日籍學生在台接受全英文授課之學習歷程與其信念之變化:個案研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文. 指導教授:招靜琪博士 Advisor: Dr. Chin-chi Chao. 日籍學生在台接受全英文授課之學習歷程與其信念之變化:個案研究. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Japanese Student's Language Learning Experience and Transformation of Beliefs in ETP Programs in Taiwan:. ‧. A Case Study. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 研究生：蔡正文撰 Name: Cheng-wen Tsai 中華民國一百零四年十二月 December,2015.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) Japanese Student's Language Learning Experience and Transformation of Beliefs in ETP Programs in Taiwan: A Case Study. A Master Thesis Presented to. 政治大. Department of English. 立. National Chengchi University. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. a. In Partial Fulfillment. n. v l of the Requirements for the Degree n i of Ch. U i e h n c g Master of Arts. By Cheng-wen Tsai December, 2015.




(7) To Dr. Chin-chi Chao 獻給我的恩師招靜琪教授. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iii. i n U. v.

(8) 謝辭這篇論文可以完成我需要感謝許多人，其中最感謝的是招靜琪教授，她從想法的形成到論文的修正一直協助我到最後，若沒有她的幫助我絕對沒有辦法完成這篇論文。另外我要感謝參與研究的三位日本學生，他們所付出的時間讓這份研究得以完成。我也要感謝我的父母在我寫論文的這段期間給予我經濟與精神上的支持。. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iv. i n U. v.

(9) Acknowledgements I need to thank many people who helped me complete my thesis. First I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Chin-chi Chao, without her I could never have finished my thesis. In addition, I would like to thank the three Japanese participants. They contributed their time so the study can be completed. I would also like to thank my parents, who supported me economically.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. v. i n U. v.

(10) 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文摘要論文名稱:日籍學生在台接受全英文授課之學習歷程與其信念之變化:個案研究指導教授: 招靜琪博士研究生: 蔡正文論文內容提要: 本研究旨在了解日本學生的語言學習信念變化，並找出哪些因素在台灣和日本的 TESOL 環境中影響學生的學習信念的形成和變化。不同於傳統基於問卷的調查，只針對某些固定的學. 政治大社會文化環境在學生的思考過程中具有中介的效果。本研究旨在了解日本學生的學習信念是如立. 生的學習信念特徵的研究，最近的研究更注重學習信念的動態變化過程。社會文化理論還強調，. 何受他們的學習經驗影響，而這些經驗在不同的環境如何影響他們的學習信念。本研究使用深. ‧ 國. 學. 度訪談收集資料，採用半結構式訪談每個月針對學生的學習經歷和信念進行一學期五次的資料. ‧. 蒐集。通過 Liblich(1998)的方法整理出訪談資料的整體與分類的內容，本研究希望找出在台灣. y. Nat. 和日本學習語言的意識形態的不同，這些差異和參與者的語言學習信念之關係，以及在台灣的. er. io. sit. 日本學生面臨何種語言學習機會和挑戰。. 這項研究的結果是，三位參與者經歷了不同程度的語言學習信念轉變，同時形成新的學習. al. n. v i n 信念。來台灣之前，參與者對於自己的英文能力的自信心高低不一，但他們都相信能夠透過海 Ch engchi U 外留學加強英文能力。在台灣，由台灣以及西方學生所組成的團體使參與者能夠練習英文並表. 達自己的意見，無須擔心被批評。ETP 課程給他們一個機會可以使用英文來學習並溝通。來到台灣一年後，Yoshi 對英文能力變得較有自信，且相信策略運用比天生能力來的重要。Taka 變得較不在意自己的發音且把注意力放在文化學習上。Ko 了解自己天生語言學習能力的極限並開始發展自己的學習策略。在研究建議方面，當未來的研究採用 BALLI(Belief About Language Learning Inventory)(Horwitz,1999)分析時也應將親密團體和社會文化等因素加入。在英語教育方面，台灣的大學英語培訓課程應該包括更多的跨文化差異教學，所以當國際學生參加一般 ETP(English taught program)時他們將面臨較少的文化衝擊。由於參與者提到與台灣和國際學生的非正式交流對她們的英語學習大有幫助，在 ETP 課程中教授應考量國際學生的英語水平， vi.

(11) 並把他們分配在具有相應英語水平的小組中，使他們能夠更快克服學習困難。期望這項研究的結果提供語言教學方法的調整建議，以滿足國際學生，特別是日本學生的需求。關鍵字:英語學習信念，語言學習歷程，ETP 課程，質性個案研究，敘事分析，深入訪談。. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vii. i n U. v.

(12) Abstract This study was aimed to understand the language learning belief change of Japanese students, and to find out what are the factors in the TESOL environments of Taiwan and Japan that lead to these changes. Unlike the traditional questionnaire-based research, which studied student’s learning belief based on certain critical characteristics; recent studies focused more on the changing process of language learning belief. Socio-cultural theories also stressed that the socio-cultural environment has meditational effects on the student’s thinking process (Furberg, 2009). This study tried to understand how Japanese student’s English learning belief was affected by their learning experiences. 政治大 This study adopted in-depth interviews to collect data, using semi-structured interviews per month 立. and how these experiences in the different environments affected their learning belief reciprocally.. ‧ 國. 學. for six months to discover how Japanese students’ learning experiences and belief changed in the process. By analyzing the interview data using the holistic-content method proposed by Liblich et al. ‧. (1998), this study focused on how different language learning ideologies in Taiwan and Japan. sit. y. Nat. affected the participants’ learning belief, what opportunities and challenges the Japanese students. io. er. faced in Taiwan in terms of language learning. Based on the result of this study, the three. al. v i n C U participants had different levels of learning beliefs in the process. Before theyhcame e ntogTaiwan, c h i the n. participants experienced different degrees of language learning belief changes and formed new. self-confidence and all believed that they could improve their English proficiency by studying abroad. In Taiwan, the supportive community formed by Taiwanese and Western students allowed the participants to practice English and express their ideas without being afraid of getting judged. The ETP (English Taught Program) offered them an opportunity to use English to both study and communicate on a daily basis. After one year of staying in Taiwan, Yoshi became more confident in his English proficiency and believed more in strategy use than innate language learning ability. Taka was less anxious about his Japanese accent and put more emphasis on learning cultural factors. Ko viii.

(13) realized the limitation of his innate language learning ability and began to develop his own language learning strategies. As for theoretical implication, factors like community and socio-cultural influence should be added to BALLI’s (Belief About Language Learning Inventory)(Horwitz,1999) model in analyzing language learning belief in future studies. In terms of pedagogical implication, English training programs in Taiwan’s university should provide more cross-cultural information so that when international students take English taught classes they will encounter less cultural shock. As the participants mentioned that the informal interaction with Taiwanese and Western students assisted their English learning, professors in the ETP classes should consider international students’. 政治大. English proficiency and put them within groups of appropriate English levels so they can learn with less difficulty.. 立. Key words: English Language Learning Belief, Language Learning Experience, Qualitative Case. ‧ 國. 學. Study, Narrative Analysis, In-Depth Interview, ETP Course.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. ix. i n U. v.

(14) Table of Contents Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………………….iv Chinese Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………....vi English Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..viii Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………….…………………………1 Background……………………………………………………………………………………………1 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………..2 Research Questions of the Study…………………………………………...…………………………2. 政治大 Chapter Two: Literature Review ……………………………………………………………………4 立. Definition of Terminology……………………………………………………………………………..3. The Definition of Language Learning Belief………………………………………………………….4. ‧ 國. 學. Development of Language Learning Belief Study……………………………………..……………...5. ‧. Cross Context Language Learning Belief Study………………………………………………………8. y. Nat. Language Learning Ideology in Japan……………………………………………………………….10. er. io. sit. Language Learning Ideology in Taiwan……………………………………………………………...15 Contextual and Language Learning Belief Similarities and Differences………………….…………18. al. n. v i n Ch Chapter Three: Methodology……………………….….…………………………………...……...20 engchi U The Case Study Method ……………………………………………………………………………..20. Participants…………………………………………………………………………………...............20 Data Collection……………………………………………………………………………………….22 Interview Strategy……………………………………………………………………………………24 Data Analysis Procedure……………………………………………………………………………..25 Trustworthiness………………………………………………………………………………………26 The Role of Researcher ……………………………………………………………………………...27 Chapter Four: Individual Cases………………………...…………...………………………….…28 Case (1) Yoshi……………………………………………………...………….……………...……...29 x.

(15) Language Learning Background……………………………………………………………………..29 English Learning Process…………………………………………………………………………….30 Expectation and Belief before Studying in Taiwan……………………………………………….….45 Expectation and Belief after studying in Taiwan……………………………...……………….…….49 Taiwan’s Perceived Affordance and Challenges for English Learning…..…………………………..50 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………52 Case (2) Taka…………………………………………………………………………...…………….55 Language Learning Background……………………………………………………………………..55. 政治大 Expectation and Belief before Studying in Taiwan……………………………………………….….68 立 English Learning Process…………………………………………………………………………….56. Expectation and Belief after Studying in Taiwan…………………………………………….………73. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwan’s Perceived Affordance and Challenges for English Learning…………………………...….75. ‧. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………76. y. Nat. Case (3) Ko………………………………………………………………………...………..………..79. er. io. sit. Language Learning Background……………………………………………………………………..79 English Learning Process…………………………………………………………………………….80. al. n. v i n Expectation and Belief before StudyingC in Taiwan…………………………………………….…….89 hengchi U. Expectation and Belief after Studying in Taiwan…………………………………………….………93 Taiwan’s Perceived Affordance and Challenges for English Learning……………..………...……...96 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………97 Chapter Five: Cross Cases Analysis………………………………………………………….......100 RQ.1 What kind of English learning belief and expectations, of English in particular, did the three Japanese participants have before coming to Taiwan?……………………………………………...100 Social Environment and English Learning………………………………………………………….100 Learning Difficulty and English Learning Belief…………………………………………………...103 Significant Others and Critical Events…………………………………………………………..….106 xi.

(16) Expectation and Motivation to Study Abroad ………………………………………………………107 RQ.2 To what extent their English learning belief and expectations of English in particular, changed after they came to Taiwan?………………………………………………………………………….108 Language Learning Belief Change………………………………………………………………….109 Self Confidence and Language Learning Attitude …………………………………………………113 Language Learning Aptitude and Self-Regulation Ability………………………………………….114 RQ.3 What perceived affordances and challenges does Taiwan serve as an English-learning context for these Japanese students?………………………………..……………………………………….115. 政治大 Formal Education’s Chances and Challenges…………………………………………………..…..120 立 Informal Challenges and Affordance……………………………………………………………….116. Chapter Six: Conclusion……………………………………………………………….………….123. ‧ 國. 學. Summary of the Study………………………………………………………………………………123. ‧. Theoretical Implications…………………………………………………………………………….124. y. Nat. Pedagogical Implications…………………………………………………………………………...124. er. io. sit. Limitation and Future Study Suggestion……………………………………………………………125 Reference……………………………………………………………………………………………126. al. n. v i n Ch Appendix 1: Interview questions……………………………………………………………………132 engchi U. xii.

(17) CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Background It is widely acknowledged that learners’ attitude, experience, expectation and learning strategy are related to their language learning outcome. Moreover, language learning belief has a great influence on learners' learning process, including their belief of a language’s nature, of learning tasks, of learning outcomes, and of personal. 政治大 informal learning experiences and interactions (Wenden, 1999; Woods, 2003). 立. strength and limitation. Language learning belief is considered to stem from formal,. Language learning belief changes along with time and experience (Barcelos, 2008),. ‧ 國. 學. and is related to students’ strategy use (Woods, 2003), their fluency (Tanaka, 2003),. ‧. their autonomy (Winke, 2009), their self-control (Wenden, 1999), and their anxiety. sit. y. Nat. (Howitz, 1998). Learning belief has long been studied in different academic fields.. io. er. Cognitive researchers consider belief as part of our meta-cognitive knowledge of ourselves as learners and thinkers (Amuzie & Winke, 2009). Constructivists assert that. al. n. v i n C hconstantly reconstruct belief is the process in which learners their understanding of engchi U. learning experiences (Tanaka & Ellis, 2003). Socio-cultural researchers consider belief as socially constructed and responsive to the environment, which changes based on the time and environment students stay in a foreign context (Woods, 2003). As for TESOL researchers, learning belief is learners’ ideas and conceptions toward language’s nature and learning process (Benson & Lor, 1999). It is consisted of the cognitive and affective factors which change constantly and affect learners' strategy use as well as decision making (Bandura, 1993). Among all these language learning beliefs, the belief that studying abroad may help students improve their language proficiency is widely perceived in Asian countries. Many students expect to gain international 1.

(18) experience in an ideal target-language environment and attain high language proficiency (Doughty & Long, 2003). The new environment provides a new set of language learning ideologies that can either help students become more capable of using the language or cause immense difficulty in their learning process (Kramsch, 1993). From this perspective, Taiwanese and Japanese students share a set of similar English learning backgrounds and beliefs. However, the cultural and linguistic differences between the two countries call into question what are the elements that. 政治大. lead to different learning results and learning beliefs in the two countries (Butler, 2005).. 學. ‧ 國. 立. Purpose of the Study. ‧. This study combines the insights of language learning belief studies and recent. y. Nat. qualitative study methods, including holistic and categorical analysis, to find out how. er. io. sit. Japanese students’ contact with the Taiwan’s ETP environment is related to their language learning belief change. The aim of this study is to understand the advantages. al. n. v i n C hTESOL environment and disadvantages of the Taiwanese from the perspectives of engchi U. three Japanese students who were studying in Taiwan’s universities during the time when this study was conducted. The finding of this study may help ETP professors understand the factors that affect Japanese students’ English learning results in Taiwan.. Research Questions of the Study 1.. What kind of English learning beliefs and expectations did the three Japanese participants have before coming to Taiwan?. 2.

(19) 2.. To what extent did their English learning beliefs and expectations change after they came to Taiwan?. 3.. What perceived affordances and challenges does Taiwan serve as an English-learning context for these Japanese students?. Definition of Terminology . Western students Students from European or Anglophone countries who have native level or near. 政治大. native level English proficiency. . Language learning ideology. 立. The general social idea on the importance of foreign language learning and the. ‧ 國. 學. ideal language learning method. Language learning belief. ‧. . io. er. and the ideal language learning method.. sit. y. Nat. The personal belief of the nature of language, the difficulty of language learning. . Linguistic factor: linguistic differences and language learning as well as. . Belief as a language learner. al. n. v i n C hbetween JapaneseU language speaking differences and other English learners. engchi Learner’s reflections and evaluation of their learning ability and result based on their experiences.. . Sociocultural belief General ideas and belief formed under the influence of social and cultural factors within a community.. 3.

(20) CHAPTER 2. LITERTURE REVIEW This literature review chapter discusses the following seven topics, including (1) the definition of language learning belief, (2) development of language learning belief study, (3) cross context language learning belief study (4) language learning ideology. 政治大 learning belief differences and similarities in Taiwan and Japan. 立. in Japan, (5) language learning ideology in Taiwan, and (6) contextual and language. ‧ 國. 學. The Definition of Language Learning Belief. ‧. Researchers have tried to find a definition for language learning belief for years.. sit. y. Nat. Language learning belief by Horwitz’ (1985) definition is the idea and conception. io. er. toward the language learning process. Barcelos (2003) considered language learning belief an entity consisting of socio-cultural and linguistic factors. Wenden (1999). al. n. v i n defined language learning beliefC as a combination of cognitive knowledge, learning hengchi U experience and affective factors.. Woods (2003) agreed with Wenden’s definition by saying that language learning belief includes one’s knowledge of language learning. Combining all these insights, there are three categories of language learning belief definitions: (1) the belief of language structure and function, (2) the belief of learners' cognition and affection, and (3) the belief of language learning process and socio-cultural factors. Language learning beliefs are under the influence of ethnic, social, and economic backgrounds. In short, language learning belief is constantly transforming through. 4.

(21) students’ interaction with the current environment and their previous experiences. All these factors will affect their learning belief change in the future.. Development of Language Learning Belief Study Recent studies on language learning belief focused on how learners' thoughts are related to their language acquisition results and how students’ thoughts turn into actions in the language learning process (Barcelos, 2003; Mori, 1999).. 政治大 language learning belief study. Horwitz’ BALLI (The Belief About Language 立. Many researchers proposed the proper elements that qualify a study as a. Learning Inventory) (1999) suggested that a language learning belief questionnaire. ‧ 國. 學. should consist of a survey on difficulty, talent, thought, strategy and expectation.. ‧. Wenden (1999) considered a learning belief study should include questionnaire,. sit. y. Nat. semi-structured interview and narrative analysis. Barcelos (2003) proposed the. io. er. normative approach and the metacognitive approach. The former suggested that the study on the preconception of language education and acquisition will affect certain. al. n. v i n C h that the conscious learning results while the latter indicates and unconscious logic of engchi U. learners will lead to various learning results.. In recent years, many scholars questioned the validity of language learning belief questionnaire. They doubted that these questionnaires are capable to discover student’s constant change of learning belief and personal perspective. But the current studies focused only on the influence of language learning belief, not on how the socio-cultural factors are related to students’ language learning belief. Mori (1999) stated that personal perception changes in different socio-cultural contexts and learners’ strategies change accordingly. Barcelos (2003) argued that the questionnaire. 5.

(22) only focused on the influential elements in student's learning process and how they relate to their performances. Traditionally, there are two methods to develop a learning belief questionnaire. The first method is to group items a priori into logically-derived categories, with the analysis of data focusing on the similarities and the differences in response to items within a category (Sakui & Gaies, 1999; 475). The second one is to collect responses to a large set of items presumably tapping different beliefs and then to identify, on the basis of a statistical procedure, a set of empirically-derived categories (Sakul & Gales,. 政治大 However, even if most questionnaires like BALLI were carefully developed, 立. 1999; 475).. questionnaire’s validity remained questionable. A lot of significant evidences. ‧ 國. 學. evidences showed that researchers may not try to establish empirically the degree of. ‧. stability, or consistency, of responses to questionnaires on belief about language. sit. y. Nat. learning. The fundamental psychometric requirement of a questionnaire is that. io. er. instrument error should be measured, and thus a questionnaire on learners' belief should produce a stable measure of the belief unless the belief in fact changes. The. al. n. v i n reliability of learners' responsesC to questionnaire itemsU h e n g c h i on their belief about language learning should be examined empirically, not simply assumed.. Although many researchers in recent years adopted questionnaires as a study instrument to examine student’s general language learning belief in language learning belief studies (Bernat, 2005),many researchers argued that questionnaires are unable to assess the interaction of student’s language learning belief within the environment, let alone assessing the individual variables and foreign context factors (Barcelos, 2003; Block, 2007; Mori, 1999; Woods, 2003).Thus scholars like Amuzie & Winke (2009), Barcelos (2003), Kalaja (2008) proposed multiple approaches, including context. 6.

(23) approach, socio-cultural approach, narrative study, metaphor analysis, discourse analysis and observation. Recent studies also focused on how language learning belief develops and fluctuates, and how emotion and identity recognition interact. Based on narrative study, discourse analysis and observation, researchers tried to understand how the learners’ subjective situations and language learning belief are related to their language learning result (Barcelos, 2003; Kalajaet, 2008). These forms of qualitative study can be used to discover the language learning belief that a questionnaire cannot. 政治大 student’s language learning belief. According to Kinginger (2004), students’ contact 立 find. In fact, the more complex the context becomes, the more factors may affect. with different social communities, genders, ages, social classes, identity recognitions. ‧ 國. 學. all affect their language developments, as language learning becomes a survival issue. ‧. in the foreign context. Isabelli and Garcia (2006) suggested that the diary entries of. sit. y. Nat. social network logs showed that student’s language learning belief and learning. io. er. attitude are related to their social network. Yang and Kim (2011) discovered from student’s diary, biography and interview that student's English learning process. al. n. v i n C hbelief and their purpose depends on their language learning to use target language. engchi U. Murray’s (2008) narrative study showed that learners' environment, tool and. experience are associated with their motivations to study. Cotterall’s (2008) narrative study found out how learners' objectives, motivations, actions, and strategies are interconnected, and how they assist students in the learning process. The above studies showed that learners' attitudes, emotions, expectations and belief change along with their learning experiences. Recent studies that investigated university or adult language learners used different methods to collect data and analyze learners' belief. From classroom observation, interview and open-ended questionnaire (Barcelos, 1995), with 7.

(24) videotaping and follow-up stimulated recall (Brown, 1996), numerous innovative methods have been used to collect data. New methods like metaphor analysis of language learning, analysis of diaries, or case study approach on learners' belief came into exist as well (Ellis, 1998; Hosenfeld, 1999). Among all these data collecting methods, interviews and closed questionnaires are the most commonly used methods (Benson & Lor, 1999; Haw, 1999; Wenden, 1986). Qualitative study is necessary for the study of learners' learning process, including their interactions with the environment and their learning experiences. In order to find out the relation between. 政治大 studies based on individual differences have been carried out by several researchers 立 students’ learning belief and their learning process from a long-term perspective,. (Barcelos, 2003; Kalaja, 2011). Many studies have been carried out to understand. ‧ 國. 學. how different cultural and linguistic factors in the local context affect the. ‧. implementation of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) and other innovative. sit. y. Nat. approaches, and how such practice results in different language learning beliefs and. io. er. different levels of English proficiency. In fact, different ethnic groups have different values, expectations toward foreign language learning, and their language learning. al. n. v i n C h (Fujiwara, 2012; beliefs and ideologies change accordingly Horzitz, 1999; Nikitina, engchi U 2006). Based on the above studies, this study adopted a holistic study approach to. understand the influence of the environment on learners' language learning belief change.. Cross Context Language Learning Belief Study Recently many studies have been done on the formation of cross-contextual language learning belief. Nikitina and Furuoka (2006) carried out a study on students who learned Russian and their belief related to Russian from different ethnic and 8.

(25) linguistic backgrounds. Other studies, such as Yang’s (1999) study on Taiwanese students’ language learning belief in English speaking countries and Rieger’s (2009) Hungarian students’ language learning belief of German, used questionnaires adapted to cater for the local cultural differences. These studies shared the same learning belief categories as BALLI; the result suggested that language learning belief like foreign language aptitude and difficulty of language learning are common to learners of all linguistic, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. Furthermore, based on Horwitz’ (1999) study of the differences and similarities of Korean, Taiwanese and. 政治大 (2003) found that students of similar ethnic, linguistic and cultural backgrounds share 立 Turkish students’ language learning belief questionnaires results, Tanaka and Ellis. the similar language learning belief. Amuzie and Winke (2009) also discovered that. ‧ 國. 學. the longer students are exposed to certain cultural context, the more their language. ‧. learning belief are under its influence. After Horwitz’ (1985) and Wenden’s (1986). sit. y. Nat. pioneering studies on language learning belief, quite a few studies have been carried. io. er. out throughout the world to study language learning belief change across countries, including Japan. Tanaka (1999) proposed two categories for language learning belief,. al. n. v i n C h confidence, aptitude, including belief in one’s self-efficacy, motivation, and learning engchi U approach such as analytical and experiential learning. As learners' belief changes. along with the factors such as age, cultural, ethnic, linguistic and learning backgrounds, researchers tend to assume that learners' belief is situation-specific (Horwitz, 1999; Rifkin, 2000). In fact, Mori’s (1999) investigation focused on the epistemological belief and language learning belief; that is, how belief affects student’s second language acquisition. Her study suggested that the belief in innate ability and the avoidance of ambiguity lead to low English proficiency. Furthermore, the study indicated that novice and advanced students have different learning results, and advanced students are more capable of tolerating 9.

(26) ambiguity. The result of the study showed that epistemological belief and language learning belief are co-related. As cross context studying experiences will affect student’s original language learning belief, the new environment could provide them with chances to get in touch with real life language and interaction with people of different socio-cultural backgrounds within different learning contexts. The foreign experience helps students grow in communication proficiency, but student’s grammar, listening and reading ability improvement vary individually. Moreover, the cross cultural communication competence of students from different countries was also. 政治大 occurs whenever a message that must be understood is produced by a member of one 立 investigated. Porter and Samovar (1994) indicated “intercultural communication. culture for consumption by a member of another culture” (p.19). In other words, if. ‧ 國. 學. students could keep away from the influence of culture-bound evaluations, they will. ‧. be able to focus on individual’s abilities to interact in a variety of intercultural. y. Nat. communication events. Kim (1991) also suggested that intercultural adaptability. er. io. sit. affects students’ wiliness to modify some of their old cultural ideology, to learn and accommodate some of the new cultural ideology and to develop their intercultural. al. n. v i n C study communication competence. This how English learning ideologies U h e ninvestigated i h gc. in Japan and Taiwan affect different teaching policies, and how Japanese students studying across the two contexts changed their language learning belief under the influence of local English learning environments and ideologies.. Language Learning Ideology in Japan After Second World War, English became the most popular foreign language in Japan. English was widely used and learned among different countries, and Japan was no exception. Japanese post-war political, social and economic reforms were all 10.

(27) influenced by the American and their dominant language, English. During the 1960s and 1970s, Japan’s economy surged abruptly and the chance to contact with Westerners increased abruptly. The improvement of general English proficiency of Japanese people for international communication became an imminent issue. After the government promoted English education under the slogan of “Kokusaika” (globalization), English was widely considered the most important foreign language since the Second World War in Japan. Many politicians like Arinori Mori and Gakudo Ozaki even proposed the replacement of Japanese with English as. 政治大 influential on Japanese language and culture. 立. official language. Within this historical background, English became increasingly. In terms of linguistic influence, many English loan words have been borrowed. ‧ 國. 學. to be used in commercials and media in Japan. The daily language of Japanese people. ‧. is filled with English loan words or cognates. Many professors based their theory on. io. er. Kabashima, 1980; Kinoshita, 1990; Morioka, 1963).. sit. y. Nat. English articles and borrowed English words to support their study results (e.g.,. This historical background indicates that English has led to the formation of. al. n. v i n C h and identity greatly Japanese language, culture, ethnicity in the last century. However, engchi U scholars argued that Japanese English education has actually reinforced students’. ethnocentrism and fostered a fear or apathy toward English among Japanese students, which led to many problems in implementing CLT and improving general communication proficiency (Nakamura, 1989). In Japan, socio-cultural factors have been examined for its influence on general English proficiency. Scholars found that learners' desires to interact and integrate with the target language speaking community (integrative motivation) and to seek advancement in the society (instrumental motivation) are associated with their performance in the process of language learning (e.g., Gardner & Mac Intyre, 1991; 11.

(28) Gardner, Smythe & Brunet, 1977). As learners’ native language community is connected to their identity formation, chances are that learners' language proficiency is also related to the ideology of their native language group. Ellis (1994) claimed that learners' conception of their ethno-linguistic vitality influences their second language proficiency. Ethno-linguistic vitality is defined as a group’s view of its strength and viability as measured by perception of its status, demographics, and institutional support (Giles & Johnson, 1981). Ellis suggested that people who attribute higher ethno-linguistic value to their language group than the target language group could. 政治大 explained that one’s intention to integrate and interact with another language 立. face more difficulty when they want to learn the target language. Heller (1987). community is based on the social network boundary between the native language. ‧ 國. 學. speakers and foreign language speakers. In other words, if learners value their own. ‧. language more than the target language, their willingness to expand their social. sit. y. Nat. network will be limited. Gatbonton (1975) suggested that learners’ loyalty to their. io. er. own language group could hinder their development of a second language identity. Ethnocentrism is related to Japanese’ ideas on foreign language education,. al. n. v i n Kalin and Berry (1994) defined C it as the “tendency to U h e n g c h i make the ‘we-they’ distinctions, accompanied by a relatively positive evaluation of ‘we’ and a negative evaluation of. ‘they’” (pp. 301–302), including “the tendency to judge others by the standards” and “values of one’s own group” (p. 302). Gardner and Lambert (1959) suggested that learners’ ethnocentric tendencies and attitudes toward the other group can determine their success in learning the new language. Judging from these insights of ethnocentrism, some scholars claimed that the reason why many Japanese students failed to develop English proficiency is due to the strong ethnocentrism (e.g., Hayes, 1979; Miller, 1982; Reischauer, 1981). Japanese. 12.

(29) culture has long been regarded as a conglomeration of ethnocentricity, nationalism and xenophobia. These cultural factors show that Japanese students do not want to learn English and integrate with the English speaking community, as those who prefer to interact with foreign community are considered deviant and rebellious in Japanese people’s mind. This ethnocentrism leads to a general concept in Japan that Western students should learn Japanese to communicate with them instead of the opposite way. According to Koike and Tanaka (1995), “The Japanese social psychology. 政治大 Japanese people feel comfortable within their group, but they feel uneasy outside the 立 characterized by group consciousness, which often discriminates against outsiders.. group,” (p. 23).. ‧ 國. 學. However, scholars like Kubota (1999) argued that these cultural labels are. ‧. created from the West-East dichotomy. Japanese people adopted this dichotomy in. y. Nat. order to rationalize their struggle against westernization. Reischauer (1981) suggested. er. io. sit. that the English policy is used to differentiate Japanese culture’s uniqueness and separate them from the rest of the world. The positive self-perception of Japanese. al. n. v i n identity reinforces the belief thatCone should interpret U h e n g c h i things through local cultural. norms. As Watanabe (1995) said, “the purpose of learning English is to cultivate the learners' mind, the learning of English should also be regarded as an opportunity to bring out the realization of the value of the learners' mother tongue and culture,” (p. 7). Thus learning English became a medium for Japanese learners to appreciate their own language and culture instead of those of the target language community. In fact, scholars like Nakamura (1989) suggested that through internalizing Western view of the world by learning English, Japanese identify themselves with Westerners and reinforce their sense of superiority over other Asian countries. To reinforce their. 13.

(30) identification with the advanced Western countries, English teaching material often idealize, simplify and create a cultural stereotype for the Anglophone speakers. This over-idealized cultural stereotype intends to cover up the inequality and injustice existed in both Japanese and Anglophone countries. The “Nihonjinron” (the theory of Japanese people) revealed that the purpose to contrast the uniqueness of Japanese with English and other European languages is to impose the Japanese identity on Japan’s civilians and rationalize the political practices. However, many researchers argued that the government’s attempt to make. 政治大 Japanese learners faced learning difficulties and identity crisis learning English. 立. Japanese people identify with English speaking community incited xenophobia when. “Nihonjinron” as socio-cultural nationalism is formed to protect learners' ethnic and. ‧ 國. 學. linguistic identity, but the same ideology reduces student’s willingness to learn. ‧. English and limits their exposure to the target language.. sit. y. Nat. The English teaching policy, the English education’s purpose in Japan was. io. er. aimed to help students adopt the logic and critical norms of Western languages, in order to communicate with people from the developed countries in a “kokusaika”. al. n. v i n Ch (globalized) world. This linguistic policy aimed to improve Japanese general critical engchi U. thinking ability in Japanese through English learning in order to gain recognition from Western countries. However, ethnocentrism became an obstacle when Japanese educators tried to adopt Western teaching method like CLT program. The obstacle stems from the belief in fundamental linguistic distinctions between Japanese and the Western languages called “kotodama” (language spirit) belief. Based on the “kotodama” belief, only Japanese can fully acquire and comprehend their own language, Western students can never attain the same language proficiency that native Japanese speakers do. Japanese people assume that their language is so intricate and spiritual that it requires a set of innate neurological 14.

(31) functions that only those who are born and raised in Japan could have. The same ideological analogy can be used on the English learning case, as many Japanese students believe they can never attain high English proficiency like the Western students do without the innate abilities and English learning environment that Western students have. Furthermore, cultural traits like shyness, introversion, and collectivism are all considered obstacles to transform English education method from traditional test-centered GTM (Grammar Translation Method) programs to the newest CLT. 政治大 As confronting others in public is regarded as rude and improper, it limits 立. based approaches (Hinenoya & Gatbonton, 2000).. Japanese students’ opportunity to verify their linguistic knowledge through output,. ‧ 國. 學. this cultural trait is often deemed as shy and introvert from Western perspectives. ‧. (Matsumoto, 1994). Shyness and introvert are two sides of a coin, researchers pointed. sit. y. Nat. out the introvert characteristics could result in low level of interpersonal. io. er. communication skills and academic language proficiency (Cummins, 1983). The tradition of sacrificing individual benefit for the well-being of the group influenced. al. n. v i n learners' English proficiency, asC learners from group-oriented h e n g c h i U country prefer to. confine themselves within their own language community. They have less intention and opportunity to socialize with the target language speakers, thus fail to develop full functioning communication skills (Reischauer, 1981).. Language Learning Ideology in Taiwan Unlike Japan, Taiwan’s language education policy has always been a tool to stratify the status of people in the society (Tollefson, 1991). The core ideology of English education in Taiwan reveals that English is the medium of economic 15.

(32) globalization, as Taiwan’s economy depends heavily on international trade with world powers, especially America. The language policy on English education has deeply influenced Taiwanese belief of English learning and usage. For example, MOE (ministry of education) in Taiwan has held campaigns like “English learning for all people” or “Whole nation learning English” to promote the education of English. The notations of these English learning campaigns often promise material payoff to arouse student’s interest to pursue a better life. Under the slogans of these campaigns, English is widely viewed as a panacea to social, educational and economic problems.. 政治大 English proficiency becomes a linguistic capital for people to recognize one’s social 立 The English education in Taiwan is also aimed to fulfill the needs of job markets;. status and economic background.. ‧ 國. 學. This job-market-driven ideology of English education has made English into a. ‧. social symbol, as it stands for better employment and education. Furthermore, ever. sit. y. Nat. since Taiwan gained its membership in WTO (World Trade Organization), the. io. er. government has tried hard to form a new national identity based on an English policy, which was aimed to make Taiwan enter the rank of developed countries. As many. al. n. v i n Cshould politicians suggested that English a mainstream language in Taiwan to U h e nbecome i h gc promote globalization, learning English is strongly connected to a successful career in Taiwan. Many students and professors even consider studying English more important than learning their own mother tongues (Chou, 2002). For example, as Taiwan’s government wants to make English a quasi-official language for globalization, programs like the six-year national development plan called "Challenge 2008" (Executive Yuan, 2002) was carried out to strengthen the general English proficiency to integrate Taiwan’s market with the international community. All these propagandas are used to form an English friendly environment for students to identify and familiarize with the foreign language. 16.

(33) Under the slogan of globalization, English has been symbolized as the sole medium for Taiwanese people to merge with the global market, and the influence of globalization movement is omnipresent within the society. The implication of English as the medium of globalization suggests that English is a neutral and unproblematic tool to represent the voices of different cultural and linguistic groups in the world. As Wei (2006) said that “English imbued with the cachet of Western economic and technological advantage, has the further advantage of being a ‘neutral’ medium for inter-ethnic and international communication,” (p.91).. 政治大 in the society is a common conception in Taiwan, and it is codified as a symbol of 立. This assumption of English as a non-biased lingua franca that can serve anyone. globalization widely used in multiple medias of politics, business, traveling and. ‧ 國. 學. education to reinforce people’s imaginative connection of the linguistic medium with. ‧. the affluent and successful image of the language speakers in the Western countries.. sit. y. Nat. Since the micro domain (classroom) is connected with the macro domains (social,. io. er. political and economic) in Taiwan, the ideal English teaching method in the context of globalization is connected to social, economic and political factors in the society.. al. n. v i n C h Test) for instance, Take GEPT (General English Proficiency the test result is engchi U. considered the criterion of student’s capability to enter reputable university and get a promising job after graduation. This system indicates that English proficiency is a necessity for students to compete with others in the job market, as English is widely viewed as a panacea to social, educational and economic problems. The aim of English education in Taiwan is to fulfill the needs of job market; English proficiency becomes a linguistic capital for people to recognize one’s social status and economic background. As a result, the relationship between teaching ideology and its function of social stratification influenced the general perception of English speaking and learning in the society. 17.

(34) Moreover, Kachru (1985) suggested that in Taiwan most scholars in business, technology and education have studied in English speaking countries like U.S. and the U.K., and they are mostly in charge of the policy making and enforcement. Under this circumstance, the learning of English became an inevitable trend that will continue to impose the Western ideologies of world order on learners (Modiano, 1996). Therefore English is widely perceived as a language with higher status within Taiwan’s community, and the public has a positive impression toward high proficient English speaker as the language represents the Western value adopted by the richer. 政治大 people are encouraged to speak in English no matter how their oral proficiency levels 立 and more educated people in the society, speaking English is widely accepted and. are at.. ‧ 國. 學. This friendly environment toward English allows English to be used in all kinds. ‧. of media like movies, newspaper, magazine, commercial, and radio etc. The high ratio. sit. y. Nat. of cram school English education and the widely used English textbooks in university. io. er. education foster Taiwan's tolerance and familiarity with English in both academic and social contexts. The English friendly environment allows Western students to travel. al. n. v i n C h as most Taiwanese and work with less linguistic obstacles are willing to help them engchi U regardless of their lack of English proficiency.. The environment gives international students chances to use their own languages to communicate in public without fearing of getting judged or rejected. It is within this multilingual and English friendly context that English has become the main communication tool between people of different languages in Taiwan, which provides an additive context for students from different parts of the word to practice and improve their English speaking proficiency.. 18.

(35) Contextual and Language Learning Belief: Similarities and Differences Taiwan and Japan are similar in terms of their English education ideology; both countries are under America’s political, economic and cultural influence and try hard to immerge with the international market. Both countries face different levels of difficulty when the English teachers try to help students develop communication proficiency. While many educators in both countries think that the test-oriented system and the teacher-centered curriculum are to blame for the failure of developing communication proficiency in Asian countries like Japan, Korea and Taiwan.. 政治大 explain why the schools in these countries continued to use the 立. Scholars like Mcguire (2007) refuted this assumption by saying that this could not. ‧ 國. 學. test-centered-curriculum facing all the critics from the educators, who consider test-centered-curriculum and CLT incompatible. To explain this phenomenon,. ‧. socio-cultural scholars suggested that the linguistic and cultural factors had confined. sit. y. Nat. Asian student’s capability to think critically and speak fluently in English. Atkinson. io. al. and students’ concepts of the foreign language.. er. (1997) agreed that these socio-cultural factors in the local contexts influence teachers’. n. v i n C (1964) Moreover, Thut and Adams that the Confucianism in Asian h e nimplied gchi U. countries values conformity and harmony above individual expression and benefit. These linguistic and cultural differences between Western and Eastern countries caused learning difficulty as most Asian countries use high context dependent languages while Western languages are often low context dependent. In other words, the conversation in Asian countries derives its meaning from contextual factors while in Western countries meaning derives mainly from the literal level (Hall, 1976). Despite these differences, governments in Japan and Taiwan insisted to incorporate. 19.

(36) CLT into the school curriculum and required students to attain a set of English skills that a CLT program is expected to equip students with. On the other hand, comparing the two contexts, English is considered a symbol of social stratification in Taiwan while a medium for ethnocentrism in Japan. In Taiwan, learning English is a privilege for a group of socio-cultural elite. English’s value is materialized with promising jobs and schools for students to become successful (Horwitz, 1999). In Japan, learning English is considered a medium to ameliorate students’ thinking and communication skills in Japanese to reinforce their. 政治大 language community as economically affluent to rationalize the job-market-oriented 立 self-recognition as Japanese people. While Taiwanese prefer to idealize the target. education policy, Japanese prefer to picture the English community as educated and. ‧ 國. 學. civilized to identify with their self-image as civilized country.. ‧. Under these different circumstances, Japanese people are afraid to speak. sit. y. Nat. English in public in a monolingual society while Taiwanese people encourage English. io. n. al. er. to be spoken in public and allow English to become the lingua franca in Taiwan.. Ch. engchi. 20. i n U. v.

(37) CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY The case study was adopted to understand how Japanese student’s language learning belief change was related to their language learning experiences in Japan and Taiwan. To collect data, this study used qualitative study method and in-depth interviews to gather participants' learning experience and analyze the information based on holistic content and categorical structures (Lieblich, 1998). The aim was to. 政治大 cross contextual frame. The following sections introduce the study method, the 立. lay out each participants' learning process and language learning belief change in a. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. participant, and the data collection as well as analysis method used in the study.. The Case Study Method. y. Nat. er. io. sit. This study adopted the qualitative case study method to find out the participants' individual changes. This study began with finding out the research gap,. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. the research goal and participants. Then collect data from observation, interviews and. engchi. a variety of records. From these data the researcher reorganized the participants’ story from their personal angles, forming single case analysis, developed categorical and thematic analysis from explanation, discussion and comparison (Duff, 2008; Oxford, 2011).. Participants The participants of this study had accepted formal English education in Japan for years and were going to take ETP (English taught program) classes at three different universities in Taiwan. This study focused on the language learning belief 21.

(38) change of three Japanese students. All of them were exchange students in Taiwan for half of a semester taking ETP courses. These students had previous foreign learning experiences in Japan and other countries and preferred staying in Taiwan for temporary or long term study. They were here in Taiwan to take courses of their university major and learn Chinese while improving their English oral proficiency. The classes they took were mainly taught in English. They all had learned English in Japan and had attained different levels of English proficiency in reading, writing, speaking and listening based on their scores of TOEIC. The following table presents. 政治大 participants studied in universities in Taipei and lived in the school dormitory. 立. 學. Table 3.1: Participants’ background information. learning time. io. al. n. 23. Ko. 21. Exchange time in Taiwan. y. 23. Yoshi. English. Ch. sit. Taka. Gender. Nat. (pseudonym). Age. M. 15 years. M. 15 years. 1 semester. eMn g c h i 17Uyears. 1 semester. er. Participants. ‧. ‧ 國. some background information of the three Japanese participants. The three. v ni. 1 semester. Taka had many opportunities to travel to Europe and United States with his family when he was young, and received English education from both his English tutors and school teachers. He attained high scores in English tests and in English certificate exams such as TOEIC. He wanted to take ETP class in Taiwan because his college friends recommended him to improve his English oral proficiency while learning Chinese in Taiwan.. 22.

(39) Yoshi, on the other hand, did not start to learn English until he entered junior high school. His international learning experience was confined to non-native English speaking countries such as Vietnam before he came to Taiwan. His grades in English classes were poor and he did not receive high grades in English certificate tests like TOEIC. The reason why he wanted to come to Taiwan is that his professor recommended him to learn Chinese and improve his English speaking here by taking the ETP class and Chinese class. Ko had been travelling between Japan and Hong Kong since he was young. He. 政治大 schools for years in Hong Kong and Japan before he came to Taiwan to study in the 立 was born in Hong Kong and had studied in both international school and Japanese. university. He had traveled to both English and non-English speaking countries with. ‧ 國. 學. his family and attained high scores in English tests and the certificate exams like. ‧. TOFEL and IELTS. After his relatives recommend him to study in English while. sit. y. Nat. learning Chinese in Taiwan, he decided to take the ETP course in Taiwan.. io. er. The reason why the three participants were selected is that they had all received formal English education in Japan and had previous experiences in studying abroad.. al. n. v i n C hEnglish education U They all expected to continue their by taking Taiwan’s ETP engchi classes.. Data Collection This study adopted in-depth interview as the data collection method, the process involved semi-structured interviews, theme-based questions and free discussion of participants' personal language learning experiences. According to Duff & Riesman’s (2008) explanation, the in-depth interviews allow the participants to form their own stories in an independent manner, so their answers to the questions would indicate. 23.

(40) their personal value and emotional status before and after each critical event. The aim was to better understand their English learning attitude, belief and value. The interviews included an interval of one month in between to make sure that the participants had enough time to reflect on their learning experiences and their learning belief changes. Each interview lasted for around one to two hours. In the first half hour the interviewer talked with the participants about what happened recently, so the participants would have time to reflect on the critical experiences and organize their thought before they answered the questions. This study focused on the. 政治大 related to their English learning identity. The interview questions were categorized 立 participants’ language learning belief and their experiences in Taiwan that were. into four types adapted from BALLI’s language belief questionnaire (Horwitz, 1999).. ‧ 國. 學. The first and second groups of questions were asked in the first and second. ‧. interviews while the other four groups of questions were asked in the following. sit. y. Nat. interviews. The first interview was aimed to understand participants’ English learning. io. er. backgrounds, which was based on the interview of Japanese adult students conducted by Cotteral (2008). Who used narrative study to discover student’s learning. al. n. v i n Ch background, purpose, content, participation and goal. The aim to collect these data engchi U. was to analyze participants’ English learning backgrounds and experiences in Japan, the critical events and turning points in their English learning process and the influential person in their lives. (See Appendix 1) The second interview focused on the participants’ reasons to learn English in Taiwan. As most international students come to Taiwan to learn Chinese instead of English, each participant must have a special reason to keep learning English in Taiwan. Moreover, as studying abroad and emotional status change are relevant, questions about how the cultural and linguistic differences influenced their learning motivation and attitudes were also asked. (See Appendix 1) 24.

(41) The third interview focused on participants’ English learning processes and experiences in Taiwan, which focused on the critical events, the turning points, and the influential people they met in Taiwan. The study also focused on the new strategies they learned or developed for English learning in Taiwan. This part of the interview was essential as it provided the information on participants’ interactions with other students and how did these experiences change their attitudes toward English learning. (See Appendix 1) The fourth interview focused on language learning belief. The interview. 政治大 versions (Rieger, 2009; Yang, 1999). Questions were divided into five types: (1) the 立 questions were adapted from Horwitz’ (1998) BALLI questionnaire and its revised. difficulty of language learning, (2) aptitude for language learning, (3) the nature of. ‧ 國. 學. language learning, (4) learning and communication strategy, and (5) motivation and. ‧. expectation. (See Appendix 1). sit. y. Nat. The fifth and the last interview focused on the participants’ English learning. io. er. experiences. The participants were asked to compare their English learning experiences in Japan and Taiwan, how they transferred their strategies to learn. al. n. v i n C hadvantages and disadvantages English and other languages, what the two contexts engchi U. offered for English learning these Japanese participants perceived after six months of studying and living in Taiwan. (See Appendix 1). Interview Strategy The purpose of the study was to discover the relation between the participants’ language learning experiences and their learning belief. The key principle for conducting the five interviews was to allow participants to fully express their feelings, ideas and experiences. (See Appendix 1) 25.

(42) Thus each interview started from their personal experiences, their living and learning conditions, and their special or impressive experiences. The participants would be able to express at will, and the unfinished parts, if any, would be discussed in the next interview or through synchronous communication on Facebook or Skype. The interview’s content was recorded with the participants’ consent, then transcribed and translated for data analysis. Each interview lasted for one to two hours; the participants chose to talk in Japanese as it made them feel more comfortable in expressing their personal feeling and ideas. Each interview began with the questions. 政治大 questions such as “What have you done since our last interview?” and “Who have you 立 on their recent lives so that the discussion would ease into the interview. For example,. met?” were used at this stage. To help the participants review their life, they were. ‧ 國. 學. given a chance to see the Facebook posts that they had written or videos that they had. ‧. posted related to their recent experiences. After the participants refreshed their. sit. y. Nat. memories, questions were posed based on the research agenda for them to elaborate. io. er. on their previous statements. Furthermore, in order to encourage the participants to express their personal feelings, the language used for interview was mainly Japanese.. n. al. i n The content then was translatedC into English for analysis. hengchi U. v. The interview locations were quiet and clean, like library, study rooms and chat. rooms, to prevent interruption in the process of interview. The participants could choose a place that they found convenient as long as there would be no interruption during the interview.. Data Analysis Procedure Lieblich et al. (1998) proposed two ways for narrative analysis, which are holistic content analysis and categorical content analysis. The former focuses on the holistic content, which treats the learners' learning process as a complete entity and 26.