國際學生之適應歷程與跨文化訓練--以國立台灣師範大學為例

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(1)International Students’ Adaptation Process and Cross-Cultural Training－A Case Study in the National Taiwan Normal University. by Ting-Fang Chang. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION Major: International Workforce Education and Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2008.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. In the completion of this impossible mission, thesis, I would like to give my gratitude to several important people who made this mission “possible”. First of all, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Vera Chang who had supported me throughout the long process of this study. She always smiled and encouraged me to go a little forward even when I was behind the schedule. Without her warmest care and professional guide, I wouldn’t have the chance to write this page! Further, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Steven Lai and Dr. Pai-Po Lee. They reviewed every detail of this study and provided several suggestions to make this study more complete. Moreover, I would like to thank Dr. Ted Tsai, Dr. Albert Wang, Dr. Show-Mann Liou and Dr. Tony Shih. They created an extraordinary learning environment, IWED where we had the chance to study with international students and learn different perspectives. In addition, I would like to thank our pretty office assistances, Katie, Lynn and Sophie. Whenever we had any problems, they were always there to help us! They were not only assistances but also friends to me. Secondly, I would like to give my grateful thanks to international students and relevant institution, the Office of International Affairs and the Taiwan International Cooperation Development Foundation that participated in this study. Their kindly help and sharing of experiences enriched and contributed a lot to this study. Moreover, I would like to thank my dearest classmates from Taiwan and around the world. Viola always reminded me what to do in the next step. Wilson and Jeffrey worked with me in the study room. Ariel, Sophia and Minly gave me their friendly supports and helps. Eleanor helped me to contact with possible participants. Denroy and Palm gave me many useful recommendations. San San achieved to meet the deadline of the thesis defense with me. Also, I want to give my best wishes to Owen, Wilson, Jessica, Shelley, Ryllis, Lani and Zabrinna on the road of thesis writing! Last but not the least; I would like to thank my lovely parents who have provided a sweet home for me to pursue master degree without any worries. I would like to thank my beloved sister, Rebecca who had worked with me through several nights in the other side of the world in Seattle. Your endless loves have led me to accomplish this study! Finally, I would like to dedicate this study to my family! ☺.

(3) ABSTRACT. Globalization is an inevitable fact that has influences not only in business world but also in education field. In order to keep national competitiveness and attract talents worldwide, more and more nations have tried to create an international learning environment including enrolling students from different countries. Along with the growth of international students in Taiwan and the policies concerning internationalization of education, how to retain and assist them through adaptation process become another important issue for schools and relevant institutions. Furthermore, cross-cultural training is suggested by literatures that help international students adapt successfully into a new culture. Accordingly, this research served for several purposes. First was to investigate the adaptation difficulties that international students encountered. Second was to explore the strategies that international students adopted. Third was to examine the cross-cultural training that international students received. Fourth was to understand the influences of cross-cultural training for international students during cross-cultural adaptation process. Last was to identify the factors that should be considered in cross-cultural training for international students. This study utilized the qualitative case study method to investigate the adaptation process of international students in the National Taiwan Normal University. Semi-structured interviews with nine participants, including six international students and three staffs in relevant institutions such as Office of International Affairs and Taiwan International Cooperation Development Foundation, were conducted. Further, a short questionnaire and document analysis were conducted to enrich data resources. Finally, conclusions and recommendations were provided based on research findings.. Keywords: cross-cultural adaptation process, cross-cultural training, international student. I.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………..……..........Ⅰ Table of Contents………………………………………..……………………............Ⅱ List of Figures……………………………………………………………..…………Ⅳ List of Tables…………………………………………………………………..……..Ⅴ. CHAPTERⅠ. INTRODUCTION………………………………….…….1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………...…….1 Purposes of the Study………………………………………………….…………3 Questions of the Study………………………………………………...………….3 Definition of Terms………………………………………………..……………..4. CHAPTERⅡ. LITERATURE REVIEW………………….…...………...5 Encounter a New Culture……………………………………………...…………5 Cross-Cultural Training…………………………………………………………11. CHAPTERⅢ. METHODOLOGY…………………………..………….17 Research Framework………………………………………………...………….17 Research Methods…………………………………………………...………….17 Research Participants………………………………………...……...………….19 Data Collection and Instrumentation………………………………...………….22 Data Analysis………………………………………………………...………….23 Research Procedure…………………...……………………………..………….25. CHAPTER Ⅳ. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS……...……...….…...27 The Adaptation Process of International Students in the NTNU………….……27 Cross-Cultural Training for International Students in the NTNU………………36 Cross-Cultural Training during the Adaptation Process…………………...……51 Discussions……………………………………………………………...………54. CHAPTERⅤ. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……...59 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………..…59 Recommendations………………………………………………………..……..63. REFERENCES ............................................................................... ...…..69. II.

(5) APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS－INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS………………..………………………......73 APPENDIX B. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS－INSTITUTIONS (CHINESE VERSION)...................................................75 APPENDIX C. BRIEF QUESTIONNAIRE (ENGLISH VERSION)….77 APPENDIX D. BRIEF QUESTIONNAIRE (CHINESE VERSION)….79 APPENDIX E. EXAMPLE OF TRANSCRIPT………...........................81. III.

(6) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Dimensions of Acculturation……………………………………………....7 Figure 2.2 U-Curve of Adapting to a New Culture……………………………………9 Figure 2.3 W-Curve of Adapting to a New Culture……………………………………9 Figure 3.1 Research Framework of the Study…………………………………..……17 Figure 3.2 Research Methods of the Study…………………………...…………..….18 Figure 3.3 Origin of International Students in the NTNU in 2007…………………..20 Figure 3.4 Academic Degree of International Students in the NTNU in 2007………20 Figure 3.5 Example of Open-Coding…………………………..………...…………..23 Figure 3.6 Induction of Category…………………………....…………………….....23 Figure 3.7 Induction of Theme…………………………....…………………….........24 Figure 3.8 Research Procedure of the Study………………………….…………..….25 Figure 4.1 Cross-Cultural Training in the Honeymoon Stage.………………….…....52 Figure 4.2 Cross-Cultural Training in the Pre-Adapted Stage………………….…....53 Figure 4.3 Cross-Cultural Training in the Adapted Stage…………………………....54. IV.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Summary of Cross-Cultural Training Methods……………………………14 Table 3.1 Numbers of International Students in the NTNU…………..……………...19 Table 3.2 Profiles of Research Participants: Staffs in the NTNU and TaiwanICDF…21 Table 3.3 Profiles of Research Participants: International Students in the NTNU…...22 Table 3.4 Example of Coding List……………………………………………………24 Table 4.1 Coding of Psychological Experiences……….……………………..……...27 Table 4.2 Coding of Adaptation Difficulties…….………………..………….............29 Table 4.3 Coding of Adaptation Strategies…….………………...…………...............34 Table 4.4 Coding of Current Cross-Cultural Training…….…………………...……..36 Table 4.5 Summary of Language Training……...…………………………................37 Table 4.6 Summary of Orientation…….……………..……………............................39 Table 4.7 Summary of Chinese Holiday Activities……...…………………………...39 Table 4.8 Summary of Cultural Trips…….……………..……………........................40 Table 4.9 Summary of International Cultural Introduction…..….…………………...40 Table 4.10 Summary of International Cultural Fair…….……..……………………..41 Table 4.11 Summary of International Culture Camp…….……..……………………42 Table 4.12 Summary of Mentor…….……………………………...............................43 Table 4.13 Summary of Information Sharing…….………………...…………...........44 Table 4.14 Coding of Influence of Cross-Cultural Training………………………….45 Table 4.15 Coding of Special Factors of Cross-Cultural Training…….…..…………46 Table 4.16 Coding of Suggestions for Cross-Cultural Training…….……..…………48 Table 5.1 Results of International Students’ Adaptation Process…….……..………..58 Table 5.2 Results of Cross-Cultural Training for International Students……...……..59. V.

(8) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces the background of the study, the purposes of the study, the questions of the study, the delimitations and limitations, and the definition of terms.. Background of the Study Globalization is an inevitable fact that has influences not only in business world but also in education field. With the rapid global development, the workplaces have become international and the demands for cross-cultural adaptability of human resources have also increased greatly. It is mainly through education that every country cultivates their future manpower. In order to keep national competitiveness and attract talents worldwide, more and more nations have tried to create an international learning environment including enroll students from different countries and provide international courses. Frequent interaction between countries and world events such as September 11 attacks in USA have also raised the need of sharing and understanding different cultures. International education offers students the opportunity to explore different courtiers, cultures, views, and ideas as well (Sheppard, 2004). After reviewing past studies, Kitsantas (2004) proposed that studying abroad may enhance students’ world view, global perspectives, cross-cultural effectiveness, and increase reflective thought, self reliance, self confidence and personal well-being. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the worldwide number of students who study in countries other than their own has grown from 1.9 millions in 2000 to 2.7 millions in 2004. Like other nations of the world, Taiwan also aims to have more international students and it has been a priority policy since 2003. Following the education policy, higher education institutions offer scholarships and English taught courses in both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. According to the Minister of Education, the number of international students in Taiwan also shows a growth from 7,331 in 2003 to 11,035 in 2006. The number of international students is expected to grow 15 percent each year, and it is estimated to 29,400 in 2008 (Ku, Kang & Hsu, 2007).. 1.

(9) Along with the growth of international students, several benefits in turn may be identified. For instance, international students could contribute to the enrichment of higher education, to the strengthening of relations with various countries in world trade, to the promotion of global understanding, to the maintenance of high enrollment level, and to the supporting of tuition revenue (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Chen, 2000). Ample literatures have focused on international students especially in the area of cultural adaptation process and several factors have been indicated that influence international students’ cross-cultural adaptation process, such as demographic factors (eg. age, sex, marital status, country of origin), individual factors (eg. prior international experience, predepature knowledge, language competence, students’ goals, personality characteristic), and contextual factors (eg. availability of resources, size of community, racial and ethnic diversity on campus) (Kitsantas, 2004; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006; Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002; Tsang, 2001). However, when failing in adapting to a new culture, international students may suffer from both physical problems (eg. health problems) and psychological problems (eg. depression). Even more, the negative experience may lead to a negative impression of the host country or an early drop out from school and return to the original country. Thus, mal-adaptation not only has impacts on international students’ academic success and personal well-being but also has impacts on educational institutions’ effectiveness in retaining these students and the image of the host country (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007). Chapdelaine and Alexitch (2004) pointed out that the amount of cross-cultural training, which international students could receive from host members, is limited and in turn result in the fail of adaptation. Further, several literature suggested using cross-cultural training to improve the cross-cultural adaptation process of international students (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Cushner & Karim, 2004; Kitsantas, 2004; Kuo & Roysircar, 2006). However, comparing to the greater attention on business expatriates (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell & Salas, 2005; Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley & Riedel, 2006), the existing literatures have paid relatively limited attention to the area of cross-cultural training for international students. Therefore, as the number of international students keep increasing in the world, it’s essential to provide proper cross-cultural training in order to assist them for successful adaptation. 2.

(10) Purposes of the Study The primary purpose of this study is to explore the cross-cultural training for international students in the National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU). Further purposes are stated in detail as follow. 1. To investigate the difficulties that international students encounter during cross-cultural adaptation process. 2. To explore the strategies that international students use to adapt to a new culture. 3. To examine the cross-cultural training that international students receive during cross-cultural adaptation process. 4. To understand the influences of cross-cultural training for international students during cross-cultural adaptation process. 5. To identify the factors that should be considered in cross-cultural training for international students.. Questions of the Study. There are five questions that generated from the purposes of this study as follow. 1. What difficulties do international students encounter during cross-cultural adaptation process? 2. What strategies do international students use to adapt to a new culture? 3. What cross-cultural training do international students receive during cross-cultural adaptation process? 4. What are the influences of cross-cultural training for international students during cross-cultural adaptation process? 5. What factors should be considered in cross-cultural training for international students?. 3.

(11) Definition of Terms International Students International students are defined as individuals who temporarily reside in a country other than their country of citizenship in order to participate in international educational exchange as students (Paige, 1990).. Cross-Cultural Adaptation Cross-cultural adaptation is a complex and dynamic process and an inevitable part of intercultural interactions. It encompasses cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral, and psychological changes in an individual who lives in a new or foreign culture. And these changes result in the individual’s movement from uncomfortableness to feeling at home in the new environment. During the cyclical, continuous and interactive cross-cultural adaptation process, it involves adjustments, learning, a stranger-host relationship, and personal development (Hannigan, 1990).. Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) Cross-cultural training is defined as the educative processes used to improve intercultural learning via the development of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies needed for successful interactions in diverse cultures (Littrell et al., 2006).. 4.

(12) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter aims to provide relevant literature regarding to international students’ cross-cultural adaptation process and cross-cultural training. Yet it is important and fundamental to understand the nature of cross-cultural adaptation as the ground knowledge for cross-cultural training. Therefore, two streams of literature are focused. First, this chapter briefly reviews theories related to the phenomena when people encounter a new culture. Second, this chapter takes a closer look at cross-cultural training concerning its goal, methods and contents, and effectiveness.. Encounter A New Culture. People who cross culture boundaries are referred to as sojourners, which include immigrants, refugees, tourists, business executives, and students. Plenty literatures have studied the phenomenon that happen to them when they first encounter a new culture. In this section, the researcher reviews past literature and theories to explain the situation international students may encounter. First part reviews the key concepts and stages of culture shock. Second part compares several similar terms such as adaptation, adjustment, acculturation and assimilation. Third part reviews different perspectives of cross-cultural adaptation process. Last part describes special issues that international students face during adaptation process.. Culture Shock. The term “culture shock” vividly illustrates how people react to a new culture. This well-know term was first put into words in 1960 by an anthropologist, Oberg, after observing the reactions of American workers in Brazil (cited in Pusch, 2004). He identified six key aspects of culture shock：(1) strain due to the effort required to make the necessary adaptations to the unfamiliar situation; (2) a sense of loss and feelings of deprivation about friends, status, profession and possessions; (3) a feeling of rejection that is rejected by and/or rejecting members of the new culture; (4) confusion in role, role expectations, values, feelings and self-identity; (5) surprise, anxiety, and even disgust and indignation after becoming aware of cultural differences;. 5.

(13) (6) feelings of impotence due to not being able to cope in the alien situation. It seems that “culture shock” implies a negative feeling or experience of an unpleasant surprise and shock. However, if managing effectively there can be positive result beyond stress and disoriented, such as a sense of well-being, heightened self-esteem, cognitive openness and flexibility, increased tolerance for ambiguity, enhanced confidence in self and others, and competence in social interactions (Cushner & Karim, 2004). Oberg (1960, cited in Jandt, 2004) also proposed four stages in culture shock that referred to the progression of experiences throughout intercultural interactions. In 2004, Jandt reviewed several researches and summarized a five-stage process. The first stage is the initial contact, or is called “honeymoon stage” or “initial euphoria”. In this stage, everything is new and exiting. For example, international students may view everything in the host country as fresh and enjoyment. The second stage is the disintegration, which includes loosing familiar cues and feeling hostile with the differences experienced in the new culture. For example, international students may experience feelings of inadequacy and withdraw or become isolated due to his or her familiar ways of behaving are no longer appropriate or functional. The third stage is reintegration that integrates new cues and increases ability to function in the new culture. However, international students may still feel angry or resentful toward the new culture for “being different”. The fourth stage is gradual adjustment when one moves forward to gradual autonomy and sees “good” and “bad” elements in both the home and new cultures. International students may become more comfortable in the new culture as more things are predictable. The fifth stage is reciprocal interdependence, which the person has achieved biculturalism though it may take years to this final stage or even not everyone could reach this stage.. Adaptation, Adjustment, Acculturation, and Assimilation. There are several terms including adaptation, adjustment, acculturation and assimilation that look alike and sometimes even used interchangeably. These terms all describe changes occurring when individuals or groups have contact with a different culture (Hannigan, 1990). However, these terms without clearly differentiation may cause some difficulties in understanding studies. As a result, following review tries to give a brief summary of their definitions. 6.

(14) Some researchers argue that adaptation is an umbrella term that encompasses other similar but narrower terms, such as culture shock, assimilation, adjustment, and acculturation (Begley, 1994; Kim, 1995). In Hannigan’s (1990) research, his review of adaptation definitions supported the above proposition. For example, Pruitt (1978) suggested that adaptation include two components, which are adjustment and assimilation.. Also Ruben and Kealey (1979) defined adaptation as having three. dimensions, which are psychological adjustment, culture shock and intercultural effectiveness. After reviewing past definitions of several researches, Hannigan (1990) summarized that adjustment could be conceptualized as a psychological process of achieving harmony between the individual and the environment. Furthermore, he proposed that adaptation encompasses cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral, and psychological changes in an individual who lives in a new or foreign culture. And these changes result in the individual’s movement from uncomfortableness to feeling at home in the new environment. Both adaptation and adjustment are usually used to describe individuals while acculturation and assimilation tend to refer to groups rather than individuals by some researchers (Hannigan, 1990). Acculturation was defined by Berry, Kim and Boski (1987) in relation to two dimensions (cited in Jandt, 2004). First dimension is the value placed on maintaining one’s original cultural identity. Second dimension is the value given to maintaining relationships with other groups in one’s own culture (see Figure 2.1).. Value to Maintain Original Cultural Identity. Value to Maintain Relationship with Other Group. Yes. No. Yes. Integration. Assimilation. No. Separation (or Segregation). Marginalization. Figure 2.1. Dimensions of Acculturation Source: Jandt, 2004. Assimilation involves the process of giving up original cultural identity and becoming part of a new society. Integration occurs when one has a positive. 7.

(15) relationship to a new society as well as to one’s original culture. The words biculturalism and pluralism have also been used to describe integration. Separation or segregation occurs when one retains one’s original culture without participating in the new culture. Marginalization refers to losing relationship with both the original and the new society. In this study, the researcher views adaptation as a broader concept that embraces adjustment in order to make the process of cross-cultural adaptation more complete. Further, this study investigates and interviews with international students individually, the researcher uses adaptation instead of acculturation.. Perspectives on Cross-Cultural Adaptation Adaptation is a complex and dynamic process and an inevitable part of intercultural interactions. Through extensive review of related literature on cross-cultural adaptation process, Anderson (1994) divided them into four groups. The first group is the recuperation model. This model holds recovery from the shock to be the mechanism for accommodation to life in strange new lands. The most famous and the pivot point is the culture shock that has been discussed detailed in previous part. In 1955, Lysgaard (cited in Pusch, 2004) first identified the “U-curve” of adaptation that people experienced entering a new culture. This view depicts an initial “high” occurring at cultural entry; followed by a bottoming out resulting from cultural confrontation; finally a climb up and out to cultural acceptance and adaptation (see Figure 2.2). Later in 1963, Gullahorn and Gullahorn (cited in Pusch, 2004) expanded it into a “W-curve” which took reentry to home culture into account (see Figure 2.3).. Wellbeing. Arrival. Culture Shock. Recovery. Setting In. End of First Year. Time. Figure 2.2. U-Curve of Adapting to a New Culture Source: Zapf, 1991. 8.

(16) Psychological Adjustment. Sojourn. Reentry. Time. Figure 2.3. W-Curve of Adapting to a New Culture Source: Kim, 2003. A modern variant is the view of psychological crisis such as personality or identity crisis. This view suggests that during initial contact with a new culture, the sense of familiar self that provides the cues for one’s behavior as well as one’s sense of identity are torn away. Through working out of new identities incorporating both old and new selves will then lead to the recovery stage. Although these theories are foremost and insightful, the greatest criticism is that these are more descriptions of phases of adaptation than theoretical frameworks of how and why individuals move from one stage to the next (Black & Mendenhall, 1990b). Consequently, more researchers explored this field with other perspectives and proposed other models. The second group is the learning model. This model holds that in order to adapt, he or she must learn the parameters of the new sociocultural system and acquire the sociocultural skills. One school of this model encompassing communication theories that argues intercultural communication is the core of cultural adaptation. Therefore, cross-cultural adaptation is a process of learning the communication skills necessary for effective social interaction while communication failures are inevitable in a new culture (Furnham & Bochner, 1986; cited in Anderson, 1994). As devoted in communication and cross-cultural adaptation field, Kim (1995) continued to renew his communication model of the structure of cross-cultural adaptation. He proposed that in this model several factors influence the adaptation, which includes personal and social communication, environment, predisposition and intercultural transformation. Another school of the learning model contains social learning theories that emphasis on the behavior learning itself. Cross-cultural adaptation is defined as 9.

(17) learning both perceptual rules for interpreting one’s environment and behavioral rules for comporting oneself within it (Black & Mendenhall, 1990b). Further, more learning theories frameworks were adopted to explain the adaptation process such as transformative learning theory (Taylor, 1994). Through the transformation of perspectives, one alternates his/her perspective to effectively understand and accommodate the demands of a new culture and develops an adaptive capacity. The third group is the combination of recovery and learning model. This model views cross-cultural adaptation as a step-by-step psychological journey that one learns to move from the fringes to the center of a new culture. Bennett (1986, cited in Anderson, 1994) viewed cross-cultural adaptation as the progression in cognitive “sensitivity”. As one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more sophisticated, one learns to become a more competent intercultural communicator. One may move from the early adaptation stage of “ethnocentric” where cultural differences are in denial, defense or minimization to a stage of “ethnorelative” where new culture are integrated with original culture. The fourth group is the homeostatic model. This model views cross-cultural adaptation as a dynamic and cyclical process of tension reduction. In other words, it is a process of reducing the internal imbalance (eg. tension, drive, need, uncertainty) when confronting with a new culture and resulting in subsiding into normal operate mode. The assumption is that one operates in a “steady-state” mode until dynamic events, upheavals, or disruptions pushes one out of equilibrium. In summary of four perspectives, Anderson (1994) further proposed six general principles that apply to cross-cultural adaptation: (1) it involves adjustments; (2) it implies learning; (3) it implies a stranger-host relationship; (4) it is cyclical, continuous, and interactive; (5) it is relative; (6) it implies personal development. Among these principals, cross-cultural adaptation embraces a more holistic view. When looking at international students’ adaptation process, it contains not only adjustment or recovery from shock or imbalance, also includes learning and personal development. In other words, international students learn and grow continuously throughout the adaptation process. This also serves as the base knowledge for the cross-cultural training that aims to assist the learning process of adapting to a new culture for international students.. 10.

(18) Cross-Cultural Adaptation of International Students What characterize international students from other sojourners are the academic goal and school environment. During cross-cultural adaptation processes, various challenges they may face such as finding living accommodations, learning the academic culture and different education system, making new friends and developing a new social support system (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007). However, the most salient challenge for international students is to make a successful intercultural transition as quickly as possible and still remain focused on their academic mission (Cushner & Karim, 2004). When failing in adapting to a new culture, international students may suffer both physically and psychologically such as sleeplessness, appetite disturbance, indigestion, physical exhaustion, homesickness, depression, disorientation, and feelings of isolation and alienation. Some researches also revealed that they use health services more than local students and suggested university health official pay more attention to this unique group of students. The adaptation problems vary among different international students and several factors have been indicated that influence their adaptation process, such as demographic factors (eg. age, sex, marital status, country of origin), individual factors (eg. prior international experience, predepature knowledge, language competence, students’ goals, personality characteristics such as self-efficacy, extroversion, sensitivity, flexibility, assertiveness), contextual factors (eg. availability of resources, social support network, size of community, racial and ethnic diversity on campus) (Kitsantas, 2004; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006; Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002; Tsang, 2001). Those factors could also give insights to assist and facilitate the cross-cultural adaptation process of international students. For example, host countries could provide social support network and international students could establish their goals and improve language ability. Furthermore, several literatures suggested using cross-cultural training to improve the cultural adaptation process (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Cushner & Karim, 2004; Kitsantas, 2004).. Cross-Cultural Training. Abundant researches pertain to cross-cultural adaptation discussed previously have contributed as the foundation of cross-cultural training. In 1976, Brislin and 11.

(19) Pedersen published the first book on this topic, entitled “Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs”. They defined “cross-cultural or intercultural orientation programs” as programs designed for preparing people to live in another culture. However, researchers and participants realized that they needed to do more than just orient people to live in another culture. Afterwards, this field is now being referred to as cross-cultural or intercultural training and has developed and matured through 1980s and 1990s (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). Littrell et al. (2006) defined cross-cultural training as the educative processes used to improve intercultural learning via the development of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies needed for successful interactions in diverse cultures. Moreover, cross-cultural training has been expanded to various uses. For example, it is used to prepare people for reentry to origin culture and deal with people from different culture such as preparation of a multicultural team in domestic country (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Littrell et al., 2006). In the following section, the researcher further provides an overview of three domains of cross-cultural training including goals, methods and contents, and effectiveness.. Goals of Cross-Cultural Training Whether designing or participating any training, the first thing trainers or trainees need to know probably is the goal, which depicts the desired performance. Bhawuk (1990, cited in Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999) classified the goals of cross-cultural training into immediate goals and end goals. The immediate goals or proximal goals refer to the expected behavioral change in the trainees right after the end of the training program. That is, trainees should be capable of conducting following behaviors when completing the training. First of all is learning how to learn. Since cross-cultural training cannot cover every possible situation in the host country, trainees are taught meta-cognitive strategies in order to continue the self-learning and self-development process. Therefore, trainees can transfer skills from the learning situation to assess new situations about another culture in real life. Second, trainees are able to make isomorphic attributions, which refer to make approximately the same judgments about behaviors as the host nationals do. In other words, trainees use the perspective of the host culture and then make a correct attribution about the host’s behaviors. Third, trainees are able to handle disconfirmed expectation. When trainees’ expectations of. 12.

(20) behaviors from host nationals are not met or confirmed, they do not hurry to make a conclusion that could lead to a negative stereotype, misunderstandings or conflicts. The other goals are end goals or distal goals that include several aspects as follow: (1) increasing trainees’ enjoyment experiences when living abroad (2) developing positive relationship with host nationals who also enjoy the company of the sojourners (3) achieving trainees’ task-related goals (eg. international students would be expected to study in the new culture and meet the standards of the host university) (4) decreasing the stress or suffering from psychosomatic symptoms and effectively coping with the stressors in the new culture (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999; Cushner & Brislin, 1997). Methods and Contents of Cross-Cultural Training More and more delivery methods of cross-cultural training have been developed to achieve its goals. However, some scholars seemed to discuss methods along with contents in cross-cultural training (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell & Salas, 2005; Littrell et al, 2006) while some analyze each training methods individually that consisting with twenty methods categorized into three categories of cognitive, active and intercultural methods (Fowler & Blohm, 2004). In order to give a concise overview, the researcher focuses on former perspective of methods in this part. Traditionally, there were mainly two approaches of cross-cultural training methods, which contained didactics (information giving) and experimental learning activities (Kealey & Prothereo, 1996). In 2005, Littrell and Salas summarized past studies and seven approaches had been identified including attribution, cultural awareness, cognitive-behavior modification, didactic, experiential, interaction, and language training (see Table 2.1). First, attribution training focuses on the development of the attitudes and skills necessary for comprising explanations of host nationals’ behavior from the host-culture point of view. This training is also correspondent to the goal mentioned by Bhawuk that trainees would be better equipped to interpret behavior in a manner similar to that of host nationals (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999).. 13.

(21) Table 2.1. Summary of Cross-Cultural Training Methods Focus of Training Intervention Developing the skills required to make isomorphic attributions Imparting the knowledge needed to understand cultural differences Assisting in the development of host-culture appropriate behaviors Promoting successful adjustment via on-the-job training Developing the language skills required for everyday interactions Providing the expatriate with information regarding living and working conditions Giving the expatriate the opportunity to practice potential situations to be encountered in the host culture Source: Littrell & Salas, 2005.. Potential Strategies Attribution training Cultural awareness training Cognitive-behavior modification training Interaction training Language training Didactic training Experimental training. The second training method is cultural awareness training, which focuses on educating the individual about his/her own culture so that he or she will appreciate the differences between home and host culture. This training is similar to self-insight training (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999) that people learn to recognize their own values and culture as well as the contrasts between their home and host culture. The third training method was proposed by Black and Mendenhall (1990a). Cognitive-behavior modification training focuses on assisting trainees in developing the habitual behaviors desired in the host culture. This method combine cognitive and behavior training (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999). Through giving information about what to expect of host culture, trainers further help trainees to acquire appropriate and typically rewarded behaviors as well as identify and avoid unacceptable behaviors in the host culture. The fourth is the interaction training that is commonly known as overlaps. In expatriate preparation, this is one form of on-the-job training. The incoming expatriate learns from experienced expatriate in the foreign country who is going to be replaced and return to home country. During the overlap period in host country, the experienced expatriate attempts to make the transition easier for the new expatriate. The fifth is the language training, which focuses on providing trainees with the ability to exchange common courtesies in the host language instead of becoming fluent or professional. Host nationals will appreciate sojourners’ efforts on learning to. 14.

(22) speak the language because it represents the interest in the host nationals and the host culture in general (Gudykunst, Guzley & Hammer, 1996). The sixth is the didactic training or named as information-giving training. This is one of the most common and traditional methods in cross-cultural training. As the title of training indicates, it involves the provision of factual information on diverse topics such as host country’s geography, climate, history, politics, economics, religion, living conditions and cultural differences. Several training techniques are also classified as didactic training. For example, informal briefings (including information from experts or host country nationals and information booklets of host country), traditional formal educational activities (classroom-based lectures), cultural assimilator (including cross-cultural scenarios or critical incidents and practice of responding to realistic cross-cultural situations) are some of the most popular techniques. The last is the experimental training that involves learning by doing. This training focuses on developing trainees’ skills necessary for performing task functions effectively and for interacting positively with host nationals. The intended outcomes are the improvement of the cross-cultural communication skills necessary for adjustment and the possession of cross-cultural knowledge to deal with various situations with culture-appropriate response. Various training techniques are used such as look-see visits, role-plays, intercultural workshops, and simulations.. Effectiveness of Cross-Cultural Training Several scholars have conducted thorough literature review from 1980s till now regarding to empirical studies of cross-cultural training (Black & Mendenhall, 1990a; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006; Mendenhall et al., 2004). Some scholars further assessed studies in five criteria including whether experimental control groups existed; whether random assignment conducted; whether pretest and posttest measured; whether longitudinal outcome measured; whether multiple outcome measured (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006). Moreover, some scholars examined studies regarding to several dependent variables (Mendenhall et al., 2004). Those dependent variables include knowledge (eg. the ability to make isomorphic. attributions,. awareness. of. cultural. differences),. behavior. (eg.. problem-solving ability of trainees in intercultural situations, the ability to deal with cross-cultural misunderstandings), attitude (eg. cultural interest, positive attitude. 15.

(23) toward members of other culture), adjustment (eg. perceived well-being, health and safety), performance (eg. academic achievement, contribution to company goals) and satisfaction. Overall, the results of above literature review provide support for the effectiveness of cross-cultural training in various aspects. First, cross-cultural training increases trainees’ knowledge about the contact culture and awareness of culture differences. Second, cross-cultural training enhances skill development such as self-maintenance, interpersonal and cognitive skills. Third, cross-cultural training is positively related to adjustability and in turn positively related to performance and negatively related to early return rates. Fourth, cross-cultural training is positively related to self-development and the establishment of interpersonal relationships with members from the host culture. Also, cross-cultural training is positively related to the development of self-confidence and feelings of well-being. However, besides the evidences of effectiveness, there are still some contradictory findings and some suggestions have been made for future studies. For example, more qualitative researches are needed in order to explain the findings and offer new aspects of views. In addition, there is a need to study trainees at different stages in the cross-cultural skill development such as during or immediately after training. Finally, more works need to be done regarding to systematically investigating potential moderators of cross-cultural training effectiveness (Mendenhall et al., 2004). Nonetheless, among literature review pertain to cross-cultural issues, while literatures about cross-cultural adaptation have covered different groups of sojourners such as expatriates, overseas volunteers, diplomats and international students, most literatures concerning cross-cultural training have focused on the group of expatriate in business field (Black & Mendenhall, 1990a; Brislin & Bhawuk, 1999; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell & Salas, 2005; Littrell et al., 2006) and little have focused on the group of international students. As a result, the review of literature further contributes to the rationale of this study.. 16.

(24) CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY This chapter contains six sections of research methodology including research framework, research methods, research participants, data collection, data analysis, and research procedure.. Research Framework According to the literature review and the purpose of the study, the research framework was formed as Figure 3.1. When entering a new culture, international students would face various difficulties and adopt different strategies during the adaptation process. Further, several cross-cultural training programs provided by relevant institutions would influence international students’ adaptation process. Special factors regarding to design and implement cross-cultural training for international students were also studied in this research.. Adaptation Difficulties. International Students in a New Culture. Adaptation Strategies. Cross-Cultural Training Practice of Cross-Cultural Training Influence of Cross-Cultural Training Special Factors should be considered Figure 3.1. Research Framework of the Study. Research Methods. As qualitative approach gave detailed descriptions of the case being studied and provided analysis of themes or issues (Stake, 1995), the researcher chose qualitative. 17.

(25) approach in order to obtain thorough understanding of international students’ adaptation process and cross-cultural training. Further, a case study approach was adopted to develop an in-depth analysis of international students within one specific case to serve as an explorative study. In more detail, the resources of data were mainly acquired through three methods including semi-structured interview, brief questionnaire, and document analysis (see Figure 3.2). First, interview was adopted as primary data resource that included not only information from international students, but also from staffs in relevant institutions. Second, brief questionnaire regarding to cross-cultural training in different stages of the adaptation process was conducted to both international students and staffs in relevant institutions. Third, documents regarding to cross-cultural training such as handbooks for students, training schedule, newsletters and websites of institutions were also analyzed. Semi-structure Interview. International Students’ Adaptation Process and Cross-Cultural Training. Brief Questionnaire. Document Analysis Figure 3.2. Research Methods of the Study. Among nine validity procedures of qualitative research summarized by Creswell and Miller (2000), triangulation was adopted in this study. Triangulation was defined as searching for convergence from multiple and different sources of information that included four types: across data sources (eg. participants), theories, methods (eg. interview, documents) and different investigators (Creswell & Miller, 2000). This study tried to increase the validity by using across data sources and methods. First, this study gathered multiple data resources by interviewing different participants of 18.

(26) international students and staffs in relevant institutions. Moreover, this study utilized different methods of semi-structure interview, questionnaire, and document analysis.. Research Participants In the following parts, three topics are presented including brief introduction of the National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU), brief introduction of the Taiwan International Cooperation and Development Fund (TaiwanICDF), and profiles of research participants.. Introduction of the National Taiwan Normal University. According to the Ministry of Education (2007), NTNU had the most population of international students in Taiwan. The number of international students had been growing each year (see Table 3.1). In 2003, there were only 97 international students who peruse academic degrees as bachelor, master and doctor. In 2007, there were 225 international students and the number of international students had increased as three times than it was in 2003. As the richness and accessibility of possible participants, the researcher chose NTNU as the case to gather comprehensive research data.. Table 3.1. Numbers of International Students in the NTNU Year Bachelor 2003 24 2004 23 2005 34 2006 38 2007 72 Source: NTNU, 2007.. Master 59 62 74 86 110. Doctoral 14 18 23 26 43. Total Number 97 103 131 150 225. In more detail, international students in the year of 2007 came from 37 different countries in the world. Among those different origin countries, about 76% of international students came from Asia; 15% of them came from America; 8% of them came from Europe; 1% of them came from Africa (see Figure 3.3). Moreover, 49% of international students were pursuing master degree; 32% of them were pursuing bachelor degree; 19% of them were pursuing doctoral degree (see Figure 3.4).. 19.

(27) 8%. 1%. 15%. 76% Asia. America. Europe. Africa. Figure 3.3. Origin of International Students in the NTNU in 2007. 19% 49% 32% Master. Bachelor. Dotoral. Figure 3.4. Academic Degree of International Students in the NTNU in 2007. In August 2007, the Office of International Affairs (OIA) was founded in the NTNU which aimed to enhance international cooperation by promoting exchange programs and recruiting international students. Staffs of the OIA are committed to serving prospective and current overseas Chinese and international students in the NTNU by providing a support network and assistances to them through the transition into the NTNU. The OIA currently has four divisions including the Division of Recruitment and Development, the Division of Academic Cooperation, and the Division of International Student Affairs. As the Division of International Student Affairs took charge for all international students in the NTNU, staffs in this division were also included as one of the research participants.. Introduction of the Taiwan International Cooperation and Development Fund. Additionally, another institution that provided scholarships and cross-cultural training to international students in the NTNU was also studied in this research.. 20.

(28) TaiwanICDF is the institution that implements official development assistance of Taiwan aiming to sparking economic development and social progress in partner nations and help them generate wealth. There are four core work areas of the TaiwanICDF including technical assistance, investment and lending operations, education and training, and humanitarian assistance. In the area of education and training, the TaiwanICDF developed human resources in nations around the world with several programs which one of them is the higher education scholarship programs in Taiwan. This program provides scholarship to foreign students who attend undergraduate, graduate and post graduate institutions in Taiwan. In 2003, the TaiwanICDF initiated its university strategic alliance with the Institution of International Workforce Education and Development (IWED) of the NTNU and have provided several cross-cultural training for those international students with scholarship in the IWED since then. Therefore, staffs in the TaiwanICDF taking responsibilities for scholarship programs were included as one of the research participants as well.. Profiles of Research Participants. Research participants of this study comprised of one staff in the OIA of the NTNU, two staffs in the TaiwanICDF, and six international students in the NTNU. Profiles of research participants are presented as Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. All participants were coded with English letter instead of real names to ensure the confidentiality and create a relief atmosphere for them to express their opinions.. Table 3.2. Profiles of Research Participants: Staffs in the NTNU and TaiwanICDF Participant A B C. Gender Male Female Female. Institution TaiwanICDF TaiwanICDF OIA of the NTNU. Seniority 9 years 8 months 8 months. In order to increase the richness of data, the researcher tried to include various backgrounds from international students of different nationality, academic degree and Chinese ability. According to previous introduction, most international students in the NTNU in 2007 came from Asia. Therefore, four of the participated international students came from Asian countries including Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and India;. 21.

(29) one came from country in the Africa named Malawi and one came from the country of Central America named Belize. As for the academic degrees, nearly half of international students in the NTNU in 2007 were pursuing master degree. Therefore, three of the participated international students were in graduate degree; two of them were in post-graduate degree and one of them was in doctoral degree. As for the Chinese ability, four of them were interviewed in English while two of them were interviewed in Chinese. However, among six participated international students, only two of them were female. The unequal number of international students’ gender was due to the weakness in snowball sampling.. Table 3.3. Profiles of Research Participants: International Students in the NTNU ParticiAcademic Gender Age Nationality Scholarship pant Level D Male 26 Japanese Undergraduate None E Female 26 Vietnamese Undergraduate None F Female 27 Malawian Graduate TaiwanICDF G Male 26 Thai Graduate None H Male 38 Belizean Graduate TaiwanICDF I Male 27 Indian Doctoral None * + : Communicate in Chinese －: Communicate in English. Time in Taiwan 3y & 5m 4y & 4m 7m 1y & 6m 1y & 7m 1y & 6m. Chinese Ability* + + －－－－. Data Collection & Instrumentation This study utilized intensity sampling to gather information from the case with rich information. First, the researcher received the permission from the institutions of OIA in the NTNU and the TaiwanICDF. Second, the researcher contacted international students through e-mail. However, the respondent rate was relatively low. Therefore, snowball sampling was used to broaden participants. The instruments used in this study were semi-structure interview outlines for international students and staffs in the institutions which were developed by the researcher and English outlines were reviewed by two international students before conducted. Another instrument used in this study was a brief questionnaire developed by the researcher based on literature review. It was used as a tool to assist collecting participants’ perceptions on appropriate cross-cultural training in different stages of the adaptation process. After interviewing each participant for about one hour, the questionnaire was then explained and conducted. 22.

(30) Data Analysis Process of data analysis is presented in six steps as follow. In the first step, all interview contents that recoded were transformed as transcripts. Further, important contents in Chinese transcripts were translated into English by the researcher. In the second step, the researcher utilized the computer software of visual qualitative data analysis named ATLAS.ti (5th version) to code the interview contents. In the assistant of the software, the transcripts were showed in the left side and the researcher gave codes in the right side (see Figure 3.5). Important concepts were highlighted and coded in open-coding by the researcher.. Highlight of Concepts. Open-Coding by the Researcher. Figure 3.5. Example of Open-Coding In the third step, similar concepts were put into one category. For example, similar concepts of excitement, fresh, worry, scare, loneliness and homesick were put into same category of psychological experience (see Figure 3.6).. Key Concept Excitement Fresh Worry Scare Loneliness Homesick. Category. Psychological Experiences. Figure 3.6. Induction of Category. 23.

(31) In the fourth step, categories were further put into one theme. For example, categories of psychological experiences, difficulties and strategies during the adaptation process were put into one theme of the adaptation process(see Figure 3.7).. Category. Theme. 1. Psychological Experiences 2. Difficulties 3. Strategies. Adaptation Process. Figure 3.7. Induction of Theme The fifth step was to combine key concepts, categories and themes together to form the list of coding (see Table 3.4). However, the second step to the last step was conducted several times during the process of data analysis to confirm the findings of this study. Some codes were modified after further examinations.. Table 3.4. Example of Coding List Theme 1. Adaptation Process. Category Key Concept 1-1 Psychological 1-1-1 Excitement 1-1-2 Fresh Experiences 1-1-3 Worry 1-1-4 Scare 1-1-5 Loneliness 1-1-6 Homesick 1-2 Difficulties 1-2-1 Language and Communication 1-2-2 Food 1-2-3 Traffic and Transportation 1-2-4 Accommodations 1-2-5 Social Interactions. Finally, documents regarding to cross-cultural training such as handbooks for students, training schedule, newsletters and websites of institutions were also analyzed in the completion of the results in this study.. Research Procedure This study followed the research procedures as Figure 3.8. After identifying the research topic of international students’ adaptation process and cross-cultural training, 24.

(32) relevant literature was reviewed. The researcher further developed the purpose and questions of this study. Based on the literature and the purpose of this study, research framework was established. The researcher further decided to utilize qualitative approach and the case of international students in the NTNU. Interview outlines and short questionnaire were formed accordingly and nine subjects including three staffs and six international students participated in this study. Finally, conclusions and suggestions were proposed after data analysis.. Identify Research Topic. Review Literature. Develop Research Purpose and Questions. Establish Research Framework. Decide Research Method and Sample. Collect Data. Analyze Data. Provide Research Findings. Propose Conclusions and Suggestions Figure 3.8. Research Procedure. 25.

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(34) CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The results of this study are presented in four sections. First section briefly describes the cross-cultural adaptation process of international students in the NTNU. Second section depicts the current cross-cultural training for international students in the NTNU. Third section explores the cross-cultural training during the adaptation process. Last section further compares the research findings with existing literature.. The Adaptation Process of International Students in the NTNU The adaptation processes of international students in the NTNU are presented in three parts. First part is the psychological experiences of international students when they entering the new culture of Taiwan. Second part is the difficulties that international students faced during adaptation process. Third part is the strategies that international students used in order to adapt to the life in Taiwan.. Psychological Experiences in the Adaptation Process. The psychological experiences of international students when they entering Taiwan were quite various including excitement, fresh, worry, scare, loneliness and homesick (see Table 4.1).. Table 4.1. Coding of Psychological Experiences Theme Category 1. Adaptation Process 1-1 Psychological Experiences. Key Concept 1-1-1 Excitement 1-1-2 Fresh 1-1-3 Worry 1-1-4 Scare 1-1-5 Loneliness 1-1-6 Homesick. 1. Excitement and Fresh When international students first arrived in Taiwan, most of them (4 out of 6) felt excited and fresh not only because it’s a new country and everything was new, but also it’s a chance for them to pursuing a new degree. One student expressed the. 27.

(35) excitement of being in a new country, “…since I'm here I feel like excited about going around the city because I like traveling. I feel like going around and meeting people and doing things. (Student H) ” One student expressed the excitement about having a master degree, The day I knew I'll come here I felt excited because you're going to a new place for study. You get excited because having master is another achievement. In home, if you have a master degree and you are women and you have more advantages. I was excited. (Student F). 2. Worry and Scare However, there were still some worries and scares, especially when it’s the first time international students ever entered a new country. One student expressed his scare that, It's my first visit, not only to Taiwan but to any foreign country. So in the beginning I feel a little scared...…maybe like how are the people and how's the environment. So I was not exactly excited but a little sacred. (Student I). Also, departing from family to live in a new country raised lots of worries. One student described his worry that, Right away, a set of questions came into my mind and I didn’t stop to ask myself “How could I survive far away from my family in a foreign country where people don’t know me? Could I cope with that during two years? Do the foreign people will receive me with happiness? When I will face a problem, to whom I have to share it? Will I get good treatment in Taiwan? Are people friendly there?”(Adopted from TICA Newsletter Fourth Issue, Feb. 2007). 3. Loneliness As international students are the minority in the NTNU, they don’t have much friends of their originality. Additionally, they didn’t know anyone in the beginning so that they felt loneliness or isolated and they tended to be together with students of similar backgrounds. One student described his loneliness feeling that, When you first came, you know nobody so there's a sense of loneliness…… So what you tried to do is to attach to people mostly of your own kind. So that was what I did first for my first two weeks here. (Student H). 4. Homesick Not every international student had strong feeling of homesick. The degree of homesick depends on their previous experiences of leaving home. Four international students had experiences of living away from home either in their home country or in. 28.

(36) other country. Such similar experiences somewhat decreased the degree of missing home. One student stated, Actually each person misses their home. But in fact, I grow up other from my home in India. It means that my father lives in a small town, and I go to big city to study. So I already left home then. Still, I feel a little bit scared and mostly I miss my family and my friends. But still I can adjust here. (Student I). When international students have children, it’s even harder to leave their young children than their parents. One student stated his feeling that, It's my kids that I missed more. You know I cried because I miss them. Nobody else, I didn't care nobody.….. As far as missing my family, I've been away from them before like my brothers, sisters, mother, so that part didn't bother me. And missing friends, well, they are just people and not really important to say that I really need them around. (Student H). Summary The psychological experiences that most of the interviewed international students had were excitement while some were worry, scare and loneliness. Although each of them felt certain degree of homesick, having previous experiences of leaving home helped international students adapt easier.. Difficulties in the Adaptation Process. International students in the NTNU faced several difficulties during the adaptation process including language and communication, food, traffic and transportation, accommodations and social interactions (see Table 4.2). The results are presented in the order of the frequencies mentioned in the interviews.. Table 4.2. Coding of Adaptation Difficulties Theme 1. Adaptation Process. Category 1-2 Difficulties. Key Concept 1-2-1 Language and Communication 1-2-2 Food 1-2-3 Traffic and Transportation 1-2-4 Accommodations 1-2-5 Social Interactions. 1. Language and Communication Both international students and staffs in the NTNU and the TaiwanICDF mentioned that language was a major difficulty in the adaptation process. Just like one. 29.

(37) student said, “…language, come on, you can’t live in a country without it! (Student G) ” Without the tool of language, international students seemed to be locked inside his/her world. One student described that, “I couldn’t express myself or the meanings I wanted to convey. I felt uncomfortable and upset. (Student D)” Even communicating with the worldwide language, English, difficulties still existed such as different accents. One staff mentioned that, “Sometimes it’s hard to communicate because of the accent. For example, our English accent is different from Indian students. It takes time to get used to and communicate with them. (Staff C)” Furthermore, the influences of language were pervasive in international students’ everyday life such as buying things, eating food, going around in Taiwan and so on. One student stated, The major difficulty for me here is the language problem...... Whenever we go to the market, we can't try the different food also, because the lack of communication. Maybe there is still some good food like maybe some spicy and delicious food, but we can't taste. (Student I). Even some international students who are studying in all-English program in the NTNU, they still encountered language difficulties inside the school. First of all, some of school systems are only in Chinese such as score system and course selection system. Also, lots of information from school is still in Chinese. For example, many application forms in school, regulations in dorms and library and facilities’ introductions are only in Chinese. One student mentioned difficulties of language and communication inside school that, If we're in the school, we want to get some information and the information normally came in Chinese…… You're missing opportunities because you can't understand the language…… They (school) e-mail you but the whole e-mail is in Chinese…… Even the grade comes in Chinese…… (Student F). Besides language, there are still other factors that influence communication such as communication styles. For example, one student identified difficulty regarding to different communication style that, “Here it's like too indirect communication……come on, just tell me how you feel, just be frank to me…… I just feel frustrated. (Student G)” One staff from the NTNU also indicated that she felt. a little shocked about different styles of communication style that, Some of them are more direct. For example, when I speak English to them, some international students will correct my grammar mistake directly…… But sometimes, it’s a little shock for me…… But I guess it’s what you have to get used to when you communicate or get together with them. (Staff C). 30.

(38) 2. Food Four out of six interviewed international students faced several difficulties regarding to food. It’s not surprised that international students from different countries had different tastes of food. One student described that, “(In India) our food is more spicy and more oily. But in here, the food is not salty or spicy and the taste is a little bit different. (Student I)” Another student had opposite comments of food taste that, “In Taiwan, the food is more oily and salty. So my first month here, I almost ate Shabu-Shabu (hot- pot) everyday. (Student E)” The selection of foods is another problem for some international students. One student stated that, “…one more matter is that most of the Indian people are vegetarian. But here the vegetarians are quite few. People here like to eat non-vegetable food. (Student I)” It’s more difficult for those who don’t eat certain food. One student mentioned that she even resisted the food at first. It's hard for me to select food. Because the only seafood I eat is fish. And here they eat a lot of pork and I don't eat pork…… So somehow, I'm resisting the food because most of foods are already mixed up.…… I remembered within the first two weeks, somebody told me "Are you eating?" And the second time she told me, "You have lose weight.” (Student F). Also, some food seemed strange for international students such as giblets of animals or frog meat. One student described her unexpected food experience that, As I was eating……I took a mouthful and it was so nice…… We then asked what kind of food it was and the reply was “sweet chicken”. Our Professors husband just turned and said “that is FROG”. I was so terrified that I thought I will be sick for the rest of my life. I wanted to put my finger in my mouth to induce vomiting but I was shy to do that. (Adopted from TICA Newsletter Third Issue, Dec. 2006). Besides the taste or selection of food, another special aspect of food in Taiwan is the eating manner of using chopsticks. One student described the difficulties that, “Chopsticks, it's difficult. Now I've already struggle with the food, and I have to struggle with the method of eating. (Student F)” Another students also stated the different manners of eating food that,” …in my country, we hardly use spoon and we use usually the hands. So in the beginning, it was very difficult to use chopsticks and spoon. (Student I)” Moreover, international students still had other difficulties regarding to the preparation way of food. While it’s normal for us, the preparation way of the food had shocked international students. One student illustrated that,. 31.