourse and texts which interpret them as phenomena of mass media. T.A. Van Dijk writes that discourse can be interpreted in a broad semiotic sense. “It implies the existence of such visual structures as a scheme, a written or printed font or text, as well as gestures, facial expressions and other semiotic signs of oral speech. This concept [discourse] can include a combination of sounds and images in many mixed media discourses, such as films, television, mobile phones, the Internet and other media and channels of communication”56. The text in the current researches increasingly gets the prefix “media” and is viewed through the prism of its relations with the media., the Alan Bell, a famous explorer of media language, in his book “Approaches to Media. 政治大 view of the text as a sequence of words printed or written on paper. The concept of 立. Discourse” writes: “The definition of the media text goes beyond the traditional. the media text is much broader: it includes voice qualities, music and sound effects,. ‧ 國. 學. visual images - in other words, the media texts actually reflect the technologies. ‧. used in their production and expansion”57. Thus, the text in the media discourse is treated as “a sequence of any signs, not only verbal ones” 58.. Nat. sit. y. Of course, the described above approach to political discourse as an. er. io. institution mediated by mass media expands and complicates the understanding of. n. the text and discourse. However, it appears that nowadays only the understanding a v. i l C n of these terms can be considered h e nadequate; g c h i itUfully meets the challenges of the scientific and technological progress and fits the appropriate level of social. development. Otherwise, a number of current issues on political linguistics will be excluded from the field of research.. 56. Van Dijk T.A. The Study of Discourse // Discourse as Structure and Process / Edited by Teun A. Van Dijk. – London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1997. – pp. 1-35. 57 Anita Bell and Peter Garrett. Approaches to Media Discourse. – Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. - p. 3. 58 Tatyana Dobrosklonskaya. Medialinguistics: a systematic approach to language learning media: modern English media speech. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2008. - p. 35.. 20.

(21) 1.2. Special aspects of political leader’s speech image development. Recently the concept of the image has become very popular. Such word combinations as “the image of a man”, “corporate image”, “the image of the country” are more often met today. In general sense the image is the form that for some reasons is to replace the real object or represent some person or some other entity for people 59. Usually the reason that a certain object or subject needs to create a certain image, is the need to ensure its viability and success of its activity in society. The subjects of this article are image-forming communication strategies and. 政治大 act (SA) of self-presentation. According to the taxonomy of John Searle, SA of 立. tactics, as well as means of forming speech image. One of such means is a speech. self-presentation refers to assertiveness or representativeness, the purpose of which. ‧ 國. 學. is to fix the responsibility (in different degrees) for reporting about some certain. ‧. situation, for the truth of the expressed opinion 60. For SA of self-presentation this purpose is to form a listener’s definite opinion or an idea about the speaker, “some. Nat. er. io. advantageous for gaining the purpose at the moment.. sit. y. things” that are individual characteristics of the speaker, which are the most. n. Participants shareaa common communicative context, which consists of such v components as place. i l C n and time h eofnthe hi U g cconversation,. the cause of its initiation,. individual expectations, and representations of speakers about its potential development. Naturally these views of the speakers do not necessarily coincide, however if one of the communicants knows the ropes in the current communicative situation, he is able to predict the expectations of others and can build his verbal behavior according to them, then the illocutionary goal of SA of self presentation is achieved very easily, and the hearer gets that very idea about the identity of the speaker, which was intended to get by initiating the act. Thus, the strategy of. 59 60. Elena Kubrjakova. By the definition of the image // Issues. Cognitive Linguistics. – M., 2008. Vol.1. - p. 9. John Searle. What is a speech act? // New in foreign linguistics. Moscow, 1986. Vol. 17. - p. 196.. 21.

(22) forming the speech image refers to a type of pragmatic strategies, as the speaker acts according to the situation of communication. To create his own image the speaker usually chooses a role or roles and the corresponding speech “mask”. This choice is based on the prediction of the audience, its expectations and, in fact, it is a communicative strategy of self presentation. Methods or communicative steps chosen to realize it are called speech tactics 61. To describe such speech behavior addressee chooses roles and “labels” them, he gives them names which represent the most important components of the image of the speaker. As a rule, image-making roles are communication roles which are used in the communicative situation to achieve. 政治大 It is known that political discourse is the area of the most active and 立. some practical purpose: “Cheery fellow”, “Straight man” 62 etc.. status of the official from public opinion.. 學. ‧ 國. purposeful image-making process due to the direct dependence of the position and. more clearly.. ‧. It allows analyzing patterns of creating the speech image and its structure. Nat. sit. y. There are some major components of verbal behavior which are necessary to. er. io. get the positive image of a political leader or speaker by the listeners (and readers). n. and which allow the subject light of such categories a of speech to be in a favorable v. i 63 l C n as literacy, erudition, expertise,hdemocracy, . i U e n g c hinfluence. 1. The first requirement to political speaker’s speech is literacy, adherence to. all the rules of language: pronunciation, accent, word usage, etc. Abnormalities in verbal and nominal structures, syntactic organization of speech, orthoepy errors, breaking of word-formation rules, semantic errors in the choice of words make doubt in speaker's literacy; greatly reduce the effectiveness of the performance. If the speaker doesn’t know the precise meaning of the word, the negative effect of the speech is enhanced not only because of the intolerable expressions which are 61. Oksana Issers. Communication strategies and tactics of Russian speech. - M., 2008. - p. 198. Lyudmila Karteleva. Verbalization concept of Self as a way of self-presentation of a person in discourse // Vestnik MSU. Vol. 19, 2008. № 2. - p. 86. 63 Vladimir Goldin and Olga Sirotinina. Subnational speech culture and their interaction // Questions of style. MY. 25. Saratov, 1993. - pp. 9-19. 62. 22.

(23) contrary to the canons of statutory, but also in connection with the logical absurdities, which often occur. It is well known that the accuracy of the language is closely connected with the culture of thinking, it shows how deeply the speaker has studied the subject of speech; even the most insignificant uncertainty inevitably leads to confusion in the words and structures. 2. A major weak point of public speaking is also its excessive use of books and means of the written language. Excessive using of books leads to the saturation of text with abstract vocabulary, words of high stylistic coloring, special terminology. Thus, in the study of population it is quite appropriate to use some terminology structures but in oral public speech they reduce its effectiveness.. 政治大 modern political rhetoric, then negative attitude is sure to appear. Realizing that the 立 3. If the speech is full of borrowings what is known to become a hallmark of. interpenetration of separate individual elements of different cultures cannot be. ‧ 國. 學. stopped, that socio-political changes in Russian society inevitably activate the. ‧. processes of borrowing words, the abuse of this lexicon in Russian politicians’ speeches is marked. It can be explained by several reasons of such particular. Nat. sit. y. speech behavior, not good for the speaker: devotion to all foreign things, the desire. er. io. to show off, to demonstrate one’s erudition; to hide one’s poor language using fine. n. words. The consequences are ambiguity and even a of such usage of the language v. i l C n unavailability to understand thehcontent, e n g clisteners’ h i U estrangement from the speaker.. It should be noted, however, that recipients whom a political leader. addresses the message to are not under very puristic mood: if the borrowing is used appropriately, if specific situational factors or semantic necessity is taken into account, then there is no problem. For borrowings of this kind the following words are usually referred: the farmer, the design, the sponsor, consensus, management, marketing, broker, business, etc. Speaker’s unwillingness to take care of the plainness and simplicity of the speech can be understood as a lack of desire to be with the listeners and prejudice of his democratic image. 4. The majority of listeners have also negative reaction if the speech is full of “clerk words” (“kantselyarism”, the term was introduced by Korney 23.

(24) Chukovskii 64 ). Possible signs of such words are displacement of the verb by a participle, a gerund, a verbal noun, many nouns in objective cases, using passive constructions instead of active ones, too long phrases, poor vocabulary, stamps and idiomatic expressions, business clichés, the words of desolate semantics which have pseudo-scientific color etc. 5. Such “clerk words”, these standard stamps in oratorical practice often coexists with other “evil” of speech – a “new language”, which is defined by linguists as a sub-language, which appeared in the offices of politicians as a reflection of official and semi-official picture of the world by language means 65. This “new language” has recently become the subject of specialists’ study and the. 政治大 brings to a speaker is evident. It forms the static picture of attitude with the system 立 study is needed to be continued. But the obvious damage that this “new language”. of compulsory evaluation dictated by authorities, destroys the creative and personal. ‧ 國. 學. principles in the use of language and, therefore, in thinking. Linguists have. ‧. identified the main features of the “new language”: the lack of personal principles in the text, its impersonality, universality of addressing. These features are. Nat. sit. y. manifested in certain language signals; widespread constructions without subject as. er. io. well as all kinds of passive forms in which a real actor is hidden in the background; prevalence of imperfective a verbs66, etc.. n. iv l C n Thus, “new language” reduces of speaker’s speech and the h e n gtheceffectiveness hi U. image of a political leader loses such characteristics as democratic features and capability of influence. 6. There are some characteristics of the speech image which enhance the attractiveness of the political speaker. Evaluative logical registers in the structure of the text, using special language features implementing such important communication skills as expressiveness, and in some cases emotionality, keep. 64. Clerk words (“kantselyarism”) are the invasion of official style in the sphere of political rhetoric, journalism. Konstantin Sedov. "New language" and speech culture of a person (formation of the language person) // Questions of style. – Vol. 25. - Saratov, 1993. - pp. 29-35. 66 Andrey Karaulov. On the state of contemporary Russian language: Report at the conference "Russian language and modernity. Problems and prospects of Russian Studies." M, 1991. - pp. 24-31. 65. 24.

(25) attention and interest of the recipients 67. The characteristics of the speech image which enhance the attractiveness of a political orator and potential expressiveness are proverbs, aphorisms, quotations, comparisons, emotionally estimated and conversational vocabulary, and also special techniques that introduce elements of artistry in public word: trope (a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.), allusions, rhetorical syntax (rhetorical question, plurality of enumerations, syntactic parallelism, antithesis, etc.), diversity in the use of syntax, idioms. Indeed, the expressiveness as a characteristic of the speaker's speech, including a political one, relies primarily on these linguistic and paralinguistic means: it defines not only the degree of impact of the speech, but also highlights. 政治大 7. Much attention is given to the stylistic tone of communication, which is 立. such traits of the speaker's personality as high level of culture, erudition.. informal,. solemn,. familiar,. 學. intimate,. ‧ 國. always set by the speaker. There are some tones of communication: dry-formal, literary,. and. conversational.. So,. ‧. conversational tone of communication is interpreted in most cases as the beginning of a dialogue, live chat, which is expressed in the principal oratory by using. Nat. sit. y. conversational vocabulary, other colloquial signals, for example, using emotional. er. io. vocabulary and phraseology as synonyms of strict terms and concepts.. n. Conversational tone helps a to make communication vunofficial, more natural, helps. i l C n to keep in contact with the audience, h e n g“ascribes” c h i Uopenness, democracy, and interest. in listeners to the image of the speaker.. 8. It is necessary to keep strictly social and ethical norms of the language, to bar from “non-parliamentary” expressions - insulting labels, swear words, roughlyevaluated statements towards political opponents. The absence of such words and phrases in the speaker's speech, the ability to replace them with euphemisms, emotionally neutral words and phrases, is regarded by the audience as a sign of objectivity, consistency, correctness, high level of culture.. 67. Michail Grachev. Political communication: theoretical concepts, models, vectors development. – M., 2004. – p. 278.. 25.

(26) Thus, there is a certain standard of public speech in the field of political oratory in the minds of the mass audience nowadays. The specific nature of the formation of the political leader’s image is reflected by such categories as neatness, appropriateness, expressiveness, vivid personal principles, willingness to communicate with the audience, required literacy. Using stamps, diffusiveness, impersonal structures, too many literary words and phrases, various kinds of speech errors are always directed against the speaker, reducing his oratory and personal image, weakening the effectiveness and influence of his speech.. 1.3. Genre characteristics of President’s Message. 政治大. in the context of communicative strategy. 立. The effectiveness of political communication in modern Russia is invariably. ‧ 國. 學. associated with the emergence of new political speech genres. “The President’s. ‧. Message to the Federal Assembly” is one of them.. From the speech of the President members of the Federal Assembly and. Nat. sit. y. Russian citizens receive information on the activities of government agencies. The. er. io. most important result of almost two decades of existence of the Message as a. n. political genre in Russia a is that Russian citizens vtrust their leader. In modern. i l C n U is obvious and is evidenced by Russia the popularity and effectiveness h e n g of c hthisi genre. high ratings of the President Vladimir V. Putin and the party “United Russia”, according to media reports. “The President’s Message to the Federal Assembly” is in fact a report of the President on the situation in the country, achievements, success and failures, problems of Russian society. In addition, the Message has a scheduled plan for the government and its departments for the next year, tasks are set and priorities for further development are identified. The Message of the President is a monologue, interrupted in some cases by applause. It is broadcasted live by leading Russian TV and radio channels, and the speech gives accessibility of ideas and directions of the governmental program as an evidence of clarity of the government work and its 26.

(27) intentions. Citizens have the impression of involvement in political issues and problems of Russia; they get a sense of participation and responsibility. Among many other goals and objectives for any politician it is important to make a good impression on the voters and hence to keep generally accepted standards of behavior, to pay attention to his verbal and nonverbal behavior. Image of politicians and their prestige among their colleagues and the electorate depends mostly on their speeches 68 . The speech is one of the main components of politician’s personality. It is on the basis of politician’s verbal behavior a voter makes his conclusions about trust to the candidate, on the effectiveness of authorities and even about the level of his own well-being.. 政治大 organize, build our. To achieve the desired goal, speaker’s thoughts and ideas should be defined.. 立. In other words, we must. speech. Different secondary. communicative units (SCU) help to fulfill this task. They include a variety of. ‧ 國. 學. speech signals, remarks which help the speaker to make out his idea, to build a. ‧. logical message, to place the emphasis on the fragments of his speech, to enter a dialogue, to soften what is said, to express one’s attitude, to emphasize, to address. Nat. sit. y. the audience and etc.. er. io. The use of these units is characterized by certain reflexivity. They appear so. n. organically in speech a that we do not notice them. v However, in the political. i l C n discourse every detail is important h e n-ga csingle h i Uword, an intonation and an accent.. Therefore, a competent politician must consider the role of different communicative means, including aids of communication as their role in the impact on the recipient is significant. Of course, the primary role in any kinds and forms of communication. belongs to the main forms of communication. SCU form a kind of extra communicative level, which seems not to be necessarily a part of the communication process. However, the absence of such units in the speech gives the impression of “inchoate”, fuzzy, blurry or excessive rigidity of speech. Besides 68. Olga Sirotinina. Authority of the government and speech // Problems of speech communication. - Saratov, 2004. - pp. 22-25.. 27.

(28) the absence of such speech units can create problems for the speaker connected with human relations, speech ethics, politeness, communicative competence, and as a result can prevent the achievement of his communicative purpose. It can be said that the specific use of SCU largely determines the manner of speech behavior of a speaker. The addiction to certain “buzzwords” or types of units of supporting character creates a certain image: hard and strong politician, a liberal-democrat, judgmental though, “our fellow”, etc. SCU are different in structure and use. Among all their diversity there are two large groups of units: communicative words and discursive words. Communicative words are used as a reaction to the speaker’s speech or the situation. and. Communicative. 政治 in 大non-predicative constructions. words function as signals of getting the information, which 立 basically. represented. provide feedback between the speaker and the listener, as informative responses. ‧ 國. 學. yes or no, their analogues, and also as fillers of pauses (hesitative) and the etiquette. ‧. formulae (for example, greetings, farewells, thanking). Communicative words can be used by a speaker and by a listener. Discursive words “regulate the flow of. Nat. sit. y. discourse”, they carry out compositional, structural, logical, cohesive, regulatory. er. io. and subjective-modal functions (for example, I believe, surely, you see, so, yet,. n. finally, probably). Theiratask is to shape the text, make v it easier for understanding. i l C n and perception. Discursive words h erefer i Uof the speaker, although they may n g ctohSCU. appear in the response as well, but are typical for making up a monologue.. The genre of "The President’s Message to the Federal Assembly" appears, on the one hand, as a result of a specific interpretation of the Soviet tradition (the report of the Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party at their congresses), and on the other hand, under the influence of these genres in the Western political culture. In the United States genre of President’s Address to Congress (“State of the Union”) has been traditional since 1790, since the first President George Washington. The genre is conventional, that is it has a number of relatively stable. 28.

(29) parameters 69: linguistic, textual, composite, notional, etc. In addition, the genre has a certain set of intentions and meanings that vary depending on the communicative situation and the position of addressee. Our task is to analyze the conventional and intentional features of the Message genre in order to identify vectors of adaptation and variation of linguistic resources to the conditions of functioning. The President’s Message to the Federal Assembly is a document asserted by the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Chapter 4, article 84)70 as a report of the head of the country in front of the government officials. The Message of the President refers to the secondary genres of political discourse, as it is based on the genre of appeal.. 政治大 the text by etiquette forms of appeal and self-presentation, by performance of 立 Terms for functioning of the document. This parameter is represented in. status characteristics of the author and the recipient of the Message (Dear. ‧ 國. 學. Colleagues, Dear deputies and members of the Federal Assembly, Dear Friends),. ‧. by protocol elements of its announcement (fixed in Constitution of the Russian Federation with the instructions of time and place of the publication of the. sit. y. Nat. Message).. er. io. Cognitive structure of the Message. A significant sign of conventionality. n. of Messages is their inclusion in document circulation a v of government and political. i l C n institutions: the government, both the Federal Assembly, parties, and h e nhouses g c hofi U regional administrations. Interdiscursive and intertextual relations between the texts are provided by the retransmission of cognitive structures: concepts, frames, gestalts. Fragments of each Message are reproduced in the form of quotations, precedent texts and situations, other text transformations in the texts of various discourses: administrative, legal, media, PR, advertising. The structure of this cognitive formation includes our ideas, assumptions and knowledge (speculative or proved by documents) on the activities of the President, the Prime Minister and their teams. 69. Michail Grachev. Political communication: theoretical concepts, models, vectors development. – M., 2004. – p. 266.. 29.

(30) Domination of informing strategy. As for organization of texts, this tendency is realized through hierarchy of microtexts, which is built from the point of significance of topics and sub-topics. Key positions in the text are occupied by thematic components: the problem of domestic policy (changes in political, social and economic spheres, issues of national projects), foreign relations, which are displayed by a set of sub-topics. Sub-topics are presented by compositionally semantic blocks (CSB) - groups of microtexts which have the same type of organization: identification of the subject of speech, opinion of the problem, problems needed urgent solution. Each microtext has its own communicative pragmatic characteristics, determined by a type of predicative propositions units.. 政治大 communicative conditions, interdiscursive relations, composition, communicative 立 So the factors which realize conventional aim of the Message genre are:. and logical semantic organization of CSB. The enumerated features realize. ‧ 國. 學. authentic nature of the Message, but the text has intentionally significant elements. ‧. which adapt the text to the conditions of the functioning. Special attention should be paid to the directions in which a process of adaptation of linguistic resources. Nat. sit. y. takes place while realizing its discursive intention - the influence to the audience:. er. io. 1. Realization of the impact strategy. At the organization level of. n. compositional structure aof the text the impact is actualized through the proposition v of characterization.. i l C n hengchi U. 2. The use of persuasive means. Tools of dialogues are used as an additional means of impact: inclusive pronouns we, our, joint action verbs let us decide, let's discuss; formula involving decision-making, question-answer constructions. The impact is also carried out by means of the contrast between “our” – “their”. The tactics of identification “their” and tactics of discrediting an opponent are based on the mechanisms of creating the negative, repulsive image. Defamation is the dominant tool of discrediting tactics. Major labels which are used to generate this negative collective image (thieves, liars, Nazis, the enemies of the people), also can be neutral evaluating real political opponents (some politicians, bureaucrats), that acquire negative connotation in that concrete context. 30.

(31) 3. Use of means of subjective modality. Means of deontic modality are used to express the prescriptive sense: strict prohibition, permission, order. 71. (it is. prohibited, it is allowed, it is required). Elements of alethic modality realize the senses, which can’t be expressed in categorical terms. Means of logic modality (should) have here the meaning of threat which aims at influencing the listener. Thus, the specificity of the Message is determined by the interaction of conventional and intentional text parameters. Their comparisons have revealed vector changes of logical syntactic and composite parameters of author’s intention, such as proposition of characterization, subjective modality, persuasiveness, author's individual communicative competence. The main adoptive vector of the. 政治大 levels of the text organization. 立. Message is actualization of author’s intentions and pragmatic orientations at all. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 71. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Oksana Issers. Voice impact / O.S. Issers. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2009. - p. 139.. 31.

(32) CHAPTER II COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY METHODS OF REPRESENTING THE MAIN STRATEGY OF THE GOVERNMENT IN THE POLITICAL DISCOURSE OF BARACK H. OBAMA 2.1. Communicative strategy of the USA in public speeches and State of the Union Address to Congress of Barack H. Obama Barack Obama, according to the opinion of the number of researchers 72, is considered to be one of the most outstanding orators of modern politics. In what follows is the attempt to make an analysis and reveal the main tendencies of the United States strategy in the inaugural speeches and State of the Union Address to. 政治大. Congress of Barack H. Obama.. 立. 1) The problem of racial inequality in the USA. ‧ 國. 學. As long as Barack Obama is the representative of Afro-American society, the problem of racial inequality has its special significance.. ‧. The American president is trying to develop a many-sided approach to the. y. Nat. problem, covering not only Afro-American people, but Asians, Latin Americans. io. sit. and others, giving his own opinion to the subject. The issue of racial inequality is. n. a. er. reviewed in details in his books as well as in political reports, inaugural speeches. i n U. and annual messages to Congress. l. Ch. v. e neverywhere, − I had grown accustomed, g c h i to suspicion between the races. − The emotions between the races could never be pure; even love was. tarnished by the desire to find in the other some element that was missing in ourselves. Whether we sought out our demons or salvation, the other race would always remain just that: menacing, alien, and apart 73. As is clear from the statements, the problem of coexistence of different races is seen from the position of their inequality and from the position of personal experience. Barack Obama writes a lot about difficulties, which black population of the 72 73. Oksana Issers. Voice impact / O.S. Issers. - M. Flint: Nauka, 2009. - p. 142. Ibid. – p. 143.. 32.

(33) United States is coming across everywhere. In his book «The Audacity of Hope» there is a chapter called «Race» which is fully devoted to the problem. In course of time his look at an issue becomes more and more mature: «Statistically, the number of African Americans who occupy the top fifth of the income ladder remains relatively small. Moreover, every black professional and businessperson in Chicago can tell you stories of the roadblocks they still experience on account of race. Few African American entrepreneurs have either the inherited wealth or the angel investors to help launch their businesses or cushion them from a sudden economic downturn. Few doubt that if they were white they would be further along in reaching their goals» [Obama 2006: 285].. 政治大 the estrangement of African Americans, but about real problems of the US black 立. In this abstract we can observe that president Obama is talking not about. population, about their economic backwardness in comparison with the white. ‧ 國. 學. people.. ‧. Above all, in that very book racial problematics is expanding covering difficulties concerning people of other races, living on the territory of the USA.. Nat. sit. y. Here Barack Obama proceeds from the first principles of American democracy,. er. io. reflected in the Declaration of Independence, which proclaims the equality of all. n. people: «We hold theseatruths to be self-evident, that v all men are created equal, that they are endowed. i l C n by their h e Creator i U certain n g c h with. unalienable Rights, that. among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness» [Obama 2006: 64]. This motive of equality is also present in his book, where Mr. Obama gives the example of personal experience: «I met a Mexican woman who spoke no English but whose son was in Iraq; I recognized a young Colombian man who worked as a valet at a local restaurant and learned that he was studying accounting at the local community college. <...> I was reminded that America has nothing to fear from these newcomers, that they have come here for the same reason that families came here 150 years ago – all those who fled Europe's famines and wars and unyielding hierarchies, all those who may not have had the right legal documents or connections or unique skills to offer but who carried with 33.