洞悉追劇現象：美國和台灣OTT電視千禧世代使用者差異之質化研究 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 政治大碩士論文. 立Master’s Thesis. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 洞悉追劇現象：美國和台灣 OTT 電視千禧世代使用者差異之質化研究. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Understanding Drama Binge-watching: A Qualitative Study of Millennial OTTTV Users in USA and Taiwan. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: Helena Oviedo Advisor: Trisha Tsui-Chuan Lin, Ph.D.. 中華民國 107 年 8 月 August 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(2) 洞悉追劇現象：美國和台灣 OTT 電視千禧世代使用者差異之質化研究. Understanding Drama Binge-watching: A Qualitative Study of Millennial OTTTV Users in USA and Taiwan. Student: Helena Oviedo. 研究生：歐海倫. Advisor: Trisha Tsui-Chuan Lin, Ph.D.. 指導教授：林翠絹. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程. 學. 國立政治大學. ‧. 碩士論文. er. io. sit. y. Nat A Thesis. n. al. v. i Submitted to International Master’s n Program in C. h. U. e n g c h i Studies International Communication National Chengchi University. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 107 年 8 月 August 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGMENT I want to give special thanks to my sister Ana Isabel for her constant support throughout this process, without her I would not have survived. I also want to thank my parents, Marcela and Eduardo, and my brother, Eduardo Jr., for their love and moral support from afar. Talking to my family about my thinking process helped me develop my thesis and also get through difficult and tough moments. Lastly, I want to thank my friends Jeffry, Caroline and Winibeer for always cheering me on, keeping me company when working on my thesis at the library and when pulling all-nighters. All of their support was essential to keep me mentally stable to be able to have produced and finished this thesis. I thank you and I love you all.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(4) ABSTRACT. Binge-watching has become the prevailing mode of video consumption in digital savvy countries. This study defines binge-watching as the video viewing behavior with excessive or intensive consumption of audiovisual content within a short period of time. Although some studies investigated the motivations and outcomes of binge-watching TV series in western countries and among a few Asian nations, none have examined users’ consumption of specific content genres (dramas) on selected video platforms and services (Over-the-Top TV; OTT TV). There is an absence of research in binge-watchers’ psychological status during viewing and their. 政治大 countries. This study focused on examining drama binge-watching users on OTT TV and 立 comparing Taiwanese and American audiences’ binge-watching processes. behaviors (e.g., context and patterns) as well as cross-cultural comparisons among different. ‧ 國. 學. This study investigated the holistic process of drama binge-watching on OTT TV from user. ‧. motivations, viewing psychological status, and behavioral patterns to outcomes. It also compared millennial users in the United States and Taiwan in order to identify cultural influences on such. y. Nat. sit. binge-watching. This study builds the theoretic foundation by integrating Uses and Gratifications. er. io. Theory (U&G; motivation), Flow Theory (viewing psychological status) and Media System Dependency Theory (MSDT; users’ dependency relationship, behaviors, outcomes and cultural. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. influences). This qualitative study conducted in-depth interviews with American and Taiwanese. engchi. OTT TV drama binge-watchers who were aged 22-30 years old. Through a purposive sampling method with a snowball sampling, this study recruited 21 OTT TV users (11 Taiwanese and 10 American participants). The transcribed interview data was coded thematically. Based on the interview data, the most salient motivations for Taiwanese and American participants to binge-watch were entertainment and passing time and reducing boredom, answering RQ1. In regards to the psychological status of young OTT TV users’ (RQ2), intense concentration and time distortion were the most prominent while engaging in drama content consumption. For the behavioral patterns (RQ3), most of the participants preferred to bingewatch alone at home mostly during the evening and late night. Netflix was the most used OTT i. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(5) platform accessed through the laptop. Furthermore, the majority of the American participants were heavy users, while most of the Taiwanese participants were light users. Regarding bingewatching outcomes (RQ4), the most striking outcomes were the affective outcomes relaxation, feeling anxiety and/or guilt and mood change. Information as a cognitive outcome and social interaction as a behavioral outcome were the other prominent effects of the binge-watching behavior. Lastly, in cross-cultural comparisons, binge-watching behavior was quite similar between the Taiwanese and American participants. However, there were some slight differences throughout the binge-watching process that were affected by personal choice, lifestyle and content.. 政治大 2) Parasocial breakup under affective outcomes (had previously not been linked to binge立. There were 3 emerging codes from the collected data: 1) Spatial presence under immersive flow; watching and is associated with grief and loss in regard to TV shows); and 3) Social interaction. ‧ 國. 學. under behavioral outcomes (the accessibility to discuss with anyone about series). Furthermore, from the data analysis it was evident content played a key role throughout the drama binge-. ‧. watching process. Interest in the content is essential, hence personal choice in regards to genre. y. Nat. and story interests, and lifestyle in regards to time availability, will influence what drama to. sit. binge-watch. Specifically, content was essential in the psychological status of the immersive. al. er. io. flow segment. If the content is not engaging enough, once the viewer is in the immersive flow. n. segment they will most likely lose focus and multitask or stop watching the drama. Additionally,. Ch. i n U. v. content has a great impact on the outcomes, especially in regard to the affective outcomes—like relaxation, mood change, and loneliness.. engchi. Keywords: binge-watching, OTT TV, motivations, psychological status, binge-watching behaviors, outcomes, Media System Dependency Theory, Flow Theory, Uses and Gratifications Theory. ii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………...…….i Table of contents…………………………………………………………………………………iii List of Tables and Figures……………………………………………………………………….vii Ch. 1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………...………1 1.1. Research background …………………………………………………………...……1 1.2. Research purposes…………………………………………………………………….2. 治政大 Ch. 2 Literature Review …………………………………………………………………………..5 立 1.3. Research significance and expected contributions …………………………………..3. 2.1. Binge-watching phenomenon in United States and Taiwan……………………….....5. ‧ 國. 學. 2.2. Binge-watching: definitions and studies……………………………………………...6. ‧. 2.2.1. Binge-watching……………………………………………………………..7. y. Nat. 2.2.2. Binge-watching literature………………………………………………….10. er. io. sit. 2.2.3. Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G)…………………………………...13 2.2.4. Motivations in binge-watching studies……………………………………14. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 2.3. Binge-watching and media dependency…………………………………………….15. engchi. 2.3.1. Binge-watching: addiction or dependence? …………………………........15 2.3.2. Media System Dependency Theory (MSDT)……………………………..16 2.3.3. Outcomes in binge-watching studies……………………………………...18 2.4. Binge-watching and Flow Theory…………………………………………………..20 2.5. Theoretic framework………………………………………………………………...22 Ch. 3 Methodology ……………………………………………………..……………………….24 3.1. Rationale for qualitative research method ………………………………………….24. iii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(7) 3.2. Data Collection……………………………………………………………………...25 3.3. Data analysis………………………………………………………………………...27 Ch. 4 Results ……………………………………………………..……………………………...30 4.1. General description of the interviewees’ profiles and binge-watching behavior…...30 4.1.1. Interviewees’ profiles……………………………………………………...30 4.1.2. OTT platforms and services……………………………………………….31 4.1.3. Viewing context…………………………………………………………...32. 治政大 4.2.1. Hedonic motives…………………………………………………………..35 立. 4.2. Pre-viewing motivations (RQ1)……………………………………………………..35. 4.2.1.1. Entertainment……………………………………………………35. ‧ 國. 學. 4.2.1.2. Escapism………………………………………………………...37. ‧. 4.2.2. Instrumental motives………………………………………………………38. y. Nat. 4.2.2.1. Passing time and reducing boredom…………………………….39. er. io. sit. 4.2.2.2. Social goals……………………………………………………...40 4.2.3. Pre-viewing motivations summary………………………………………..43. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 4.3. Drama binge-watching psychological engagement (RQ2)………………………….43. engchi. 4.3.1. Immersive Flow…………………………………………………………...44 4.3.1.1. Intense concentration……………………………………………44 4.3.1.2. Time distortion………………………………………………….46 4.3.1.3. Loss of self-consciousness………………………………………48 4.3.1.4. Intrinsic enjoyment……………………………………………...49 4.3.1.5. Spatial presence…………………………………………………50 4.3.2. Psychological engagement summary……………………………………...51. iv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(8) 4.4. Binge-watching behavior (RQ3)…………………………………………………….52 4.4.1. Content types……………………………………………………………...52 4.4.2. Usage level and device used………………………………………………54 4.5. After viewing outcomes (RQ4)……………………………………………………...57 4.5.1. Affective outcome…………………………………………………………58 4.5.1.1. Relaxation……………………………………………………….58 4.5.1.2. Feeling anxiety and/or guilt……………………………………..59. 治政大 4.5.1.4. Loneliness……………………………………………………….62 立. 4.5.1.3. Mood change…………………………………………………….61. 4.5.1.5. Parasocial breakup………………………………………………64. ‧ 國. 學. 4.5.2. Cognitive outcome………………………………………………………...64. ‧. 4.5.2.1. Information……………………………………………………...65. y. Nat. 4.5.2.2. Well-being……………………………………………………….66. er. io. sit. 4.5.3. Behavioral outcome……………………………………………………….68 4.5.3.1. Social interaction………………………………………………..68. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 4.5.3.2. Health problems…………………………………………………69. engchi. 4.5.3.3. Productivity loss………………………………………………...70 4.5.3.4. Habit…………………………………………………………….72 4.5.4. After viewing summary…………………………………………………...73 Ch. 5 Discussion and conclusion………………………………………………………………...75 5.1. Discussion and conclusion…………………………………………………………..75 5.2. Contributions and limitations………………………………………………………..84 References …………………………………………………………………………………….....87. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(9) Appendices …………………………….………………………………………………………...96 Appendix A Consent form ………………………………………………………………………96 Appendix B Semi-structured Interview Guide…………………………………………………..98. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vi. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(10) LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES Table 1. Relevant Binge-watching Studies (2014-2018)………………………………………...11 Table 2. Participants’ demographics……………………………………………………………..26 Table 3. Coding Scheme…………………………………………………………………………28 Table 4. Binge-watching Behavior………………………………………………………………55 Table 5. Taiwan and USA differences and similarities………………………………………….79. 治政大 Figure 1. Media System Dependency Theory Model …………………...………………………17 立 FIGURES. Figure 2. Proposed Theoretic Framework for Binge-watching process………………...……….23. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(11) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Research background Since Netflix’s disruptive video offering model for users to access seasons of TV series in 2013, the popularity of such audiovisual services led to the rise of the binge-watching phenomenon (Trouleau et al., 2016). According to Merikivi et al. (2017), binge-watching has become the new global content consumption mode. The binge-watching phenomenon shows no signs of slowing. 治政大 or alone; at homes or outside) daily routines in various contexts (e.g., watching with friends 立 became prominent after the major shift in video viewing (Mikos, 2016). The term binge-watch down (Allen, 2017; Netflix, 2017). Binge-watching of drama series has become many users’. ‧ 國. 學. consumption mode (Flood, 2015). Despite the recent hype, binge-watching has yet to have a fixed definition (Schweidel & Moe, 2016). Merikivi et al. (2017) define the behavior as. ‧. consuming more than one episode of the same television show in one sitting (Pittman and Sheehan, 2015; Schweidel and Moe, 2016). Similarly, Panda and Pandey (2017) proposed to. sit. y. Nat. delimit is as watching a minimum of two to three episodes of the same series, or at least one hour of the same TV series in one sitting (Panda & Pandey, 2017). After conducting a big data. io. n. al. er. analysis, Trouleau et al. (2016) characterized binge-watching into two levels: “hyper-binge,” a. i n U. v. rare yet extreme viewing behavior of consuming a significantly large number of episodes, and. Ch. engchi. “binge-watching,” to view three to seven episodes. In general, binge-watching is usually associated with the viewing of a certain number of episodes within a certain period of time. As past studies have no consensus of the number of episodes and the duration of time, this study will not take such a quantitative approach, especially when the comparison study will examine bingewatchers in two countries which are likely to have different binge-viewing norms, patterns and cultures in two media ecology. Thus, binge-watching here will be defined as the video viewing behavior with excessive or intensive consumption of audiovisual content within a short period of time. It will focus on examining binge watchers’ drama consumption on OTT TV platforms.. 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(12) Due to its ubiquitous nature, researchers have slowly begun to explore the binge-watching phenomenon (Flayelle et al., 2017; Shim & Kim, 2018; Walton-Pattison et al., 2018); however, there is still much to be examined (de Feijter, 2016; Panda & Pandey, 2017). Researchers have mainly focused on motivations and outcomes of binge-watching (Boudali et al., 2017; Pittman & Sheehan, 2015; Steiner & Xu, 2018), with some focus on advertisement effects on viewers (Schweidel & Moe, 2016) and OTT platform services (Mikos, 2016). Most exciting studies do not specify their binging content and service types as well as contexts. Scholars acknowledge that there are still research gaps with regards to the psychological status (e.g., immersive flow and affective feelings) (Flayelle et al., 2017) and binge-watching behaviors during a binge session and resulting outcomes (de Feijter et al., 2016; Panda & Pandey, 2017). Furthermore, so. 政治大 study will thus examine cross-cultural drama binge-watching processes between American and 立. far there has been any cultural comparison research which is identified as a knowledge gap. This Taiwanese millennials, the majority of the binge-watching users (citations).. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 1.2. Research purposes. Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G), Flow Theory and Media System Dependency Theory. Nat. sit. y. (MSDT) will be used to propose a theoretic framework that will be used to develop codes and. io. er. analyze the data of the binge-watching behaviors. U&G’s function is to examine the motivations of users as it allows the analysis to understand individuals’ different motivations to use media. n. al. i n U. v. (Shim & Kim, 2018). Since Flow Theory looks at the holistic sensation that people feel when. Ch. engchi. they are in total focus and involvement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1977/1991), it is essential to look at the during viewing process of users (i.e., their psychological status). Lastly MSDT has two major functions. First, it is a key element to understand users’ dependency relationship to the media and the resulting effects on affective, cognitive, behavioral aspects. Second, itis concerned about the influence of “society” (i.e., two different cultures: USA and Taiwan) on the users. This study aims to explore the linear binge-watching behavior by: 1) looking at the motivating factors (e.g., hedonic—e.g., escapism, entertainment—and instrumental motivations—e.g., social goals, passing time and reducing boredom ) for binge-watching dramas among young OTT TV users; 2) examining OTT TV users’ psychological status (e.g., immersive flow—e.g, intense 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(13) concentration, loss of self-consciousness, time distortion, intrinsic enjoyment) while engaging in drama binge-watching; 3) inspecting OTT TV users’ behavioral patterns (e.g., time spent, devices used, content and service types, and context) when binge-watching a drama; and 4) investigating the affective (e.g., relaxation, mood change, loneliness, feeling anxiety and guilt), cognitive (e.g., information, well-being), and behavioral outcomes (e.g., productivity loss, habit, health problems) for OTT TV users after they binge-watch dramas. Lastly, this study will explore the cross-cultural differences and similarities of OTT TV users in USA and Taiwan. As stated, there are no previous studies showing comparisons between two binge-watching nations, especially not from a Western and Asian comparison perspective. This exploratory study. 政治大 watching, OTT TV users from USA and Taiwan. Both the USA (Deloitte, 2016) and Taiwan 立 employed a purposive sampling method to recruit 21 interviewees who are millennial, binge(ETtoday, 2018) have a high OTT penetration; moreover 90% of American binge-watchers. ‧ 國. 學. (Deloitte, 2016) and 70% of Taiwanese binge-watchers (CASBAA, 2017) are millennials—aged 20 to 35 (Pew Research Center, 2016). Due to the similarities in OTT penetration and usage, the. ‧. wave of the binge-watching phenomenon, and the age of the main users (millennials), it would. y. Nat. be valuable to investigate whether binge-watchers’ motivations, psychological status, behaviors. sit. and outcomes in two countries with differing cultures. Having a cross-cultural comparison. al. er. io. analysis would shed light to possible cultural influences on binge-watching users. Therefore,. n. USA and Taiwan are suitable and ecologically sound locations from which to collect the data for. Ch. i n U. v. this study to compare and understand how cultural differences affect binge-watching dramas on OTT platforms.. engchi. 1.3. Research significance and expected contributions It is important to investigate this binge-watching phenomenon due to its global impact (Merikivi et al., 2017). In terms of theoretical contributions, this exploratory study will illuminate and fill in the knowledge gaps regarding psychological status, binge-watching behaviors and outcomes among young OTT TV users who binge-watch dramas. Additionally, this research will be one of the first to conduct cross-cultural, binge-watching investigations. Furthermore, this research investigation will offer insights into applying U&G in explaining motivations to binge-watch. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(14) Moreover, this study will contribute in analyzing binge-watching outcomes and the cultural influences of American and Taiwanese users, through the MSDT lens. Lastly, Flow Theory be used to understand the psychological status of young OTT TV users during a binge-watching session. Even though the study focuses specifically on the users and their binge-watching behavior, practically, these findings will help develop the entertainment industry, specifically OTT industry players (i.e., Netflix, Hulu, IQIYI, and LINE TV), so they can understand the differences among cross-cultural binge-watchers regarding their motivations, use patterns and consequences to develop content and services that can have a greater level of audience engagement. Moreover, the findings will raise awareness for possible disadvantages of bingewatching and promote creating more ‘healthy’ binge-watching experiences.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(15) Chapter 2 Literature Review. 2.1. Binge-watching phenomenon in United States and Taiwan According to Statista (2018), in 2012 there were 46 million OTT subscription video service subscribers worldwide and it is projected to rise to 650 billion by 2021. Just in the USA, in 2017 there were 193 million subscribers, which is expected to rise to nearly 210 million users by 2021 (Statista 2018). Approximately half of USA consumers subscribe to streaming media services. 政治大. (Deloitte, 2016). Today, there are more than 200 OTT video services available in the USA, of. 立. which over 87% offer some type of subscription options (Broadband TV News, 2017; Wilson,. ‧ 國. 學. 2018). The three top OTT platforms in the USA are Netflix, Amazon, and Hulu, followed by MLB.TV and HBO Now (Broadband TV News, 2017).. ‧. Since 2016, Taiwan’s OTT platforms have become a major outbreak; besides foreign companies entering the Taiwanese market, local companies started exploring and attacking this market. y. Nat. sit. (SETN, 2017). In addition to the foreign OTT platforms, currently Taiwan has 15 locally. al. er. io. established OTT platforms available to provide digital services to the Taiwanese population, of. n. which around 95% of Taiwan’s 5.2 million cable TV subscribers now receive (Hawkes, 2017).. Ch. i n U. v. Furthermore, from Taiwan’s total population, 77% currently use OTT audio and video services. engchi. (ETtoday, 2018). According to a survey conducted by ETtoday (2018), YouTube is the most widely used OTT platform in Taiwan (85.3%), followed by IQIYI (45.8%), LINE TV (22.7%), LiTV (17.7%), KKTV (10.7%), Netflix (10.3%) and friDay (10.2%). According to CASBAA, the overall access to multi-channel video services of all kinds in Taiwan is bolstered by a mobile video market now accounting for 92% of the population (Asia-Pacific Broadcasting, 2017). Binge-watching has hit critical mass in the USA, it is so ubiquitous that it has been added to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary (Rodriguez, 2017). According to a survey by Deloitte (2016), nearly three-quarters—70%—of Americans said they binge-watched videos, of which 90% were. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(16) millennials (Rodriguez, 2017). Some of the most popular shows in the USA from 2017 include “Fuller House,” “Narcos,” “Orange is the New Black,” and “Stranger Things” (Clarridge, 2018). Taiwan is not far behind the USA with regards to the prevalent binge-watching phenomenon. Taiwan’s passion for drama binge-watching can be said to be global No. 1, with an average of only 3 days to catch up with a season of favorite programs, when the global average is 4 days (TechNews, 2017a). According to CASBAA (2017), in Taiwan, almost 70% of OTT subscribers are “binge” watchers. The largest group of OTT subscribers in Taiwan are young women aged 18-34, which are approximately 42%, followed by males aged (28%) (CASBAA, 2017). Taiwanese subscribers seem to love horror programs, some of the top shows they watch are. 政治大. “Super 8 Group (Sense 8),” “Black Mirror,” “Santa Clarita Diet,” and “Stranger Things” (TechNews, 2017a).. 立. ‧ 國. 學. There seems to be similarities between USA and Taiwan regarding the high penetration of OTT services and usage, the wave of the binge-watching phenomenon, and even the age of the main users (millennials), it would be worthwhile to investigate whether binge-watchers’ motivations,. ‧. psychological status, behaviors and outcomes have something in common in the two countries. y. Nat. with different cultures. Therefore, the cultural comparison research would shed light to possible. sit. cultural influences on binge-watching users. In order to make comparisons of drama binge-. er. io. watching users, Taipei City and New York City—two prominent cities in their countries with. al. n. iv n C locations to conducts the research. There studies showing comparisons between h are e nnogprevious chi U. developed telecommunication structures to support OTT platforms—were chosen as the specific two binge-watching nations, especially not from a Western and Asian comparison perspective.. Therefore, USA and Taiwan are suitable and ecologically sound locations from which to collect the data for this study to compare and understand how cultural differences affect binge-watching dramas on OTT platforms.. 2.2. Binge-watching: definitions and studies In this section, the definition and history of “binge” will be explained to understand how this word ended up being associated with the popular media phenomena—binge-watching. The multiple definitions of binge-watching given by previous researchers will be discussed and the 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(17) binge-watching definition for this study will be proposed. The last segment will examine past studies and will introduce the U&G theory to look particularly at the motivations to binge-watch.. 2.2.1. Binge-watching The word “binge,” which first showed up in mid-19th century English dictionaries, came from a Northern dialect word meaning ‘soak’—referring to soaking casks or other wooden vessels to keep them from leaking (Merikivi et al., 2017; Oxford University Press, 2014; Zimmer, 2013). The Glossary of Northamptonshire Words and Phrases by Anne Elizabeth Baker's (1854, p. 49) defines it as follows:. 政治大. BINGE. This word primarily signifies the act of soaking, and is applied substantively to persons, and adjectively and verbally to things. A man goes to the alehouse to get a good binge, or to binge himself. A heavy rain is a good bingeing shower: but the most general and frequent application of the term is to the soaking of tubs or wooden vessels to prevent leaking, when the chimes have become separated from dryness and disuse. "Put the tubs to binge, ready for the wash." According to D. Jennings, in Somersetshire, to Binge is to remain long in drinking; to drink to excess.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. By 1880s, it was no longer just a provincial expression used in reference of casks and vessels, as. y. Nat. it had spread to Oxford and adopted by Oxford undergraduates to mean a drinking spree (Oxford. sit. University Press, 2014; Zimmer, 2013).. n. al. er. io. Binge (Oxford), a big drinking bout. To binge is a provincialism for to soak a vessel in water to prevent its leaking. It is also a nautical term meaning to rinse a cask. This word seems to be connected with bung, the orifice in the bilge of a cask, through which it is filled.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. As the usage of the word increased, by the 20th century, its meaning changed and became a metaphor for "getting soaked" or excessive drinking (Zimmer, 2013). Binge came to represent “camaraderie, a joyous and innocent spree with little to criticize” as it was used in the context of drinking at the alehouse (Berridge et al., 2009; Withington 2011). It was eventually adopted and used for clinical purposes to describe alcoholic overindulgence and got extended to other kinds of excessive consumption (Zimmer, 2013). The term mostly carries negative connotations (Merikivi et al., 2018). Abbott (2014) states that binge denotes to being or having too much of something relative to a norm. Indulging is not well regarded in society and hence the term denotes a negative behavior. Since binge is a period of excessive indulgence in any activity 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(18) (Oxford Dictionary), it is seen as a harmful behavior and it is often associated to eating (Mathes et al., 2009; Oxford University Press, 2014; Stunkard, 1959), drinking (Jellinek, 1952; Oxford University Press, 2014; Wechsler et al. 1994), or shopping (Black 2007; Faber et al., 1995; Kellett & Bolton, 2009). The Oxford English Dictionary has records of binge-drinker from 1946, eating binge from 1937, binge-drinking from 1956, and binge-eating from 1959 (Zimmer, 2013). Increased awareness of bulimia and related eating disorders propelled the term binge-eating to greater prominence in the 1980’s (Zimmer, 2013). Similar to binge-eating model, Zimmer (2013) regards the excessive TV consumption within a short period of time as binge-watching. Due the advancements of video services and technologies, audiences nowadays are in the golden age of. 治政大 Hulu Plus) and the on-demand Top (OTT) TV services (e.g., Netflix, iTunes, Amazon, Hulu, 立 video services (Memmott, 2013; Zimmer, 2013). The word binge is now linked to excessive. binge-watching, as varieties of audiovisual services are available for selection, such as Over-the-. ‧ 國. 學. video consumption through use of interchangeable terms like “binge-watchers” or “bingeviewers” (Dickinson, 2014).. ‧. In the context of binge-watching, some scholars view such binging behaviors as something. y. Nat. positive when it was used to describe TV show viewing patterns (Dickinson, 2014). When. sit. discussing binge-watching, Pamela Rutledge, head of the Media Psychology Research Center in. er. io. Boston, argued that although people associate the word ‘binge’ with being out of control, binge-. al. n. iv n C various options (Memmott, h e 2013). h i U choice n g c“Whenever. watching videos should be regarded as audience empowerment to view TV or other video services with. is in the hands of the. consumer, it's a good thing,” stated Rutledge (as cited in Memmott, 2013). Similarly, cultural anthropologist, Grant McCracken, stated that the current viewers have awoken from their “couch potato” state and taken over the control of video viewing, because they found new ways to watch videos (Crum, 2013). According to McCracken, viewers are not using viewing as a way to zone out and forget about their day, but rather they are taking action by tuning in, on their own schedule, to immerse themselves in different world through multiple episodes or even multiple seasons of a show (Crum, 2013). This behavior is a new form of escapism that is especially welcomed by users (as cited in Crum, 2013).. 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(19) What is binge-watching? According to Panda and Pandey (2017), the definition of binge watching is still evolving. Some think that binge-watching is a recent phenomenon associated with overindulging on drama series; however, other treats it as audience empowerment to have various ways to watch videos. The definitions of binge-watching vary greatly, but the concept is usually associated with viewing certain numbers of TV show episodes within a certain period of time. Some define it by the number of episodes watched during a binge session, while others define it by the hours spent watching a series. Netflix (2013) conducted research for binge-watching through a Harris Interactive Survey and found that from 1,500 streamers evaluated in the United States, 73%, or three-quarters, of the. 治政 in one sitting (Crum, 2013; Dickinson, 2014; Merikivi et大 al., 2017; Netflix 2013; Panda & 立 Pandey, 2017). The Digital Democracy Survey offers an alternative definition as watching three respondents defined binge-watching as watching between two to six episodes of the same show. ‧ 國. 學. or more episodes of a TV series in one sitting (Deloitte, 2015; Merikivi et al., 2017; Panda & Pandey, 2017). Merikivi et al. (2017) have an even lower threshold for the binge-watching. ‧. activity referring to consuming more than one episode of the same television show in one sitting (Pittman & Sheehan, 2015; Schweidel & Moe, 2016). Panda and Pandey (2017) proposed to treat. Nat. sit. y. it as the “heavy consumption” attributed to watching a minimum of two to three episodes of the. io. al. er. same series, or at least one hour of the same TV series in one sitting (Panda & Pandey, 2017).. n. iv n C “multiple episodes (of a television program) succession, typically by means of DVDs or h e inn rapid gchi U. The Oxford Dictionaries (2014, 2016) define binge-watching, or binge-viewing, as watching digital streaming.” According to Schweidel and Moe (2016), the two common characteristics of binge-watching are consistent with the definition for “binge-watching” in the Oxford Dictionaries. These two common elements stressed by Schweidel and Moe (2016) are: 1) there is a heavy rate of consumption, which may occur within a single session or across multiple sessions within a short period of time, and (2) a key feature that distinguishes binge-watching from heavy usage is that it is characterized by consuming multiple episodes of the same series. This study focuses on examining how Taiwanese and American audiences watch drama series on OTT platforms. Due to cultural differences of video viewing behaviors in different countries and audience groups, a universal definition of binge-watching in terms of exact amount of time spent 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(20) on the numbers of episodes will not be developed and thus such quantitative ways of definitions are not appropriate. Hence, in this study, binge-watching is defined as the video viewing behavior with excessive or intensive consumption of audiovisual content within a short period of time.. 2.2.2. Binge-watching literature As binge-watching is a new video consumption phenomenon, to date not many scholarly studies have been conducted in this field. As of April 2018, when searching relevant binge-watching journal articles in the database of EBSCOhost, Pro Quest, JSTOR, Project Muse, Google Scholar and the Discovery Service System (Primo), only twenty papers published from 2014 to 2018 are. 政治大 are relevant for the present study 立as they focus on binge-watching user research.. related and look specifically at the binge-watching phenomenon. Among them, sixteen papers They took. different methods to investigate video binge-watchers: five studies utilize qualitative methods. ‧ 國. 學. (e.g., interviews and focus groups); nine use quantitative methods (online surveys and big data analysis); and two took mixed method approach. Thirteen of the studies were conducted in. ‧. western countries, mostly in the USA, two in Asia (South Korea and China), and one is unknown. y. Nat. (Walton-Pattison et al., 2018). From all these past studies, it seems that to present date. sit. researchers have not come to a consensus on how to define binge-watching and have yet to. er. al. n. behavior.. io. develop a theoretical framework as a model to study the binge-watching motives, outcomes or. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Previous literature examined users’ motivations (Rubenking et al., 2018; Steiner and Xu, 2018), gratifications/outcomes (Boudali et al., 2017; Sung et al. 2015a), frequency of use (de Feijter et al. 2016, Trouleau et al., 2016), streaming platforms (Mikos, 2016), binge-watching behavior, and viewing experiences (Shim & Kim, 2018). Although individual differences play an integral role in moderating the effects of certain binge-watching motivations (Shim & Kim, 2018), it is beyond the scope of this study. This proposed research will not examine situational factors regarding previously consumed videos like advertisements that were found to defer viewers from binge-watching (Schweidel and Moe, 2016). Table 1 shows relevant binge-watching studies and outlines their authors, methods, research sites, and key results.. 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(21) Table 1 Relevant Binge-watching Studies (2014-2018). 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(22) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(23) Based on aforementioned literature reviews, there are identified gaps regarding binge-watching studies. Hence, it is important to understand the process from binge-watching motivations (prebinging), the psychological status and behavioral patterns during a binge, as well as outcomes of binge-watching (after-binging). Based on the previous findings on binge-watching, this study will focus on young OTT TV users’ binge-viewing drama series and compare their processes in two contexts, New York (USA) and Taipei City (Taiwan), in order to investigate cultural influences on binge-viewing.. The following sections will elaborate the theoretic foundations. (U&G, MSDT, and Flow Theory) and relevant binge-watching studies that shed light on developing seven codes and 22 sub-codes for this study.. 政治大. 2.2.3. Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G). 立. The U&G theory posits that gratification is the satisfaction obtained by individuals when certain. ‧ 國. 學. media technologies, services, or content correlate with their expectations and needs (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973). According to Rubin (2009), gratifications have been referred to as. ‧. expectations and desires that derive from and are constrained by personal traits, social context, and interaction. Essentially, individuals have specific motives for consciously adopting and using. Nat. sit. y. specific media with the deliberate goal to satisfy their own needs (Rubin, 2009). Hence, it is. io. er. important to look at individual differences in motivation as they play an essential role in understanding why and how individuals use media to gratify those needs (Shim & Kim, 2018).. n. al. i n U. v. Furthermore, U&G also describes other psychological effects and media selection behaviors. Ch. engchi. (Steiner & Xu, 2018), as it permits researchers to investigate ‘mediated communication situations via a single or multiple sets of psychological needs, motives, communication channels, communication content, and psychological gratifications within a cross-cultural context’ (Lin, 1996). Additionally, according to Sherry et al. (2006), examining individual motivation for media use is the first step in illuminating the complexity of media effects. U&G motivational factors of binge-watching will aid to further the knowledge on how the norms and means for this emergent media behavior are shaped and transformed according to an individual's motivations (Shim & Kim, 2018). Therefore, this study will use two motivational categories: hedonic motivations (i.e., consumption of media entertainment in the pursuit of pleasure and amusement; Oliver & Raney, 2011) and instrumental motivations (i.e., motivation to do or achieve something 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(24) to get worldly benefit; Khan et al, 2016) to divide various motivational factors influencing bingewatching dramas.. 2.2.4. Motivations in binge-watching studies In past studies of binge-watching, they have found many relevant motivating factors related to this new mode of video consumption. Rubenking et al. (2018) identified four emerging motivations: (1) anticipation of what was coming next, (2) management of moods and excitement/ arousal, (3) procrastination and escapism, and (4) social goals (i.e., co-viewing, discussing content with others, and identification with characters). Mikos’ research (2016) found. 政治大 intensive series consumption, both these motivations can be found under Rubenking et al.’s 立 (2018) social goals. Sung et al. (2015b) found seven motivating factors (e.g., social interaction, that character development and public discussion of a new series are important reasons for. ‧ 國. 學. entertainment, passing time, relaxation, escape, information, and habit), which seem to encompass some of the motivations found to be significant predictors of binge-watching. ‧. behavior. Similarly, Steiner and Xu’s (2018) primary motivations included catching up, relaxation, sense of completion, cultural inclusion, and improved viewing experience. Pittman. Nat. sit. y. and Sheehan (2015) found engagement—more active involvement in the viewing activity—to be. er. io. the strongest and only motivation to predict frequency of viewing. They also found a new motivation, to keep up with others, similar to Rubenking et al.’s (2018) motivation of social. n. al. i n U. v. goals. Shim and Kim (2018) found three key motivators of binge-watching: enjoyment,. Ch. engchi. efficiency, and fandom. According to Panda and Pandey (2017), social interaction, escape from reality and easy accessibility to TV content as motivators to spend more time binge-watching. Since there are various motivational factors affecting binge-watching, this study that focuses on binge-viewing drama series among OTT TV young users identifies escapism and entertainment under hedonic motivations as well as social goals and passing time/reducing boredom as the instrumental motivations. Their definitions will be provided in the method session’s code table.. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(25) 2.3. Binge-watching and media dependency This section will first define and discuss the differences between addiction and dependency. Both terms are sometimes used interchangeably, though they have quite distinct meanings. It is important to look at the difference between the terms because some studies in the previous section view binge-watching behavior as an addiction. However, this study disagrees with their classification due to the fact that from the past findings none of the behaviors discussed fall under addiction parameters (discussed later in this section) and proposes to categorize instead binge-watching behavior as a dependency. Lastly, the MSDT will be used as a theoretical lens for binge-watching outcomes.. 政治大 2.3.1. Binge-watching: addiction or dependence? 立. Addiction is defined as an individual’s inclination, condition, or proclivity to a particular. ‧ 國. 學. substance or activity (Oxford Dictionary, n.d.). Hanley and Wilhelm (1992) define addictive behavior as any activity, substance, object, or behavior that has become the major focus of a. ‧. person's life to the exclusion of other activities, or that has begun to harm the individual or others. y. Nat. physically, mentally, or socially. According to Hooper and Zhou (2007) addictive behavior. sit. usually falls in the realm of abnormal behavior. There are four main elements used as criteria for. er. io. addictive behavior: 1) a sudden and spontaneous desire to act; 2) a state of psychological. al. iv n C and 4) a lack of regard or denial for consequences of the behavior h e n g c h i U (O‘Guinn & Faber, 1989). n. disequilibrium; 3) the onset of psychological conflict representing an inner battle of thoughts;. Dependence is defined as a state of relying on or being controlled by someone or something else (Oxford dictionary). Although dependent behavior is often defined as lying on the same continuum of physical and psychological attachments as addiction (Li & Chung, 2004), many researchers disagree with its definition and believe it to be different from addiction (Hooper & Zhou, 2007). According to Becker and Murphy (1988), dependent behavior is often motivated by the attached importance and social norms. The World Health Organization (2010) uses a definition of ‘dependence’ that describes a collection of different characteristics that grow to become a higher priority in a person’s life than other previous behaviors that were more important at one time. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(26) In media context, Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976, p. 6) define dependency as “a relationship in which the satisfaction of needs or the attainment of goals by one party is contingent upon the resources of another party.” Past studies have used this concept to understand technological use and users (e.g.; Lin et al., 2015; Lin & Chiang, Forthcoming). Li and Lin (2016, p. 2917), used this notion to define smartphone dependency as “a relationship that reflects the reliance of users on their smartphones to achieve goals.” Lowrey (2004) used it to understand media dependency during a large-scale social disruption (the September 11 terrorist attacks). Mahmud et al. (2018), studied social media dependency in regards to college students. Bata et al. (2018) examined technology dependence linked with the work-related use of mobile social networking (MSN) by salespeople.. 立. 政治大. Despite other binge behaviors displaying similar addiction aspects, Flayelle et al. (2017). ‧ 國. 學. suggested that counting binge-watching as a genuine addiction is unsuitable. Binge-watching is a multi-determined and heterogeneous phenomenon, therefore such parallelism with addiction. ‧. appears insufficient (Flayelle et al., 2017). This study concurs with not categorizing binge-. y. Nat. watching as an addiction; in this study binge-watching will be regarded as a dependency because. n. al. 2.3.2. Media System Dependency Theory (MSDT). Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. there is a reliance of the user on the media (OTT platforms and content).. i n U. v. This research that investigates binge-watching motivations, psychological status, behavioral patterns, and outcomes holistically, covers several well-established theories including MSDT. This theory will be a better approach to understanding binge-watching because it will help to analyze the relationship that reflects the reliance of users on media technologies, services, or content to achieve their needs. MSDT involves the complex interrelations between large sets of interacting variables categorized by the terms “media,” “audiences,” and “society” (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). MSDT takes these variables into account individually, interactively, and systematically to have a comprehensive understanding of the media effects on society and, more specifically, on the 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(27) audience. The theory focuses on the high level of dependency the audiences develop for media— which is a key factor to understand why and how media alters beliefs, feelings, or behavior (BallRokeach & DeFleur, 1976). Essentially, MSDT posits that the more an individual depends on media to meet needs or attain goals, the more important media will be for the individual, resulting in more and greater effects of media on the individual—be it cognitive, affective or behavioral (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1. Media System Dependency Theory Model (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). MSDT will give an overview of the binge-watching phenomenon as a whole to understand the relationship between societal systems (i.e., USA and Taiwan) and media systems (i.e., OTT platforms), and the relationship between media systems (OTT binge-watching videos) and the audience (Millennial users). Ultimately, this study is interested in understanding (1) the “dependency” caused by the relationship between media and audience and (2) the effects of media on the audience. The MSDT approach will be taken to understand the audience and the relationship with the other variables; however, this study will particularly look at the audience as 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(28) the focal point of analysis. It will use cognitive, affective and behavioral outcomes as the three codes to encompass relevant outcome sub-codes to analyze the research.. 2.3.3. Outcomes in binge-watching studies Through past studies, researchers identify some outcomes related to general binge-viewing. Boudali et al. (2017) studied the before and after binge-watching effects and they found that participants felt excitement, boredom, wanted to pass time, and have fun before conducting a binge-watching session; afterwards, they felt more relaxed and happier (Boudali et al., 2017). These motivations found by Boudali et al. (2017) are similar to some motivations found in. 政治大 and anxiety with frequency and duration of binge watching, which differs to other studies 立 (Boudali et al., 2017). According to Merikivi et al. (2017), binge-watching is personally. Merikivi et al. (2017) (e.g. boredom or free time). They found no correlation between depression. ‧ 國. 學. fulfilling; however, when that is not the case, they infer it could explain why binge-watching is linked to loneliness and depression.. ‧. Walton-Pattison et al. (2018) found that users anticipated regret and goal conflict when engaging. Nat. sit. y. in binge behavior (Walton-Pattison et al., 2018). Furthermore, users’ intentions and outcome. er. io. expectations accounted for variance in binge-watching behavior and automaticity. They surmise that binge-watching is commonplace and associated with both reflective and impulsive factors. n. al. i n U. v. (Walton-Pattison et al., 2018). Steiner and Xu (2018) found that binge-watchers had contrasting. Ch. engchi. affective outcomes in the same long binge; they would feel shame, guilt, self-loathing and regret, while sometimes also feeling pride and a cultural connection. Sung et al. (2015a) found that the psychological variables loneliness, depression and self-regulation deficiency were positively related to binge-watching and when it becomes rampant, viewers may start to neglect their work and their relationships with others. They also found that binge-watching behavior could lead to health problems (e.g., physical fatigue, obesity). Moreover, de Feijter et al. (2016) found that binge-watching could lead to an increasingly sedentary and solitary lifestyle leading to higher risks for health issues, similar to Sung et al. (2015a). Furthermore, Flayelle et al. (2017) and Devasagayam (2014) found that participants felt that binge-watching caused addictive tendencies. Binge-watchers acknowledged their heavy dependency on watching a drama series 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(29) could become addictive and agreed to having had trouble in assessing themselves as truly being an “addict” (Flayelle et al., 2017). Lastly, de Feijter et al. (2016) note that binge-watchers can consciously as well as unconsciously postpone activities (e.g., chores, work and social activities, and school assignments) for a bingewatching session. Furthermore, they found that viewers often cannot plan or control their bingewatching behavior because they lack the intention to stimulate less time spent on consecutive viewing. They suggested that more awareness and control over viewing time, as well as avoiding overrunning the optimal numbers of episodes being watched would increase the binge-watching experience, preventing excessive viewing and depreciation of the show.. 政治大 With these few and diverse outcomes, the MSDT Theory served as a theoretical framework to 立. categorize three types of binge-viewing effects. The study that focuses on binge-watch drama. ‧ 國. 學. series among OTT TV young users identifies affective outcomes (e.g., mood change, relaxation, feeling anxiety and/or guilt, loneliness), cognitive outcomes (e.g., information, well-being), and. ‧. behavioral outcomes (productivity loss, habit, health problems). Their definitions will be. sit. y. Nat. provided in the method session’s code table.. al. er. io. After conducting the study, parasocial breakup was an emerging affective outcome sub-code that. n. has never been mentioned in past literature in regards to binge-watching. Parasocial breakup has. Ch. i n U. v. been associated with grief and loss in regard to the end of TV shows, and loss of characters,. engchi. actors and celebrities within the show (DeGroot & Leith, 2015; Cohen, 2003). The phenomenon was originally documented by Meyrowitz (1994) when examining fan’s social reaction to the deaths of famous celebrities (DeGroot & Leith, 2015). In a similar tangent, Sanderson and Cheong (2010) identified parasocial grieving, which was the mourning for the loss of a celebrity with whom viewers had parasocial interaction, when examining social media as a facilitator for fans’ grief.. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(30) 2.4. Binge-watching and Flow Theory In the TV watching context, Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi (2002) indicated that “viewing begets more viewing,” which suggested that viewers exhibited a tendency to continue the viewing session to maintain their current state of mind (Schweidel & Moe, 2016). In the online environment, this state relates to the concept of “flow” (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994), a user’s immersive experience characterized by focused concentration, intrinsic enjoyment, time distortion and a state of mind that is extremely gratifying (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). Flow Theory is the holistic sensation and satisfaction that people feel when they act with total focus and involvement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1977/1991). Flow consists of the integration of. 治政 consider anything else (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). By investigating 大 the nature and conditions of 立 developed two conditions within which there are six enjoyment, Csikszentmihályi (1975/2000) actions and awareness, with concentration so intense that there is little attention left over to. ‧ 國. 學. dimensions for entering “flow.” To enter flow there is 1) equilibrium between the level of challenge and personal skill; and 2) a clear goal and immediate feedback (Nakamura &. ‧. Csikszentmihályi, 2009, p.195-196). When an individual is under these conditions, the experience seamlessly unfolds from moment to moment and one enters a subjective state. sit. y. Nat. characterized by the following:. n. al. er. io. 1. “Intense and focused concentration on the present moment” (i.e., intense concentration);. i n U. v. 2. “Merging of action and awareness” (i.e., conscious action);. Ch. engchi. 3. Loss of reflective self-consciousness as a social actor (i.e., loss of self-consciousness); 4. “A sense that one can control one’s actions” (i.e., perceived control); 5. “Distortion of temporal experience” (i.e., time distortion); 6. “Experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, such that often the end goal is just an excuse for the process” (i.e., intrinsic enjoyment). Hoffman and Novak (1996) termed these characteristics as focused concentration, disappearance of self-consciousness, distorted sense of time, intrinsic enjoyment, and a state of mind that is extremely gratifying to demonstrate when an individual has achieved an immersive experience 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(31) and is in a state of “flow.” When achieving flow, thoughts, feelings, wishes, and actions are in harmony (Nakamura & Csikszentmihályi, 2009). This equilibrium-based theory demonstrates that a complex account of media effects cannot be obtained in isolation from the reasons individuals use media (Sherry et al., 2006). It is important to understand the concept of flow when an individual is engaging in binge-watching behavior. Essentially, the concept of flow functions as a platform to understand media effects in conjunction with the motivations of an individual to engage in binge-watching behavior. From the proposed characteristics by Nakamura and Csikszentmihályi (2009), this research will adapt some terms as a code to analyze the psychological status of users while they are in immersive “flow” (e.g., intense concentration, loss of self-consciousness, time distortion and intrinsic enjoyment). None of the previous studies. 政治大. have focused on this aspect of bine-watching behavior, so this study will begin to fill the. 立. knowledge gap.. ‧ 國. 學. As the immersive flow concept has not be used to examine drama binge-watching and users tend to have intense concentration on the audiovisual content, this study aims to examine immersive. ‧. flow, defined as a state of mind in which a person is completely involved and immersed in an. y. Nat. activity (Brondi et al., 2015), when young OTT users binge-watch drama series. Intense. sit. concentration, loss of self-consciousness, time distortion and intrinsic enjoyment (Nakamura and. al. er. io. Csikszentmihályi, 2009) are four identified relevant sub-codes which definitions will be provided. n. in the method session’s code table.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Furthermore, after conducting the study a new sub-code for Immersive Flow emerged, spatial presence. This sub-code has never been found in regards to flow in binge-watching behavior. However, it has been previously linked to flow within the video game realm that gives the players a state of consciousness that gives the impression of being physically present in a mediated world (Weibel & Wissmath, 2011). Hoffman and Novak (1996) found that within computer-mediated environments, spatial presence leads to more attention and more flow. Weibel et al. (2008) also found a positive connection between spatial presence and flow in the context of a computer game. Lastly, Fontaine (1992) indicated that the flow experience produces peaks of involvement that seem to be similar to the “vividness” of spatial presence. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(32) 2.5. Theoretic framework In this section, the study proposed a theoretical framework to look at binge-watching behavior. It takes concepts from the U&G Theory, Flow Theory and MSDT to understand the linear behavior between motivations and outcomes of binge-watching for a user, specifically looking at the “during binge” psychological status and behavior. The researcher believes this model will benefit future research since presently there are no specific models looking at this behavior. The model first looks at motivations, which include hedonic and instrumental motivations. This leads to two different processes occurring simultaneously, immersive flow and binge-watching behavior. Immersive flow, which is the psychological status of the binge-watchers during viewing includes. 治政 watching behavior looks at time spent, device, content, OTT 大 platforms and viewing context. These two processes lead to the 立 binge-watching outcomes, which include affective, cognitive and intense concentration, loss of self-consciousness, time distortion and intrinsic enjoyment. Binge-. ‧ 國. 學. behavioral effects.. ‧. Selecting the sub-codes under each code was a long process of elimination after examining the relevant binge-watching literature, relevant theoretic concepts, and foci of research questions.. y. Nat. The original format was based off of Panda and Pandey’s (2017) division of motivations. io. sit. (positive and negative) and outcomes (positive and negative) and incorporated most of the most. er. relevant findings found in binge-watching literature. However, after incorporating the new. al. n. iv n C U that functioned in a cohesive h found was applied to tease out the key factors e n gincpast h iliterature theoretical framework that allowed for the development of this model, a more critical perspective manner with the framework.. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(33) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 2. Proposed Theoretic Framework for Binge-watching process. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(34) Chapter 3 Methodology This exploratory study took a qualitative approach to conduct in-depth interviews with 21 millennial binge-watchers using OTT platforms, from Taiwan and USA, in order to answer four research questions: RQ1: What are the motivating factors for binge-watching dramas among young OTT TV users? RQ2: What is the young OTT TV users’ psychological status (e.g., immersive flow) while they engage in drama binge-watching?. 治政 RQ3: What are the behavioral patterns (e.g., time spent, content 大 and service types, and viewing context) of young OTT TV users when they binge-watch dramas? 立 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. RQ4. What are the outcomes (e.g. affective, cognitive and behavioral effects) after young OTT TV users binge-watch dramas?. 3.1. Rationale for qualitative research method. sit. y. Nat. This exploratory research that investigates emerging drama binge-watching phenomenon in two countries is more suitable to conduct qualitative research. In-depth interviews were conducted as. io. n. al. er. in-depth interviews allowed the conversation to flow organically, providing more substantive and. i n U. v. comprehensive answers to how and why questions (Weiss, 1994). Qualitative research permits. Ch. engchi. the building of a strong and open relationship between the interviewee and the researcher, facilitating a richer and free dialogue while simultaneously allowing the systematic analysis of the social phenomenon, binge-watching (Steiner & Xu, 2018). The interviews were semistructured with open-ended questions, providing the flexibility to ask both pre-established and improvised questions (Steiner & Xu, 2018). Using a semi-structured interview guide allowed the researcher flexibility in asking new questions while pursuing a specific topic of interest for the study that came up during the interview.. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.

(35) 3.2. Data collection The study employed a purposive sampling method to recruit the initial participants and continued with snowball sampling method. The participants were recruited between May 7th until June 29th through the researcher’s online and offline social networks. For the online recruitment the social media platforms Facebook Messenger, for recruitment of American and Taiwanese participants, and LINE, for specific recruitment of Taiwanese participants were used. Offline social networks from work, university and friendship with Taiwanese individuals and foreigners in Taiwan served to recruit mainly Taiwanese participants. The recruiting process for Taiwanese and American participants was long and arduous. When recruiting Taiwanese participants, the. 政治大 was even more difficult due to立 the time difference and individuals’ busy schedules prevented. researcher had the language barrier (not a Chinese speaker). Recruiting American participants them from participating. The criteria for participants were millennials who binge-watch dramas. ‧ 國. 學. on OTT platforms. The study focused on Millennials because according to the Pew Research Center (2014; 2016; 2018), Millennials, anyone born between 1981 and 1996 (ages 22 to 37 in. ‧. 2018), are “digital natives”—meaning that they are the only generation that did not need to adapt. y. Nat. to the new technologies. Hence, they are adapted not only to the multi-screen technologies, but. sit. they also know how to use OTT platforms. Furthermore, although binge-watching can cause. al. er. io. dependency across multiple age groups, Millennials are heavy media users that constantly impact. n. the entertainment industry due to the distinctive way they incorporate media into their daily lives. Ch. i n U. v. (Pew Research Center, 2016). To make a comparative case, the sampling was collected from two. engchi. urban cities: New York City in the United States and Taipei City in Taiwan. The amount of referral was limited to two people in order to avoid sample bias. The researcher interviewed 21 OTT TV binge-watchers, 10 Americans and 11 Taiwanese young adults. When collecting the data, the participants were first informed of the research purpose of this study. After agreeing to participate in the interviews, they signed a consent form (see Appendix A). They were allowed to terminate the interview process at any time if they felt uncomfortable. The interviews took place utilizing the semi-structured interview guide, which consists of 36 questions in aspects of the binge-watching process, including hedonic and instrumental 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMICS.016.2018.F05.