非政府組織、聯合國與兒童教育權之研究 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學外交學系碩士班碩士論文 Department of Diplomacy, National Chengchi University M.A. Thesis. 指導教授：姜家雄博士 Advisor: Dr. Alex Chiang. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 sit. Nat. Education. y. ‧. NGOs, the UN and Children’s Right to. n. er. io. 非政府組織、聯合國與兒童教育權之 al v i n C h 研究 U en chi. g 研究生：陳瑋翎 Chen, Wei-Ling DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(2) Abstract. This research aims to analyze the relationship between the UN, NGOs and the realization of children’s right to education. It examines the roles of NGOs in the advocacy of children’s right to education and how the civil society have adapted to become part of the UN system. To understand the course of the UN initiated Education for All (EFA) campaign, a detailed chronology of relevant events is provided, and the role of the Global Campaign for Education (GCE) in the financing mechanism Global Partnership for Education (GPE) is analyzed as a case study. I. 政治大. conclude that the civil society actors have become relatively influential in the. 立. public-private partnerships (PPPs) constructed by the UN and its partners in the. ‧ 國. 學. Education for All (EFA) campaign.. ‧. Key Words: NGOs, the UN, Education for All (EFA), Global Partnership for. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. . sit. Education (GPE), public-private partnerships (PPPs). Ch. en chi. . i n U. v. 2 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(3) 論文摘要. 本研究目的「公共私營合作制」(Public-Private Partnerships)為框架分析聯合國與非政府組織於實踐兒童教育權議題上的合作與互動。為達上述研究目的，本研究檢視非政府組織自第一次世界大戰來於倡議兒童教育權議題上所扮演的角色，並進一步分析公民社會團體如何與聯合國合作，並在該議題上成為聯合國體系的一部分。本文研究聯合國發起之「全民教育運動」，並分析一非政府租織”Global Campaign for Education” (GCE) 在世界銀行組織提出的資金計劃「全球教育夥伴. 政治大計劃實施於肯亞之結果作為案例研究。經研究結果發現，在「公共私營合作制」立關係計畫」(Global Partnership for Education)中扮演之倡議與執行之角色，並以該. ‧ 國. 學. 的研究架構下，非政府組織在聯合國體系中扮演實踐全民教育倡議與執行之角色，並成為該議題相關行為者中實踐兒童初等教育的關鍵角色。. ‧ y. sit. n. al. er. io. 營合作制. Nat. 關鍵字：非政府組織、聯合國、全民教育運動、全球教育夥伴關係計畫、公共私. . Ch. en chi. . i n U. v. 3 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(4) Contents Chapter 1.. Chapter 2.. Introduction……………………………………….………………. 1. Motivation and Research Question……………………………….... 2. Literature Review………………………………………………….. Research Methods…………………………………………………. Scope and Limitation……………………………………………… Chapter Layout……………………………………………………... 4 8 9 9. The Evolving Roles of NGOs in the UN System Introduction…………………………………………………………. 11. The Emerging Roles of the Civil Society……………………..…… NGO Strategies of Participating in the UN…………………...…… NGOs in the UN System: from Consultative Status to Partners….... 11 14 16. 政治大 IR Theories on NGO-UN Relationship……………………………. 立 Conclusion………………………………………………………….. ‧ 國. 學. Chapter 3.. ‧. NGOs, the UN, and Children’s Rights to Education Introduction………………………………………………………… NGOs, the UN, and Children’s Rights to Education………………. NGOs and Children’s Rights in the UN System: Post-WWII…....... NGOs, the UN and Child Education in EFA since 1990…………... EFA and Education for Development……………………………… Millennium Development Goals and EFA………………………… Global Campaign for Education: New Actors, New Partners in EFA………………………………………………………………… Conclusion…………………………………………………………... n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Chapter 4.. Chapter 5.. . 19 24. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. 25 25 27 31 32 33 34 40. PPPs: Global Partnership for Education Introduction………………………………………………………… EFA Assessment and Global Partnership for Education………….... Global Campaign for Education and Global Partnership for Education…………………………………………………………… Global Partnership for Education in Quality Free Primary Education in Kenya………………………………………………… Conclusion…………………………………………….……………. 42 43. Conclusion…………………………………………………..…….. Reference………………………………………………………..…. 63 68. . 47 55 61. 4 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(5) Illustrations. Tables Table 3-1. . GCE: Partners, Repertoires, and Mobilizing Frames………….. 36. Table 3-2.. Goals and Themes of GCE’s 3-year Strategic Plan, 2008………. 38. Table 4-1. Net enrolment ratios in primary education by region, 1990 and 1998……………………………………………………………... 43. Table 4-2. Key Indicators for EFA Goal 2…………………………………. 49. Table 4-3. EFA architecture: mechanisms, initiatives, and campaigns at the. 立. 政治大. global level supporting EFA…………………………………….. 學. ‧ 國. 50. Governance Structure of the Global Partnership for Education.... Table 4-5. CSEF Working Flow Chart……………………………………... 55. Table 4-6. The Architecture of Kenya’s Education Financing from GPE…. Table 4-7. Project Costs by Components…………………………...………. Table 4-8. Trends in Key Indicators of Education in Kenya……………….. 61. ‧. Table 4-4. 57 60. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 53. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. Figures Figure 4-1. Primary Completion Progress in Africa, Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia Regions, 1990–2015, Country-Weighted 44. Figure 4-2. Total aid to education disbursements, 2002–2012……………… 47. Figure 4-3. The Average Primary School Net Enrolment Ratio between 1999 and 2006…………………………………………………... 48. Figure 4-4. Projections of out-of-school populations in 2015 for countries with more than 500,000 children out of school in 2006……….... . . 51 5 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(6) . Abbreviations. CRC. Convention on the Rights of the Child. CSEF. Civil Society Education Funds. DRC. Declaration on the Rights of the Child. EFA. Education for All. ECOSOC. Economic and Social Council. EYC. Elimu Yetu Coalition. FTI. Fast Track Initiative. ‧ 國. Global Campaign for Education Millennium Development Goals. SDGs. Sustainable Development Goals. UNESCO. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UN. United Nations. UPE. universal primary education. UNICEF. United Nations Children's Fund is a United Nation. UDHR. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. WEF. World Education Forum. WCEFA. World Conference on Education for All. n. al. sit er. Public-Private Partnerships. io. . y. PPPs. Nat. MDGs. Global Partnership for Education. ‧. GCE. 立. 學. GPE. 政治大. Ch. en chi. . i n U. v. 6 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(7) Chronology of Events. Year. Events. 1924. Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1959. Declaration on the Rights of the Child. 1989. Convention on the Rights of the Child. 1990. World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand. 1999. Global Campaign for Education. ‧ 國. World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal. ‧. 2000. 學. 2000. 立. 政治大. The Millennium Summit & MDGs. Nat. 2011. Global Partnership for Education. 2012. Post 2015 Development Agenda & Education 2030. 2015. World Education Forum in Incheon, South Korea. sit. n. al. Ch. en chi. . er. Fast Track Initiative. io. . y. 2002. i n U. v. 7 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(8) Chapter One Introduction As the studies on nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) started to emerge in the 1980s, debates concerning NGOs as actors in the domain of international relations (IR) have been intense in the past decades.. Some scholars refer to them as “conscience of. the world” (Willetts 1996) and others call NGOs “norm entrepreneurs.” (Finnemore and Sikkink 1998) However, what concerns IR scholars the most is whether or not NGOs can develop a systematic framework under which NGOs and their global. 政治大 NGOs’ emergence in the international arena has essentially changed the disposition of 立 coalition can wield influence. What are their aims and what roles can they play?. international sphere from state-centric to a multi-centric one where diverse issues are. ‧ 國. 學. concerned. Among these issues, the field of children’s educational right is where. ‧. NGOs devoted their advocacy with great efforts. In 2000, the United Nations. y. Nat. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2000a) did an overall. er. io. sit. assessment on global education and realized the crisis in sight: less than one third of 800 million children under the age of six have access to any form of early childhood. al. n. v i n programs, and some 113 millionCchildren in the worldU h e n c h i are denied primary education. As education is fundamental to the cultivation of an individual’s personhood, such. setback is an international grievance. Hence the Education for All campaign (EFA) as a global commitment is launched, aiming at providing quality basic education for all children on the globe. In the movement, NGOs play the role of UN’s most crucial partners and strategically use their knowledge and expertise to advance children’s right to universal primary education (UPE). In this research I seek to explore NGOs’ decades of advocacy on the issue and the global partnership between the United Nations and the civil society organizations (CSOs) in the course of EFA campaign. . . 8 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(9) Motivation and Research Question Some IR scholars have reservations about NGOs’ roles in global politics, arguing the long-term impact of NGOs remains to be determined because they are simply too young compared with nation states (Gilpin 2002). However, it is because these NGOs are young so they are potential in generating new ideas that make change. As UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have brought up new global issues to light, governments find it increasingly hard to address them alone. NGOs’ rise in the. 政治大 mobilize for new agenda across and beyond borders. 立. 1980s is no coincidence since globalization too accelerated non-state actors to. ‧ 國. 學. Among the MDGs, achieving UPE is one of the issues that are most urgent.. ‧. According to The United Nations Children's Fund is a United Nations (UNICEF),. y. Nat. nearly one in four of the 109.2 million children between 6 and 15 years living in. er. io. sit. conflict areas are missing out on their education today; girls aged 15 or younger are prevented from formal education because of early marriage and childhood pregnancy. al. n. v i n C h Labor Organization The International (2013) estimated that 168 en chi U. (UNICEF 2014).. million children at the age of 5 to 17 are still working long hours and deprived of schooling.. This research is an exploration of the UN and NGOs’ collaborative effort. in addressing this global issue, particularly NGOs’ evolving roles in the UN system as they advocate the right to UPE for children.. NGOs have been working for decades advocating children’s right to education, but it was in the year 2000 as the World Education Forum (WEF) was held by the UN in Dakar, Senegal, that the international society began to evaluate the seriousness of the crisis. . Long before World War II, several teachers associations and suffragette . 9 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(10) groups had tried to lobby the League of Nations to form an educational body, but failed.. The member states later joined the Swiss based private institute International. Bureau of Education (IBE), and after World War II, member states of the UN founded UNESCO as the prominent agency in the UN system to address educational issues. However, contentions about educational authority and priorities and very limited organizational budget allocated to UNESCO were two major hindrances to substantial achievements at the early years of UNESCO (Mundy 2007).. 政治大 agenda-setting in lobbying children’s rights as the issue came to its importance 立. Despite being marginalized, NGOs had been playing the key role of issue-framing and. (Mundy & Murphy 2000).. As NGOs pressed the Universal Declaration of Human. ‧ 國. 學. Rights (UDHR) of 1948 to transform a moral manifesto to customary international. ‧. law, they have proved not merely catalytic. Their advocacy carried on for years until. y. Nat. the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (DRC) was launched by the United Nations. er. io. sit. General Assembly in 1959, where “free education” for children around the world was emphasized. NGOs kept marching on to negotiate and using their expertise and. al. n. v i n Cinhthe UN. In1989,Uthe Convention on the Rights knowledge to gain accountability en chi of the Child (CRC) was officially adopted by the General Assembly, enhancing. children’s rights from political, cultural and economic perspectives with binding force. However, during these phases, the role of NGOs was still limited and systematic international cooperation is yet to materialize.. In 1990, at the World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) in Jomtien, Thailand, the international society determined to make UPE accessible to all children and to massively reduce illiteracy before the end of the decade.. The World. Declaration on Education for All which reaffirmed the notion of education as a . . 10 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(11) fundamental human right was adopted, and urged governments to intensify efforts to address the basic learning needs of all. Although considerable progress had been made, by the year 2000 the Jomtien EFA targets were not achieved as they were hampered by reluctant participant countries.. Ten years later in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000, the world gathered again at the World Education Forum (WEF) to promise a further and comprehensive commitment. The meeting enhanced the World Declaration on Education for All in Jomtien and carried. 政治大 the campaign, UNESCO was mandated to unprecedentedly mobilize governments, 立. on what’s left undone; hence ambitious visions and agendas were set in Dakar. In. international organizations, donors and civil societies to enforce a new framework for. ‧ 國. 學. action. The framework established in Dakar is indicative of two trends that set the. ‧. tone for the international cooperation in the field of education in ensuing years: 1) The. y. Nat. civil society organizations (CSOs) play the part in advocating children’s right way. er. io. sit. beyond instrumental and catalytic. 2) The UN and CSOs have strategically formed a global partnership that pinpoints public-private partnership (PPPs). In this research. al. n. v i n on children’s right to education C I focus on the collaboration h e n c h i U between the UN and an education NGO coalition, Global Campaign for Education (GCE), on the issue of. EFA funding, and draw the PPPs in delivering quality UPE in Kenya as a case study.. Literature Review The international system we know is a state-centered hub with non-state actors marginally positioned. However, the rise of NGO in the 1980s impacted this atmosphere. As the once considered legit system of Westphalia is losing its ground in the climate of globalization, underpinning this phenomenon is the rise of the global civil society. The multi-centric system where non-state actors coordinate is . . 11 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(12) increasingly eroding the legitimacy of sovereign states and posing threats to the state-centric international order (Strange 1996; Amin 1997; Mathews 1997). While some scholars praise the impetus NGOs brought to the international society, others criticize the cacophony they induced (Cooley & Ron 2002) and question their accountability in influencing international political decisions (Kaiser 1971).. Cooley. and Ron proposed the principal-agent analysis, arguing the performance-based contracts between funding donors and NGOs as agents tend to result in material competition, leading to NGOs’ dysfunctional organizational behavior.. 政治大 Other theoretical perspectives on the NGO phenomena are illustrated by IR scholars 立 First, movements across borders and aims of multi-faceted issues are. 學. ‧ 國. as followed.. two essential attributes that have generally been identified as prerequisites (Keohane. ‧. and Nye 1971; Mathews 1997; Cusimano 2003). Second, the major quality that. y. Nat. NGOs possess is the knowledge and expertise, which have in turn resulted in. er. io. sit. issue-framing, agenda-setting and norm-creating, as they strategically make use of information, ideas to influence states’ output of policy making (Hass 1992; Checkel. al. n. v i n C h 2002). Lastly, the 1997; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse people power, or grassroots en chi U interest they represent (Clarks 1997; Risse 2002) contribute to NGOs’ gaining accountability in IR.. A mounting literature on NGOs has agreed to the change they brought to IR and influenced policy outcomes.. But presently, the research focus is to pinpoint how. NGOs’ activism works. As many paradigms are now emerging to illustrate the NGO phenomena, most of them are general conceptualization of how NGOs function and what roles they play in global politics.. Transnational advocacy network (TAN) and. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are two prominent propositions in the literature . . 12 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(13) about NGOs. TAN, brought up by Keck and Sikkink (1998), is a framework focusing on NGO initiated campaigns and activism. Early studies on NGO-state relationship focus on the diffusion of norms, the erosion of state authority, and the rivalry between public and private sectors.. PPPs, on the other hand, emphasize the. cooperation between governments and private sectors, defining each other as crucial partners to set up international norms (Andonova 2006). This research will draw on PPPs to elucidate the global partnership between the UN and NGOs and how such global commitment can initiate reciprocal cooperation in the field of education.. 政治大 PPPs have become an emerging research framework among IR studies, to which 立. scholars described as a “hybrid type of governance” (Schaferhoff, Camp, and Kaan. ‧ 國. 學. 2009).. PPPs aim at addressing collective goods with both state and non-state actors Why and how states and private sectors. ‧. involved in transnational interactions.. y. Nat. cooperate? Scholars examined the paradigm through constructivist approach,. io. sit. Functionalist approach, critically,. er. functionalism, and rational choice perspective.. addresses PPPs by illustrating governmental “governance gap,” as in states. al. n. v i n collaborate with NGOs as skillsC and knowledge entrepreneurs h e n c h i U to fill in their dysfunction (Reinicke and Deng 2000; Reinicke and Witte 2000).. In this research, two reasons will illustrate why PPPs matter. Firstly, in the veins of globalization, states are facing global challenges (Walker 2007), and education is among the issues that governments can’t address alone. The EFA movement significantly marked a NGO-state cooperative partnership, advancing child education as a global issue. Secondly, in the campaign NGOs play the crucial role of partners to governments, proving they can do more than merely facilitate.. They are donors. and recipients at the same time. . . 13 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(14) The cooperation between governments and private sectors has proved crucial in the fields of health and environment. The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) is an international achievement where states, international organizations and NGOs cooperate to get vaccines to the poorest countries in the world.. The Global Compact, on the other hand, is a UN initiative to engage states,. business, and the civil society on a global scale to create norms that support the MDGs and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). EFA develops in the. 政治大 partnership between governments and the civil society to deliver basic education 立 similar strands as the Global Compact as UNESCO was mandated to lead the. worldwide.. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Most scholars on EFA so far have focused on analyzing the facts, events and budget. y. Nat. issues of the campaign, but a systematic research framework on the cooperation of the. er. io. sit. UN and the civil society has yet been brought forward. Chabbott (1996) analyzed in the WCEFA that” professionalism”, rather than state interest, contribute to the. al. n. v i n standardization of international C norms. Some scholars h e n c h i Uadvanced “Fast Track. Initiative” as a new approach to donor financing, focusing on country-level reforms rather than individual projects, especially in terms of the poorest countries (Birdsall, Levine, & Ibrahim 2005; Birdsall &Vaishnav 2005). Other scholars had their research specifically on the roles of CSOs in EFA: Mundy and Murphy (2001) brought forth the “emerging evidence” of the transnational advocacy of CSOs in the field of international education, shedding light on the work of the Global Campaign for Education (GCE), one major international NGO coalition that supports the EFA campaign. Mundy (2007) delved more into the aims and roles of UNICEF, UNESCO and World Bank, referring to them as the “global governors” in EFA. . . 14 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(15) However, shifting the literature one might reasonably argue that NGOs have been sidelined in the study of IR despite the fact that they have been making tremendous contributions to the human history. With their professional knowledge, experts, and keen enthusiasm, NGOs are gaining legitimacy in the public sphere on a wide variety of issues.. However, critics are concerned with the booming numbers of NGOs that. are rising as “global idiots” (Simmons 1998) and some scholars’ belief in NGOs’ altruism are being criticized as “disillusioned love affairs” (Wapner 2007). The. 政治大 transform through decades of interactions with other actors in the public sphere, how 立 arguments presented in this article serve three purposes: to highlight how NGOs. they adapt themselves to gain insider status in global policy setting and finally how. ‧ 國. 學. they came to become the UN’s most valuable partners on the issues that demand. ‧. global endeavors.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Research Methods. The purpose of this research is to analyze NGOs’ role in the UN-initiated EFA. al. n. v i n C hwith the UN to advance campaign, and how they cooperate children’s right to en chi U. universal primary educational. It will be conducted by applying a qualitative method of examining the current research from academics and published materials and documents from participant NGOs and UN agencies, especially UNESCO. The EFA 2000 Assessment examined the situation of global education and revealed the challenges. The Dakar Framework for Action presented the goals and strategies to the campaign and included six other Regional Frameworks for Action. The EFA Global Monitoring Report from 2003 to 2016 evaluated the achievements and limitations of EFA throughout the years. With The Incheon Declaration: Education 2030 as the next phase of EFA, the international society is marching on to “equitable . . 15 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(16) and inclusive quality education and lifelong learning for all by 2030.” To lay out the current predicament of international child education, a historical review of children’s rights and attempts to educational cooperation will be examined. In the last part, the analysis on the Global Campaign for Education (GCE) network in EFA presents the empirical documentary of the strategic network of NGOs in cooperation with the UN under PPPs as a resulting pattern.. Scope and Limitation. 政治大 issue-oriented coalitions, drawing on the Education for All campaign as a case study. 立 The scope of this research aims at analyzing NGOs’ roles and strategies in their. Particularly, the main theme to be explored in the discussions is NGOs in the field of. ‧ 國. 學. children’s right to education. To achieve this, literature on relevant NGOs’ evolving. ‧. history in the field, relations with the UN on the issue and the legal background of. y. Nat. children’s right to universal primary education is crucial. However, the limitation in. er. io. sit. this research is that no any sort of interviews or surveys are conducted; only literature from previous studies and official publications from participant NGOs and the UN are. al. n. v i n Cstill Thus, this research, phase, is a preliminary inquiry U h eonnits explorative i h c. referred to.. into NGOs and international child education that demands further studies.. Chapter Layout There are five chapters in this research.. The first chapter is an introduction of the. research; motivation and research questions, literature review, research methods and research limitations are enclosed. The second chapter sheds light on the review of the evolving roles of NGOs, particularly in the UN system. The third chapter reviews NGOs’ decades of advocacy for children’s rights to education and introduce the GCE as a new actor in the EFA campaign and a new partner of the UN. . . The 16 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(17) fourth chapter focuses on the PPPs initiated by the UN and the civil society on the issue of education funding in Kenya.. I argue that a cooperative framework can be. discerned as NGOs evolved both internally and externally to become the UN’s most crucial partners in international affairs, contributing resources and monitoring each other’s performances. In this research, I hope to achieve certain implications to future study that will contribute to improve children’s rights and well-being in every country and territory worldwide.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. . Ch. en chi. . i n U. v. 17 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(18) Chapter Two. The Evolving Roles of NGOs in the UN System Introduction The former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan (1997-2006) pointed out that the twenty-first century is the “era of NGOs”, referring to them as “conscience of the humanity”. Over the decades, a growing volume of scholarship from the field of IR has focused on the NGO phenomenon.. NGOs are broadly characterized as groups of. not for profit and not related to government individuals gathered to organize activities for the common good.. 政治大 However, up to the present, there’s no single. Hence, they are labeled as “private in form, public in purpose”. (Salamon and Anheier 1994).. 立. universally recognized definition of what constitutes an NGO.. This chapter begins. ‧ 國. 學. by looking at the elements of the civil society and their rise to global influence. In. ‧. what follows, an analysis of NGOs’ strategies of participating in the UN and their. y. Nat. evolving roles in the UN system are elaborated. Then it proceeds to explore IR. er. io. sit. theories concerning NGO-UN relationship to pinpoint the theoretical ground of the global partnership. In light of these efforts, I find there is considerable evidence. al. n. v i n C h from being outsiders indicating that NGOs have transformed to insiders that states en chi U find their contributions indispensable.. The Emerging Roles of the Civil Society The rise of NGOs and their advocacy have political and social background. Politically, the end of Cold War marked a new page for NGOs to begin rapidly emerge as a civil power in the 1980s.. As many scholars have pinpointed, the. “worldwide democratic openings” after the fall of Berlin Wall saw the idea of civil society as a comeback to the international society (Edwards 2011).. But more. significantly, NGO activism has benefited immensely because of globalization. . . 18 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(19) (Stigliz 2002) The issues that NGOs address are inseparable from all humanity and every nation in the world. With “open societies, open technologies, and open economies,” NGOs get to strategically organize advocacy transnationally (Cusimano 2003).. The diamond regime Kimberley Process and the International Campaign to. Ban Landmines (ICBL) wouldn’t have been successful without the impetus of globalization.. What makes NGOs matter in global affairs are their 1) concerns for the grassroots. 政治大 NGOs are characterized different from nation states because of their broad-based 立 people, 2) issue-oriented feature, and 3) possession of professionalism.. concerns for humans. They emblematize “public-oriented” advocacy (Lang 2013).. ‧ 國. 學. NGO representatives “typically argue that they represent the collective interests of the. ‧. general public and underrepresented groups.” (Jenkins 2006) The human security. y. Nat. concerns today have significantly gone beyond the boundary that cut across states and. er. io. sit. non-state actors. While governments have the legal authority to protect its people and involve in issues regarding national interests, NGOs have the moral imperatives. n. al. Ch. to attend to the human society as a whole.. en chi. i n U. v. Taking the Jubilee 2000 Coalition for example: as the international society was soaked up in the neoliberal environment of “structural adjustment1” policy of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, a group of activists and NGOs came to quick notice in 1999 that the IMF conditionality on loans and excessive sovereign debts could have irreversible destruction on the economy of highly indebted 1. Structural adjustment programs consist of loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. The programs are created with the goal of reducing the borrowing country's fiscal imbalances in the short and medium term or in order to adjust the economy to long-term growth. 19 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(20) poor countries (HIPCs). sovereign debts.. The campaign was waged to protest against excessive. The result was the urgent issue of debt relief and poverty reduction. officially on the agenda of G8 Summit in Cologne.. NGOs are motivated by normative commitments and values. Since 1997 Security Council meet regularly with NGO representatives for briefing on current issues. NGOs introduce global issues to the international society to raise public awareness. Issues that involve ideas about right and wrong have the power to arouse strong. 政治大 development assistance, humanitarian aid, peace, and family are among the issue 立. resonance (Keck and Sikkink 1998). Human rights, environment, women’s rights,. areas that NGOs are most active (Smith 1997; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Boli and. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Thomas 1999).. y. Nat. NGOs’ legitimacy of advocacy lies in the professionalism they possess. Knowledge. er. io. sit. and expertise allows NGOs as challenging actors to compete governments in the international system because it is the niche of resource in dealing with transnational. al. n. v i n Ch (Collingwood 2006) International organizations are increasingly relying on en chi U. issues.. NGOs for expertise as major information input (Willets 1996, Gordenker & Weiss 1996, Martens 2005).. Some scholars refer to this as information power or. information politics (Cusimano 2003; Keck & Sikkink 1998), as NGOs know well of what specific influence that certain policy will have on the grassroots people they care about.. With normative intentions, the transnational network makes use of. information, ideas, and strategies to influence states’ output of policy making (Haas 1992; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Checkel 1998; Risse 2002).. Joachim (2003) illustrated how expert groups can make contributions in . . 20 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(21) systematically identifying the social evidence of violation of women’s reproductive rights and seek to develop solutions to it. NGOs’ sought to establish the linkage between women’s reproductive rights to human rights is a strategic move, which wouldn’t have succeeded without the expertise of epistemic communities.. NGO Strategies of Participating in the UN The revolution of information and communication technologies teams up with NGOs’ expertise to advocate important issues and mobilize the civil society.. Hence DeMars. 政治大 With their professionalism, NGOs enter the career tracks in the UN, going 立. (2005) addresses NGOs’ role in global issues as organizing both the publicness and public.. from the status of outsider to insider. For decades scholars working on NGO studies. ‧ 國. 學. have been trying to find out the conditions under which NGOs can have influence.. Externally, through. y. Nat. they adapt themselves to bureaucratize and institutionalize.. ‧. In this section NGOs’ techniques of advocacy are discussed as twofold: internally,. er. io. sit. allying with partners, they focus on normative objectives and how to influence the mobilizing structures. In so doing, NGOs get to make strategic progress to practice. al. n. v i n C setting their activities of initiating issues, and implementing policies in U h e nup agendas, i h c the UN.. Adapting organization from within. Keck and Sikkink’s classic Boomerang Pattern deems NGOs as the major source of pressure to push target states to terminate violations on human, women’s and environmental rights (Keck and Sikkink 1998). The mobilization can involve traditional lobbying, campaigning and holding public hearings. However, over the years of advocacy, NGOs have outgrown themselves by not just campaigning for specific issues of importance, but also strategically adapted themselves from within . . 21 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(22) the organization to get the results they opt.. In what Warkentin (2001) called exhibiting “dynamism,” NGOs adjust their organizational activities to meet the ever changing political environment and at times altering mission highlights when deemed needed.. Lang (2013) considered the. “bureaucratization” of NGOs a crucial process as they manage to establish hierarchical structure to better monitor their operations.. Such organizational. evolution prepares NGOs to achieve the” insider status” in international. 政治大. decision-making settings.. 立. In the similar logic, Take (1999) elucidated the necessity of NGOs’ internal. ‧ 國. 學. transformation from institutional perspective. He marks “the higher the degree of. ‧. organization of civil society actors, the greater is the likelihood of their behaving. y. Nat. co-operatively towards the state and international organization.” Lang (2013) also. er. io. sit. stressed that “development of consistent norms, functions, and routines” of an organization is adapted from within its internal structure in order to better work with. n. al. an official institution.. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. Responding to institutional structure. Apart from adaptation from within NGOs respond to the structural environment to evaluate mobilizing constituents.. With normative mandate and their outreach to. powerful allies, NGOs further advance their global influence (Demars & Dijkzeul 2015).. Meanwhile, the purpose of advocacy should be twofold, aiming at both. public and institutional (Lang 2013). The institutional structure serves as “gatekeeper, tool kit, and windows of opportunity.” (Joachim 2003) With “symbolic events” as access and resourceful allies to amplify the target issue, NGOs get to . . 22 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(23) advance their objectives (Keck and Sikkink 1998).. Take Bye-Bye Plastic campaign for example: two young girls in Bali started small in 2014 with local students and teachers advocating the ban on plastic bag use but later made it to the Bali government and finally the UN by registering one of the communities of Ocean Action for supporting implementation of SDG 14. more examples of NGOs reaching to powerful allies. board, NGOs stimulate citizen voices.. There are. By inviting celebrities on. When Bono takes the lead in the ONE. 政治大 communities and volunteers join to raise public awareness. 立. Campaign to eradicate poverty with World Vision and Oxfam, more online As Rihanna advocates. education alongside Global Partnership of Education (GPE), more countries donated. ‧ 國. 學. and pledged to support equal education.. ‧. y. Nat. NGOs in the UN System: from Consultative Status to Partners. er. io. sit. Many scholars have consented to the positive influence of NGOs’ participation in IGOs in that IGOs serve as mediators that channel NGOs activities (Martens 2005). al. n. v i n C h (Risse-Kappen and they enable state-NGOs interactions 2002). en chi U. The UN system is. the venue where NGOs fight hard over the years for the expansion of their role in the policy process at the UN.. Long before the UN came into its existence, NGOs were accepted and consulted by the League of Nations and were often able to participate in the League's meetings and committees. For this recognition, NGO participation was granted in the Article 71 of the UN Charter when the UN was created in 1945. The door to NGOs in consultative status was opened and also the first time that NGOs took a formal role in UN deliberations through the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1946. . . 23 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(24) In 1972, NGOs debuted in the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. The unprecedented number of NGOs attending the events set the precedent NGO participation in high-level UN conferences held in the 1990s. By the time when the UN held the "Earth Summit" in 1992, some 1420 NGOs were already accredited to attend the Rio conference, while perhaps 25,000 NGO participants from 9,000 NGOs attended the parallel NGO Global Forum outside of the UN. However, 1990s participations in UN conferences realized the consultative. 政治大 their access to the UN Headquarters. 立. mechanism/procedure was inefficient and poorly designed, and NGOs came to aim at. ‧ 國. 學. With NGOs’ unprecedented keen participation in the UN conferences in the 1990s, in. ‧. 1996 ECOSOC finally approved the Resolution 1996/31, advancing NGOs’ role in. y. Nat. the UN from “arrangements for consultation” to “consultative status.” NGOs are. er. io. sit. provided with 1) general consultative status (organizations concerned with most of the activities of the Council and broadly representative of populations in a large. al. n. v i n number of countries), 2) specialC consultative status (internationally known hen chi U. organizations with special competence in a few of the fields of activity of the Council), and 3) roster consultative status (other useful organizations).. Other than the relations with ECOSOC and participations in the UN conferences, NGOs have accreditations from and working relations with other UN departments. The UN Department of Public Information (DPI) was created in 1946 with aims to promoting global awareness and understanding of the work of the UN.. NGOs are. usually mandated around specific issues, providing the UN with evaluations, information and expertise. The association with DPI enhanced NGO access and . . 24 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(25) involvement in critical issues. In 2017, DPI and NGOs co-hosted the International Dialogue on SDGs, contributing their expertise to the implement of Sustainable Development Goals. Another essential UN-NGO relation is promoted through the Non-governmental Liaison Service (NGLS), an inter-agency program with task to enhance UN-civil society partnership. NGLS provides NGOs with great assistance as organizing funds from governments and support NGOs’ engagement in negotiations, conferences and events held in the UN.. In 2017, NGLS assisted in. organizing the High-level SDG Action Event on Education to facilitate NGOs. 政治大 NGOs are most influential in the issues regarding human rights (Mingst, 立. partnership with the UN on implementing the Sustainable Development Goals 4, education.. Karns, and Lyon 2017), and thus when a group of about thirty NGOs came to aim at. ‧ 國. 學. access to the Security Council in the 1997, the NGO Working Group was founded.. ‧. The council members recognized that NGOs have much professionalism and. y. Nat. information to offer, so they are delegated to have regular meetings with ambassadors. io. sit. The working group plays key role in. er. and occasionally with top UN officials.. identifying key issues and influencing decision making process and policy formation. n. al. (Alger 2002).. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. The participation of the civil society in the UN has never been easy.. The opposition. from the state governments, financial difficulties, and competitions among NGOs themselves are problems NGOs have to deal with and overcome. (Alger 2002) But still, NGOs aspire to seriously enter the career tracks in the UN.. For several decades,. there has been increasing demands for the creation of a NGOs’ own forum.. In 2000,. the UN held the Millennium Forum, in which Secretary-General Kofi Annan encouraged all participants to learn to “govern better together”. The civil society responded with the Declaration and Agenda for Action, addressing their aspiration for . . 25 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(26) the UN, governments, and the civil society and they proposed the creation of the Global Civil Society Forum as a permanent body within the UN.. In 2003, Secretary General Kofi Annan initiated the panel of “eminent persons,” aiming at setting up new relationship between the UN and NGOs. Despite the fact that in the report NGOs problems and proposes were largely ignored and unattended, “The Cardoso Report2,” produced by the panel in 2004, still shed light on the “multi-stakeholder” dialogue, which significantly re-position the UN as a place of. 政治大. partnership between the UN, governments, private sectors and the civil society (Willets 2006).. 學. ‧ 國. 立. IR Theories on NGO-UN Relationship. ‧. Years of social, political and academic debates have weaved NGOs from a descriptive. Nat. Their. sit. y. phenomenon to a civil power capable of shaping the global politics today.. n. al. across borders (Smith & Johnston 2002). NGOs has been shifting.. Ch. er. io. transnational coalition and advocacy has demonstrated their capacity to mobilize. i n U. v. Over the years, the research focus of. en chi. There were pioneering scholars in the late twentieth. century discussing the erosion of state authority (Strange 1996; Mathews 1997; Tarrow 1998).. Other scholars based on the NGOs’ normative claims and their. activism, calling NGOs “global associational revolution” (Salamon1994), “conscience of the world” (Willets 1996), “activists beyond borders” (Keck and Sikkink1998), and “moral compass” (DeMars 2005). However, there was a research departure from the discussion of what NGOs are and . 2. The Report of the Panel of Eminent Persons on United Nations–Civil Society Relations (i.e. The Cardoso Report) was published in June 2004. It strongly endorsed the case for wider participation of civil society in all aspects of the UN’s work, both at the headquarters and at the country level. 26 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(27) what they do to under what conditions they can bring up global influence.. In this. account, scholars have come to claim that through cooperation with intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), NGOs have better chance to promote their ideals and objectives, thus influencing the result of policy making (Martens 2005; Reinalda 2015). This section undertakes the task of exploring three prominent propositions in the IR studies that upholds the partnership between NGOs and the UN: transnationalism, institutionalism, and public-private partnerships (PPPs). The theoretical ground of this research is built on an integration of the import aspects of these theories as I find. 政治大. they each take up imperative roles in investigating the advocacy of NGOs in EFA.. Transnationalism.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. The work of Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye in the 1970s had built up a new line of. ‧. research that drew the attention of the IR academics to transnational relations. y. Nat. (Keohane & Nye 1971; Keohane & Nye 1979). They pointed out that the. er. io. sit. “reciprocal effects” resulted from the interactions between” transnational actors” are critical in understanding the contemporary world politics (Keohane and Nye 1971).. al. n. v i n Ch By introducing the notion of “transnational actors”, the international sphere is seen as en chi U. a pluralistic structure where states or non-states actors are equal in etymological terms. In the late 90s, there was the burgeoned discussion of transnationalism when scholars focused on the emergence of NGOs.. Transnational relations are defined as the. domain where “interactions across national boundaries with at least one actor is a non-state agent is involved” (Risse-Kappen 1995) Similarly, Keck and Sikkink (1998) heralded NGOs’ chartering role in introducing new ideas to the international society, lobbying and persuading global policy change in the “transnational advocacy network” (TAN).. . . 27 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(28) As NGOs are experts in their fields, we can reasonably argue that cooperation is fruitful for both NGOs and the UN as transnational actors.. On the one hand, NGOs’. involvement in the UN system, such as initiating new norms, developing policy and implementation, has help expanded UN’s transnational character. On some issues that governments try to avoid such as human rights and arms control or areas that states simply lack the information and resource to handle, NGOs are mandated to work with specialized agencies (Cronin 2002). On the other hand, the UN, as both a forum of diverse issues and network of specialized agencies, is a transnational. 政治大 blocked because of domestic structures (Risse-Kappen 1995). 立. organization that channels NGOs activities and advocacy that would have been. ‧ 國. 學. Institutionalization.. ‧. Institutionalization is a liberal approach to study NGOs-UN relationship from the. y. Nat. perspectives of how NGOs change the way they organize their activities in order to. er. io. sit. better adapt the political environment (Campbell 2005). The notion of institutionalization can be subdivided into internal and external analytical concept. al. n. v i n C hare “mobilizing themselves noted that NGOs to better understand en chi U. (Fowler 1998).. how international institutions work and their policies can be influenced.” NGOs may be admired as decentralized and flexible, but this virtue has fallacious impacts as it makes it difficult for coalitions to develop concrete programs and likewise campaigns can easily disband or turn violent (Tarrow 2005). Internally, NGOs adapt new doctrines, norms, or functions to ensure organization survival; externally, advocacy is sometimes redirected depending on the political environment and institutional atmosphere.. Coalition for the International Criminal Court (CICC) is an example of how NGOs . . 28 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(29) adapt and respond the environment that triggers such adjustments.. The CICC did. not disband or shift issues after the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created, but instead modified its identity and mission to begin providing service to the ICC (Haddad 2013).. Joachim and Locher (2009) also discussed NGO-UN relationship. from institutional perspectives, arguing “the growing complexity of the international system affects the nature of collective action on the part of civil society actors”. Taking NGOs in the UN and the European Union (EU) for example, they propose that despite the various elements of NGOs activism, their advocacy is still somehow. 政治大. confined to the “political opportunity structures” of the UN and EU.. 立. Public-private partnerships (PPPs).. ‧ 國. 學. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have become an emerging research framework. ‧. among IR studies, to which scholars described as a “hybrid type of governance”. y. Nat. (Schaferhoff, Camp, & Kaan 2009), aiming at addressing collective goods with both The implication of. PPPs for global politics is worth pondering.. n. al. Ch. en chi. er. io. sit. state and non-state actors involved in transnational interactions.. i n U. v. The theoretical trace, according to scholars, can be examined through constructivist approach, functionalism, and rational choice perspective.. Constructivism has the. emphasis on the process of interactions between agents/actors, and thus the creation of normative institutional environments for new policies and decision making (Ruggie 2004).. Functionalist approach addresses governmental “governance gap” by. collaborating with NGOs as skills and knowledge entrepreneurs to fill in the dysfunction of states (Reinicke & Deng 2000; Reinicke & Witte 2000). Rational choice perspective ascribes the partnership to overlapping interests among private and public actors (Witte & Reinicke 2005). While governments aim at non-state actors’ . . 29 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(30) expertise to gain control over policy formulation and implementation, private sectors cooperate to gain public reputation (for business sectors) or contracts to secure organizational survival (for NGOs) (Andonova & Levy 2003). Andonova (2006) conceptualizes PPPs in an institutional context which characterized public-private partnerships as “modus operandi” instead of “ad-hoc” lobbying or interactions. Public-private institutions, according to Andonova, emerged to provide functions as policy formation and implementation, filling in as a solution to governance gaps and transnational problems.. 政治大 An ostensible implication of PPPs is the non-traditional relationship between states 立 and non-state actors embark in global politics.. The emergence of the PPPs as a new. ‧ 國. 學. line of research is “an emphasis on non-hierarchical modes of steering,’ wherein all. ‧. partners play their respective roles on equal terms (Menashy 2015).. The. y. Nat. international society began to realize the growing influence of non-state actors is not. er. io. sit. about “the retreat of the states” or “sovereignty at bay,” but about different situated actors understanding each other as “stakeholders.” The interactions between states and. al. n. v i n C h sharing andUresource exchange, which in non-state actors will leverage information en chi turn influence decision making process and outcomes (Reinick & Deng 2000).. Accumulative scholarship efforts have argued that states have been increasingly incapable of addressing a wide spectrum of international issues single handed. Transnational coalitions, lobbying or advocacy have triggered the rise of global civil society, and PPPs as a solution to such governance problem (Savedoff 2012). International endeavors as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malarias in 2001, the establishment the World Commission on Dams (WCD) in1998, the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) in 2000, and also the UN . . 30 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(31) initiated the Global Compact, are cases of PPPs that have profound implications on global partnership in different fields.. As I find the theoretical strands of transnationalism and institutionalism can further pinpoint how NGOs and the UN coordinate, this research aims to explore transnational PPPs in the UN initiated EFA in the context of Global Partnership for Education (GPE), formerly the Education for All Fast Track Initiative (FTI).. The. main purpose of this research is to explore convincing evidence that suggests the. 政治大 can be institutionalized in the field of child education. 立. framework under which the civil society and the UN cooperate in the EFA campaign. ‧ 國. 學. Conclusion. ‧. At present, NGOs’ prime roles in the UN can be highlighted as a three-phase process:. y. Nat. initiating issues of importance, setting up agendas, and implementing policies.. er. io. sit. NGOs with their normative claims, networks of transnational advocacy and strategic advances in the past decades have earned them a position as partners in the UN.. al. n. v i n Cspectulations Years of rivalry, contentions, and from reluctant state members h e n g cresulted hi U have made ways as NGOs strive to strategically adapt themselves from within the organization and also adjust means and objectives to constraints from structural conditions. A wide variety of partnerships is forging particularly in the areas of development, health, women, and children. The rest of this research takes up the issue of child education as it is the very foundation of human beings but in reality it is still way behind deliverance. With the belief that the right to education is a human right, NGOs dedicate themselves for almost a century to commit and advocate child education. In this account, as the international society determined to deliver “Education for All,” NGOs saw the window of opportunity and mobilized a campaign . . 31 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(32) of advocacy.. This time they work in tandem with the UN to set up agendas and. implement EFA by building up “fast-track” and “global partnerships” around the world.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. . Ch. engchi. . i n U. v. 32 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(33) Chapter Three NGOs, the UN, and Children’s Rights to Education Introduction The idea of “education for all” (EFA) was first introduced in the UNESCO charter with its commitment to achieve “full and equal opportunities for education for all.” However, on account of political frictions, competitions, and disagreements within the UN bodies, the goal was barely met. Despite the adoption of the Universal Declarations of the Human Rights in 1948 and the Declaration of the Rights of the. 政治大 recognized, the idea of universal primary education (UPE) for children was only 立. Child in 1959, in which the right to education as a fundamental human right was. realized when the Convention on the Rights of the Child finally adopted by the UN in. ‧ 國. 學. 1989.. During the momentous years leading up to setting forth children’s right to. However, very limited light had been shed on. y. Nat. steerage role from the very beginning.. ‧. education, NGO advocacy had never been absent; in fact they had been playing. In what follows, I will. er. io. sit. the effort that the nongovernmental actors had been made.. provide an overview of NGOs’ decades of advocacy of the children’s right to. al. n. v i n Then I will proceedCto examine the EFA U h e n g c h i Movement since 1990 because it. education.. is the watershed of the existing EFA framework since 1945.. The last focus is on the. evolving role of the Global Campaign for Education (GCE) as the NGO coalition that strategically became the UN’s partner in voicing EFA financing.. NGOs and Children’s Rights: before WWII The early western international movement for child and youth protection began in the field of public welfare and penal reform in the late nineteenth century.. The idea of. child protection at that time was related to issues that are subordinated to general welfare, such as medical service, juvenile penal codes, and pedagogy. At the turn of . . 33 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(34) the twentieth century the main focus of child welfare has shifted from establishing code of punishment to preventive protection, aiming at improving social conditions for deprived children (Fuchs 2007).. The devastating results of the two World Wars were definitive triggers for the almost immediate adoptions of the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child and the UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1924 and 1959 (Fass 2011). After WWI, previous networks dedicated to improving child welfare found an organizational basis. 政治大 education as part of the object of jurisdiction as the member states deemed education 立 under the League of Nations, but yet the drafters of the covenant did not include. as a domestic issue. The issues of child welfare were loosely mandated to. ‧ 國. 學. International Labor Organization (ILO) (Droux 2013). It was the League of Red. ‧. Cross Societies and Save the Children International Union (SCIU), two. y. Nat. non-governmental organizations newly founded in 1919, proposed the League of. er. io. sit. Nations to establish a bureau for child welfare. In 1924 the League of Nations finally established the Child Welfare Committee and hence marked the beginning of. al. n. v i n intensive international research C work. The membersU h e n g c h i of the committee include. representatives from eleven countries, various intergovernmental organizations, and leading NGOs who have developed similar agenda.. SCIU played a key role in raising awareness of general children’s rights on the international stage. Aligning with the New Education Movement3, Eglantyne Jebb, the founder of Save the Children, link the idea of children’s right to the issue of 3. New Education Movement began around 1880 and continued into the twentieth century contributed to a continental pedagogic discourse, which saw children being conceptualized as equal human beings. Two fundamental points demonstrate its ambition to use pedagogy for social change: “First, in all education the personality of the child is an essential concern; second, education must make for human betterment, that is for a New Era.” 34 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(35) human right, claiming that children have human rights.4 SCIU’s efforts joined hands with The Red Cross and League of the Red Cross Societies, pushing the Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1923 onto the agenda of the Fifth General Assembly of the League of Nations and was unanimously adopted in 1924, known as the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child.. Next year, SCIU held an international congress that aimed at three issues central to children’s rights: hygiene/medicine, social welfare, and education.. 政治大 children’s rights and educational issues thereinafter (Fuchs 2007). 立. The congress. played an important role in setting the agenda for the League of Nations to address In 1925, the. League of Nations decided to put all independently operated children’s right. ‧ 國. 學. departments under the same roof; hence the Liaison Committee of the Major. ‧. International Associations was established as the leading organization to deal with. y. Nat. educational issues in the league. Also, the International Bureau of Education (IBE). er. io. sit. was a major NGO that served as the coordinator that had a joint commission with the ILO regarding the subject of education, and it also a member of the Liaison. al. n. v i n C h Association (ButtU1944). Committee of the Major International engchi. NGOs and Children’s Rights in the UN System: Post-WWII After WWII, during the final negotiation in 1945 in San Francisco Conference states were debating if the UN Charter should include education as a mandate, or whether the UN should establish a specialized agency to deal with education-related issues. Very limited amount of scholarship had spent on analyzing the momentum gathered by the global civil society. However, since the very beginning NGOs and UN-based 4. See Veerman (1995), in Part C, for an insightful analysis of educational pioneers Ellen Key, Eglantyne Jebb, and Janusz Korczac. . 35 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(36) lobbyists have been mobilizing internationally with educational NGOs from around the world to form a network to advocate an official body dedicated to education (Coleman and Jones 2005). The birth of UNESCO and UNICEF demonstrated the UN’s determination to push forward the issue of child welfare. From the start NGOs worked closely with UNICEF as grass-roots partners.. Since UNICEF’s prime. concern by then was the control of epidemic disease and coordination of emergency aid, it was the International Union of Child Welfare (IUCW), a merger of SCIU and IAPCW, two most active NGOs in the field of children’s rights, proposed the Geneva NGOs’ 政治大 persistent mobilization catalyzed the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human 立 Declaration of the Rights of the Child onto the agenda of ECOSOC.. Rights (UDHR) in 1948, in which its Article 26 states:. ‧ 國. 學 Elementary education shall be compulsory.. y. Nat. elementary and fundamental stages.. ‧. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the. er. io. sit. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. However, the coordination between UNESCO, UNICEF and pre-war children’s-rights related activities was weak, and with all final decisions lied only within the hands of states, NGOs’ lobby and advocacy were very limited, not having direct influence on international educational politics (Karen and Mundy 2001; Fuchs 2007).. Despite the. finalization of UDHR, a non-binding declaration is far from enough for advocacy NGOs.. They managed to keep the issue alive and ceaselessly mobilized the children’. right oriented Geneva Declaration onto the General Assembly’s agenda.. This time. they advanced further by focusing on the necessity of compulsory elementary education; the International Union of Child Welfare (IUCW), International Catholic . . 36 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(37) Child Bureau, and International Teacher’s Federation were among the network of advocacy. Their work paid off in 1959 when the General Assembly finally adopted a Declaration of the Rights of the Child, which expanded the original five principle of the Geneva Declaration to ten principles, one of which was to entitle children’s right to receive education. The observation is that it is the years of persistent advocacy of human rights and children’s rights that increasingly channeled NGOs’ activities into the UN system, despite governmental reluctance and hesitation.. 政治大 the issue of education was downright legit and should be implemented in the UN. 立. NGOs kept pushing forward and in each of the campaigns they morally appealed that. The International Year of the Child (IYC) was the milestone for the issue of. ‧ 國. 學. children’s rights to enter global discourse as a new field of international attention,. ‧. with much accredited to NGOs’ partnership. IYC was an overture of Canon Joseph He. y. Nat. Moerman, the General Secretary of the International Catholic Child Bureau.. like population controls and women’s liberation.. n. al. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. thought of raising officialdom of children’s rights in the UN system as other issues. i n U. v. Moerman‘s proposal was welcomed by IUCW and other supporting NGOs. In 1976 the General Assembly declared the year 1979 as the International Year of the Child and named UNICEF its coordinator. The Secretary General of the United Nations, Kurt Waldheim, at the closing ceremony of the IYC, recognized NGOs’ contribution:. At both international and national levels, NGOs not only provided the impetus but also sponsored innovative projects that enlivened and enriched the Year.. …I. hope that the process of which the International Year of the Child marked only the beginning will be an important part of policies and programs of social development . . 37 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(38) throughout the world.5. Since IYC, many governments started to allocate resources to the support of child welfare and more importantly, drawing a linkage between the idea of development and education and the idea was well received by states, hoping to achieve socioeconomic development through education (Black 1986; Chabbott 2003).. Although the Declaration of the Rights of Child adopted in 1959 did include. 政治大 is not implemented by all countries in the world. The Polish government initially 立. children’s right to education in the fifth principle, the declaration is non-binding and. proposed a draft of the Convention in 1978, aimed at a binding international. ‧ 國. 學. obligation. But then the General Assembly appointed the Commission on the. In the Working Group, 41 NGOs with consultative status attended the. y. Nat. adoption.. ‧. Human Rights as its coordinator and created a Working Group to prepare the draft for. al. er. io. sit. meetings and played leading roles in the drafting process (Willetts 1996).. n. v i n C hformed a transnational The participating NGOs solidarity alliance called the NGO engchi U. Group to prepare for the drafting, and among the NGOs were Defense for Children International (DCI), Save the Children Alliance, and Rädda Barnen International, and International Catholic Child Bureau.. The alliance developed its own hierarchical. structure with DCI agreed to be the secretariat for the NGO Group, and later UNICEF became one of its members.. It is the NGO Group’s participation that tremendously improved their professionalism 5. UNOGS-A, S-0910-0016-01 UN. SG Waldheim-IYC-UNICEF (1980-1981), Secretary General’s Message at the Opening of Final Plenary Session of NGO/IYC Committee, 15 May 1980: 2. 38 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.

(39) and lobbying skills. Their contribution in the drafting of the Convention gradually gained respect and influence internationally (Fuchs 2007). The cooperation between states and NGOs became evidential and intense in the course of drafting the Convention. In 1989, The General Assembly finally adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child, with Article 28 realized children’s right to education and other articles shed lights on new perspectives of the rights of children.. 6. NGOs, the UN and Child Education in EFA since 1990. 政治大 the legitimacy of education as a field for international cooperation was enhanced with 立 In each of the instance of NGOs’ mobilizing saga enshrined in the previous sections,. In fact, there is considerable evidence that indicate the system of. 學. ‧ 國. NGO persistence.. multilateral cooperation on the field of education emerged well before 1990.. ‧. Eglantyne Jebb and the 1924 Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child. y. Nat. highlighted the need for children to receive both “spiritual and material normal. er. io. sit. development” in the very first Article. NGOs that were keen on the issue marched on to push forward the Declaration on the Rights of the Child in 1959, which. al. n. v i n C hto free and compulsory materialized children’s entitlement education. engchi U. Finally, in. 1989, children’s right to primary education was ratified with binding force by the General Assembly in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Although the education movement had been heavily depending on the support of states from the start (Mundy 2007), looking back on these key historical conjunctures, NGOs have steadily built momentum in steering policy change.. In the next phase of advocating. for child education, the Education for All Movement, NGOs have proven to be the UN’s most important partners in achieving EFA goals. . 6. To date, only the United States, Somalia and South Sudan have not ratified the Convention, bringing the number of states parties to 193 out of 196. 39 . DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.DIP.003.2018.F09.