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「鄉財縣管」:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究

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行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 期末報告

「鄉財縣管」:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究(第 2

年)

計 畫 類 別 : 個別型 計 畫 編 號 : NSC 99-2410-H-004-114-MY2 執 行 期 間 : 100 年 08 月 01 日至 102 年 07 月 31 日 執 行 單 位 : 國立政治大學國家發展研究所 計 畫 主 持 人 : 趙建民 共 同 主 持 人 : 張淳翔 計畫參與人員: 博士班研究生-兼任助理人員:李應文 報 告 附 件 : 移地研究心得報告 出席國際會議研究心得報告及發表論文 公 開 資 訊 : 本計畫涉及專利或其他智慧財產權,1 年後可公開查詢

中 華 民 國 102 年 12 月 20 日

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中 文 摘 要 : 中國大陸的農村經濟改革成功的因素之一,即為賦予基層更 多處理本地事務的自主權力,從而激發和激活鄉村基層的內 在動力與活力。正如鄧小平所說:「調動積極性,權力下放 是最主要的內容。我們農村改革之所以會見效,就是因為給 農民更多的自主權,調動了農民的積極性。」而近來所進行 的基層政府改革,似乎希望能解決「一放就亂、一收就死」 的循環。依據 2011 年底的統計,已有將近三萬個鄉鎮實現了 「鄉財縣管」。但是在缺乏進一步政治體制改革的狀況下, 「鄉財縣管」或服務型政府建設,事實上並無法提高自治的 程度。 稅費改革的直接效果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而問題則是基層 財政收支的嚴重不對稱,在中央轉移支付不到位的狀況下, 巨額的收支缺口成為迫切需要解決的問題。財政危機可能是 財政民主、甚至是政治改革的最佳切入點。 「鄉財縣管」雖然可以在短期解決財政問題,但依靠英明的 上級單位監督能持續多久?長期而言,對於地方自治反而有 不利的影響,例如正在進行中的「省直管縣」,已經出現反 對聲音。更多的公民參與,並以一種符合民主理想、信任和 尊重的方式相互對待,才應是地方自治的基礎所在。 中文關鍵詞: 鄉財縣管、縣鄉政府、稅費改革、三農問題 英 文 摘 要 : 英文關鍵詞:

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□期中進度報告

行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫

5

成果報告

「鄉財縣管」

:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究

計畫類別:5個別型計畫 □整合型計畫

計畫編號:NSC 99-2410-H-004-114-MY2

執行期間: 99 年 8 月 1 日至 101 年 7 月 31 日

執行機構及系所:國立政治大學國家發展研究所

計畫主持人:國立政治大學國家發展研究所 趙建民 教授

共同主持人:中國科技大學通識教育中心 張淳翔 副教授

成果報告類型(依經費核定清單規定繳交):5精簡報告 □完整報告

處理方式:除列管計畫及下列情形者外,得立即公開查詢

□涉及專利或其他智慧財產權,□一年□二年後可公開查詢

中 華 民 國 年 月 日

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1

中文摘要及關鍵詞

中國大陸的農村經濟改革成功的因素之一,即為賦予基層更多處理本地事務的自主權力,從而激 發和激活鄉村基層的內在動力與活力。正如鄧小平所說:「調動積極性,權力下放是最主要的內容。我 們農村改革之所以會見效,就是因為給農民更多的自主權,調動了農民的積極性。」而近來所進行的 基層政府改革,似乎希望能解決「一放就亂、一收就死」的循環。依據 2011 年底的統計,已有將近三 萬個鄉鎮實現了「鄉財縣管」。但是在缺乏進一步政治體制改革的狀況下,「鄉財縣管」或服務型政府 建設,事實上並無法提高自治的程度。 稅費改革的直接效果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而問題則是基層財政收支的嚴重不對稱,在中央轉移 支付不到位的狀況下,巨額的收支缺口成為迫切需要解決的問題。財政危機可能是財政民主、甚至是 政治改革的最佳切入點。 「鄉財縣管」雖然可以在短期解決財政問題,但依靠英明的上級單位監督能持續多久?長期而言, 對於地方自治反而有不利的影響,例如正在進行中的「省直管縣」,已經出現反對聲音。更多的公民參 與,並以一種符合民主理想、信任和尊重的方式相互對待,才應是地方自治的基礎所在。 關鍵詞:鄉財縣管、縣鄉政府、稅費改革、三農問題

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2 英文摘要及關鍵詞(keywords)

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3

一、前言

十屆全國人大常委會第十九次會議通過決定,自 2006 年 1 月 1 日起廢止農業稅條例,農民依法不 需再繳納農業稅。農村稅費改革不僅取消了原來 336 億元的農業稅賦,而且取消了 700 多億元的「三 提五統」(三提:公積金、公益金、管理費;五統:教育附加費、計劃生育費、民兵訓練費、民政優撫 費、民辦交通費)和農村教育集資。 農民負擔減輕的同時,原有鄉鎮組織及村委會勢必進行調整。表面上鄉鎮及村委會幹部催糧催款 的壓力消除之後,幹群關係應該更為和諧,但是基層政府所提供的公共服務亦有可能因此而減少。農 村的綜合配套改革需要整合稅費改革及組織變革等一系列制度改革, 在試點之後大規模推廣的「鄉財縣管」,基本上係以財政權上收為主要的改革思路,對於未來的基 層政權與村委會組織均可能帶來不同的思考模式。「鄉財縣管」,是在農村稅費改革基礎上進行的縣鄉 財政管理體制調整,不僅是財政管理方式需要變革,隨著中小學教育、鄉鎮衛生院等支出責任上劃到 縣,稅務、工商、技術監督等部門實行垂直管理,使鄉鎮政府原有職能進一步弱化。 中國大陸各地推行的「鄉財縣管」基本內容大體如下:一是堅持「三權不變」原則,即鄉鎮預算 管理權不變、鄉鎮資金所有權不變、財務審批權不變。因此,也有人稱這一改革為「鄉財縣管鄉用」。 此原則繞開了「一級政府一級財政」的敏感話題,有利於減少由此引發的改革阻力。二是改革的具體 內容,主要包括預算共編、賬戶統設、集中收付、採購統辦、票據統管等措施。這些措施將鄉鎮財政 的預算編制、資金管理、撥付、使用等環節置於縣級財政的監督之下,有利於加強對鄉鎮政府財政收 支的管理。三是改革的配套措施,主要包括清理鄉鎮財政供給人員,嚴格控制財政供給人數增長;明 確鄉鎮財政支出的基本順序,按「保工資、保運轉、保重點」的原則,優先保證工資正常發放,嚴格 控制會議、招待、轎車、電話等費用開支;全面清理鄉鎮銀行賬戶和票據,清查鄉鎮實際收入,核實 清理鄉鎮各項債權債務。並在此基礎上嚴禁新增負債,採取積極有效措施,努力消化現有債務。 2012 年 8 月,中國大陸財政部長謝旭人表示,全國共有 27 個省份對 1080 個縣進行財政直接管理, 2.93 萬個鄉鎮實現了「鄉財縣管」。

二、研究目的

稅費改革的直接效果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而問題則是基層財政收支的嚴重不對稱,在中央轉移

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4 支付不到位的狀況下,巨額的收支缺口成為迫切需要解決的問題。若干學者已建議順勢進行財政民主 化改革。以鄉鎮政府而言,鄉鎮人大具有財政預算的審查權,若此權限獲得充分發揮,地方公共財供 給才能忠實地反映當地居民的公共財需求。基層組織之間的關係亦予以關注,例如基層黨組織與群眾 性自治組織的關係、基層政權與群眾自治性組織等問題。往往在農村最為突出的是「兩委關係」,在城 市則是基層政權與社區組織的問題。 中國大陸的政權是否以及如何轉型,攸關兩岸發展至鉅。近年來對中國大陸基層自治的選舉研究 已具成效,惟對目前中共正在進行之最大政治改革—鄉鎮政府再造—的研究,則尚未起步,此一研究 具有開展領域的意義。

三、文獻探討

Jean Oi(戴慕珍)提出了兩個核心概念:「結構性動因」(The structure of incentives)和「法

團化」(Corporatism)。結構性動因是指制度性的刺激政策,促進中國鄉村工業起飛的結構性動因有兩 個:非集體化和財政改革。通過結構性動因的描述作為起點,分析地方政府是如何理性選擇發展策略, 展現地方政府與中央政府之間圍繞稅收與提成而展開的博奕過程,最後論證中國鄉村工業的起飛與制 度變遷之間的關係。政府法團化是指地方政府即縣、鎮、村三級政府直接介入經濟,擔任管理企業的 角色的過程,以及各級政府、政黨與所轄企業形成的一個類似大企業的利益共同體。藉著「法團化」 此一頗具解釋力的概念,分析在經濟轉型時期,黨、政、企糾纏在一起的獨特現象,三者結合形成的 法團組織是中國經濟改革的制度基礎。 大陸學者張靜認為基層政府普遍通行的處理稅務原則為:以支定收(根據需要補不足)、集體結 算(村莊或單位)、不依法律的定稅(鼓勵開創新的稅源)、允許和解(私下的妥協讓步)、程序的缺乏 (各級稅收機構有權決定稅收及其標準),然而這些原則並無法導致納稅主體與收稅機構之間的權利義 務關係,也就是說納稅主體不能因為納稅而主張權利,包括要求和使用公共服務,而稅收機構也無法 依據法律對於逃稅者予以處罰。另一位學者李一花則認為,稅費改革的直接效果是大幅減輕農民負擔, 而問題則是基層財政收支的嚴重不對稱,在中央轉移支付不到位的狀況下,巨額的收支缺口成為迫切 需要解決的問題。而對於民主財政(公共財政)及財政民主化改革議題,學者的觀點可分為以下三類: (一)財政危機是財政民主、甚至是憲政民主改革的契機。

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5 (二)民主財政建設是民主政治改革的最佳突破口。 (三)改造財政是政治改革的最佳切入點。

四、研究方法

本計畫擬採用結構功能途徑,用以檢視鄉鎮基層政權在農業稅停徵、政府機構並因此遭到精簡(甚 至裁併)後,政府之角色轉型問題,尋找作為原「贏利經紀人角色」的鄉鎮基層政權,如何轉型適應 新的農村政治生態。在研究方法(research method)方面,本計畫希望以實地調查法,至四川成都從 事移地研究。由於農業稅停徵和機構精簡實施不久,鄉鎮政府仍然在摸索調適當中,實地調查有其必 要性。

五、結果與討論

目前鄉鎮政府改革改革的意見大體有三:其一是主張維持「鄉鎮村治」的政治結構型態,以鄉鎮 做為農村基層政權的最低層級,實行村自治;其二主張鄉鎮政權下放至(行政)村一級,回到中共建 政初期之「小鄉制」,實行村民自治;其三主張擴大鄉鎮政權,實行自治。 中國大陸的農村經濟改革成功的因素之一,即為賦予地方更多的自主權力,從而激發和激活鄉村 基層的內在動力與活力。地方財政是改革開放以來活絡地方經濟的良方,但地方政府亂收稅費,也造 成地方不穩、民怨高漲,自農村稅費廢除後,地方政治生態必將發生重大變革,值得學界深入探究。 農業稅條例自 2006 年 1 月 1 日起廢止,農民依法不需再繳納農業稅。農村稅費改革不僅取消了 原來 336 億元的農業稅賦,而且取消了 700 多億元的「三提五統」(三提:公積金、公益金、管理費; 五統:教育附加費、計劃生育費、民兵訓練費、民政優撫費、民辦交通費)和農村教育集資。 農民負擔減輕的同時,原有鄉鎮組織及村委會勢必進行調整。表面上鄉鎮及村委會幹部催糧催款 的壓力消除之後,幹群關係應可獲得改善,但是基層政府所提供的公共服務亦有可能因此而減少。農 村的綜合配套改革,需要整合稅費改革及組織變革等一系列制度改革配合,而目前中共在試點之後可 能大規模推廣的「鄉財縣管」等措施,基本上係以財政權上收為主要的改革思路,對於未來的基層政 權與村委會組織,均可能帶來不同的思考模式。 農業稅取消之後,自上而下的轉移支付在鄉鎮組織收入中的分量將愈來愈重,或有利於自上而下

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6 的監督和控制。但若無相應的制度配合,在轉移支付成為鄉鎮組織的可支配財力的主要來源時,鄉鎮 就會在很大程度上喪失自主權和獨立性,與推進村民自治和加強基層民主建設的要求背道而馳。農村 稅費改革前,鄉鎮幹部之所以主動為農民提供一些生產服務,很大程度上是為了順利收取稅費,收稅 的多少直接與他們的工資報酬發生關連,農民也常以拒交和拖欠來維護權益與表達訴求。但在稅費改 革後,鄉鎮幹部不承擔收稅職責,由於沒有利益驅動,有可能對村民的要求減少注意。如果說農村稅 費改革前鄉鎮幹部存在行政過度作為,那麼隨著農業稅的逐步免除,鄉鎮幹部就有可能出現行政不作 為。 雖然中央和地方財政逐步加大了對基層財政的轉移支付力度,但除了個別工商業發達的省份外, 短缺財政的現狀並無法在短期內解決。一方面,減免農業稅提高了鄉鎮改革的緊迫性,逼迫鄉鎮通過 裁減人員和合併機構來保障其運轉,但同時也降低了鄉鎮組織支付改革成本的能力,精簡機構所需要 的巨額財力,是目前的鄉鎮財政所不能承擔的;另一方面,作為一級政權,在目前的壓力型體制環境 下,鄉鎮幹部從自身的升遷出發,具有內在的「政績」衝動,相應的,各種達標升級活動也就無法根 本杜絕,鄉鎮機構改革的成本又變相轉嫁到農民身上,沖淡減免農業稅給農民帶來的利益。 但如果將減免農業稅對鄉鎮政權和村委會的影響加以對比的話,可以發現減免農業稅對鄉鎮政權 帶來的積極影響,也同樣適用於村一級:減免農業稅亦緩解了村幹部與村民的矛盾,重塑了村委會的 合法性。雖然減免農業稅後,村幹部正式成為領取國家工資的公務員,作為準官員,他們也具有內在 的「政績」衝動,但上述減免農業稅可能會對鄉鎮政權造成的消極影響,村委會卻在很大程度上可以 避免。這是因為村莊與鄉鎮不同,村委會已經在某種程度上實現了民主選舉,村民手中的選票,應可 從根本上避免村幹部由於減免農業稅的影響,可能帶來的官僚化及行政不作為傾向。 整體而言,農業稅改革之後的鄉村治理,必須有相應的民主機制作為其制約機制,亦應進一步擴 大鄉村自治的空間範圍,在鄉鎮一級建構多元的民主機制,擴大鄉村人民參與鄉鎮政權的管道,逐步 實現鄉鎮長由村民直接選舉,並強化鄉鎮人大的功能。 「鄉財縣管」僅是不同層次政府間財政管理權限分配的改革,縣鄉兩級的總財力並沒有增加,經 由加強對鄉鎮財政支出的管理,的確能夠相對減少政府運行成本和資金浪費現象,但如果沒有其他配 套措施,並不能從根本上緩解縣鄉財政的困難。鄉鎮政府財政權受到削弱、上劃,但鄉鎮政府的職能 無法取消,計劃生育、社會治安、鄉村道路建設、廣播電視設施維護等基本公共設施和服務的提供,

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7 仍然是鄉鎮政府的職責。鄉鎮財政權的削弱,可能會對鄉鎮政府履行其職責產生負面影響,因而導致 下列問題出現:一是鄉鎮政權運轉資金更加困難;二是由此導致鄉鎮公共服務供給的缺位;三是資金 管理成本加大,資金使用費時費力。 稅費改革的直接效果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而問題則是基層財政收支的嚴重不對稱,在中央轉移 支付不到位的狀況下,巨額的收支缺口成為迫切需要解決的問題。若干學者已建議順勢進行財政民主 化改革。以鄉鎮政府而言,鄉鎮人大具有財政預算的審查權,若此權限獲得充分發揮,地方公共財供 給才能忠實地反映當地居民的公共財需求。 「鄉財公開」以提升財政的透明度,可能是更為長期的治本之道。並應增強鄉鎮人民代表大會之 職能,強化民眾對鄉鎮事務的監督。 目前中國大陸的鄉鎮長選舉與其他政府官員選舉大體類似,都由人民代表大會間接選舉產生。村 所選出來的村長或是村主任,多半是村裡較有能力的人,但是鄉、鎮卻仍是由黨的系統主導人事,鄉、 鎮長多為黨委書記,沿襲黨國體制的傳統。因此,目前已出現要求鄉鎮長比照村辦理選舉的聲音,並 已在深圳大鵬鎮、湖北、四川等地試點,改革的重點,集中在擴大選民民意直接的表現,顯現經由鄉 鎮人民代表大會間接選舉產生出鄉鎮長民主性不足,也呈現中國大陸人民對改變基層政治的想法。 基層財政訊息的公開,在預算編列上可使資源配置較為透明,鄉鎮人民代表大會更應進行預算的 實質審查與監督,並且與群眾的參政議政意識相互聯繫,以公民及輿論的監督,配合制度的變革,或 可疏導城鄉之間出現的不滿情緒。

六、計畫成果自評

本計畫與四川社會科學院政治學研究所建立合作管道,計畫主持人至四川省成都市進行實地訪 談,對學界而言,此一研究具有開展領域的意義。對政府大陸政策之決策人士而言,鄉鎮基層政權的 變化,亦是份值得關注的重大議題。此計畫的研究成果,也有相當的參考價值。本計畫乃針對當前中 國大陸基層政府體制改革的開創性研究,諒能提供參與計畫人士共同發掘問題並了解當前中國大陸基 層政權之組織與運作之機會,進而尋找基層政權改革後運作之合理解釋。

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8

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10 文社會科學版)》﹐第 4 卷第 3 期。 徐勇﹐2002 。〈「綠色崛起」與「都市突破」﹕中國城市社區自治與農村村民自治 比較〉﹐《新華文摘》﹐2002 年 12 月﹐頁 17-20 。 徐斯儉﹐1999/5 。〈大陸農村的基層民主與經濟發展的關係〉﹐《中國大陸研究》﹐ 第 42 卷﹐第 5 期。 徐斯儉﹐2001/5 。〈大陸農村經濟發展與基層民主發展的關係-鄉鎮企業產權改 革與農村基層民主〉﹐《中國大陸研究》﹐第 44 卷﹐第 5 期。 桂勇、崔之餘﹐2000 。〈行政化進程中的城市居委會體制變遷〉﹐《華中理工大學 學報》﹐2000 年第 3 期。 馬祥祐﹐2003/5 。〈村民自治-大陸社會力的重生〉﹐《展望與探索》﹐第 1 卷﹐第 5 期。 高永光﹐2000/10 。〈大陸村民自治與基層民主-從村準立法事項的範圍析論〉﹐《遠 景基金會季刊》﹐第 1 卷﹐第 4 期。 張立榮、李莉﹐2001 。〈當代中國城市社區組織管理體制﹕模式分析與政策探索〉﹐ 《華中師範大學學報(人文社會科學版)》﹐2001 年 5 月。 張淳翔。「大陸基層民主發展概況」。大陸與兩岸情勢簡報,2010 年 7 月,頁 1~4。 陳偉東﹐2001/5 。〈政府與社區﹕共生、互補、雙贏-以武漢市江漢區創新社區 治安運作體系的實驗為例〉﹐《華中師範大學學報(人文社會科學所)》﹐第 40 卷第 3 期。 陳淳斌﹐2002/10 。〈民主化﹖正當化﹖中國大陸鄉鎮長直選實驗的模式及其意 涵〉﹐《中國事務季刊》﹐第 10 期。 舒順林、劉同昌﹐2003 。〈浮山後社區﹕小政府、大自治〉﹐《中國民政》﹐2003 年 4 月。 馮玲、李志遠﹐2003 。〈中國城市社區治理結構變遷的過程分析﹕基於資源配置 視角〉﹐《社會學月刊》﹐2003 年 5 月﹐頁 65-70 。 鄭法﹐2000 。〈農村改革與公共權力的劃分〉﹐《戰略與管理》﹐2000 年第 4 期。 盧漢龍﹐2002/11/24 。〈從黨政管理到社區管理〉。上海﹕「我國城市社區建設模式 研討會」會議論文。 謝立中﹐2002 。〈「綠色崛起」與「都市突破」﹕中國城市社區自治與農村村民自 治比較〉﹐《新華文摘》﹐2002 年 12 月﹐頁 21-24 。 謝慶奎﹐2003/3 。〈基層民主政治建設的擴展-論溫嶺市的「民主懇談」〉﹐《中國

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11 地方自治》﹐第 56 卷﹐第 3 期。 鍾利平﹐2004 。〈魯谷社區﹕建立大社區、創建新體制〉﹐《中國民政》﹐2004 年 3 月。 三、 雜誌報紙文章 2003/12/5 。〈城市社區直選的寧波模式〉﹐《南方都市報》。 李凡﹐2002/6/13 。〈探索社區民主管理的有效途徑〉﹐《人民日報》。 李凡﹐2003/9/29 。〈直選五年〉﹐《新民週刊》﹐40 期。 李凡、古亦忠﹐2002/6/13 。〈社區直選探索新突破-透視柳州市柳南區社區直選〉﹐ 《人民日報》。 劉新征、趙陽﹐2003/8/15 。〈社區自治的關鍵是政府放權-東方早報對李凡的訪 談〉﹐《東方早報》。 四、 政府文獻 上海市濰坊街道基層工作領導小組編印﹐2002 。《居委「四自」建設》﹐第 1 期﹐ 中共中央辦公廳、國務院辦公廳﹐2000/11/19 。《中央辦公廳、國務院辦公廳關於 轉發〈民政部關於在全國推進城市社區建設的意見〉的通知》。 中共江漢區委、區政府﹐2000/9 。《中共江漢區委、江漢區人民政府關於鞏固社 區建設試驗成果、進一步深化社區建設的意見》。 中共浦東新區社會發展局﹐2003 。〈上海浦東新區 2003 年居委會選舉工作總結〉。 北京市民政局基層政權建設處﹐〈全市試點居委會提前換屆選舉的總結調研報 告〉﹐輯於楚國清﹐《居民委員會選舉工作手冊》。 五、 網路資料 中國城市投資環境博覽網﹐<http://www.city700.com/city700/jjw/city700.htm >。 中國城市網﹐<http://www.chinacity.net/ >。 中國城市網﹐<http ://www.chinacsw.com/ >。 中國農村村民自治信息網﹐<http://www.chinarural.org/ >。

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12 中國農村研究網﹐<http://www.ccrs.org.cn/index.asp >。 中國選舉與治理網﹐<http://www.chinaelections.com/ >。 世界與中國研究所﹐「選舉改革與基層民主研究」﹐ < http://www.world -china.org/>。 〈人民網特別策劃﹕城市拆遷中的憂慮與思考〉﹐人民網(中國選舉與治理網)﹐ 2003/10/22

<http://www.chinaelections.org/readnews.asp? newsid={ 0F4BCABF -8CE9-4CFE-A889- AE62BA8222F4}&keystr=拆?>。 〈中國拆遷糾紛問題日趨嚴重〉﹐中國選舉與治理網﹐2003/9/26 ﹐ <http://www.chinaelections.org/readnews.asp? newsid={27042C51 -B 111 -4CBF -9 187-EBFE6FB6020A}&keystr=拆?>。 〈因拆致貧問題日漸突出拆遷衝突成為信訪焦點〉﹐中國選舉與治理網﹐ 2003/11/13 ﹐ <http://www.chinaelections.org/readnews.asp?newsid={2DEDC698 -0988-4013-938C- FEC7050E44B9}&keystr=拆?>。 〈社區的未來〉﹐21 世紀經濟報導﹐2003/12/30 ﹐ <http://www1.nanfangdaily.com.cn >。 〈社區體制改革-瀋陽模式專家論證會觀點綜述〉﹐2003/5/2 ﹐ < http ://www.cn -social.com/sqjszd/hybd5.htm >。 〈南崗區被省市做為社區居民委員會換屆選舉試點區〉﹐2004/5/14 ﹐ <http://php.hrb.com.cn/hrbzfw/hrbnews_bmxx/display.ph p?id=894 >。 〈為什麼需要社區政治〉﹐2002/8/29 ﹐<http:www.chinaelections.org>。 〈基層民主建設取得輝煌成就〉﹐新華網﹐2002/11/2 ﹐

<http://big5.x inhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.x inhuanet.com/newscenter/2002 -11/0 2/content_616401.htm >。

〈規範化城市社區選舉的成功嘗試--寧波市海曙區的社區直接選舉〉﹐中國城市

社區網﹐2004/8/26 ﹐

<http ://www.cu cc.org.cn/z hongguochengshishequwangquanbuwangye/shequz hix u an/guifanchengshishequxuanjuq1.htm >。

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1

國科會補助專題研究計畫項下赴國外(或大陸地區)出差或

研習心得報告

一、國外(大陸)研究過程

本研究為兩年期的計畫,主要研究目的為觀察基層政府「鄉財縣管」的發展 趨勢,進一步對於縣鄉政府改革中的試點予以分類,並觀察轉型過程中政府角色 的變化。基於此,本計畫主持人於 2011 年 10 月 8 日前往美國匹茲堡大學 (University of Pittsburgh)進行為期 10 天的移地研究,與相關學者專家及學術單位 進行交流與考察,同時交換中國研究的心得與意見。

二、研究成果

計畫主持人在美國匹茲堡大學的訪問,與美國重要的中國研究學者經濟學 系的 Thomas G. Rawski 教授和政治學系的 Pierre F. Landry 教授交換許多研究上的 意見,對本研究的進行有相當大幫助,並就中國研究的發展帶來許多啟發與省 思。匹茲堡大學近年來開始對中國研究投入豐富的人力與資源,甚至開設許多相 關的研究課題與課程;其中,Rawski 教授長期對中國大陸經濟發展有深入的研 究與觀點,尤其是有關中國經濟統計數據的解讀與分析,包括中國經濟轉型、經 濟與社會關係等面向有具份量的研究成果與學術貢獻,更編著許多與中國經濟相 關的專書,包括:China's great economic transformation、China's rise and the balance

計畫編號

NSC 99-2410-H-004-114-MY2

計畫名稱

「鄉財縣管」

:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究

出國人員

姓名

趙建民

服務機構

及職稱

國立政治大學

國家發展研究所教授

出國時間

100 年 10

月 8 日至

100 年 10

月 17 日

出國地點

美國 匹茲堡

附件一

(17)

2 of influence in Asia 等等,都是中國研究領域中不可忽略的重要著作。 Landry 教授對於中國地方發展投入相當大的研究精神,尤其常前往中國大 陸進行長期的移地研究與深度訪談,對於中國大陸的地方政經運作體系與政商關 係有相程度的了解;近年來,Landry 教授將地理學的研究方法運用在中國區域 發展研究中,提出許多不同的觀點與研究心得,在交流中所提出的想法對本計畫 未來進一步深入的研究帶來許多激盪。 就本計畫以中國大陸地方財政關係與政府角色為研究主軸,在交流中,與 兩位重要的學者進行相關的意見交換,取得的共識為中國大陸的農村經濟改革成 功的因素之一,即為賦予基層更多處理本地事務的自主權力,從而激發和激活鄉 村基層的內在動力與活力。近年來,中國大陸進行許多基層政府改革,「議事會」 等基層民主的制度創新;然而,在缺乏進一步政治體制改革的狀況下,即使進行 所謂的服務型政府建設,事實上並無法提高自治的程度。因此,在此行的交流中 集中在討論地方稅費改革的影響,並就中央與地方政府角色的扮演進行意見的交 換。另外,兩位學者對中國地方政府亂收稅費,也造成地方不穩、民怨高漲,自 農村稅費廢除後,地方政治生態必將發生重大變革,都提出對本計畫有相當幫助 的看法;尤其,近年來,中國大陸展開農村的綜合配套改革,未來更可能大規模 推廣的「鄉財縣管」等措施,未來的基層政權組因此出現不同的發展模式。 除此之外,我們也就農業稅取消之後的發展與影響進行討論,認為若無相 應的制度配合,地方鄉鎮可能會在很大程度上喪失自主權和獨立性,甚至鄉鎮幹 部就有可能出現行政不作為的現象;另一方面,作為一級政權,在目前的壓力型 體制環境下,鄉鎮幹部從自身的升遷出發,具有內在的「政績」衝動,相應的, 各種達標升級活動也就無法根本杜絕,鄉鎮機構改革的成本又變相轉嫁到農民身 上,沖淡減免農業稅給農民帶來的利益。Landry 教授認為基層政權當中原有的 條塊矛盾,使得行政成本很難降低,這問題都存在於鄉鎮和村委會之間。 在此次的研究交流中,對本計畫帶來的最大研究貢獻,稅費改革的直接效 果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而基層財政收支的不對稱仍存,出現巨額的收支缺口問 題,有學者提出財政民主化改革的看法,透過鄉鎮人大具有財政預算的審查權, 若此權限獲得充分發揮,地方公共財供給才能忠實地反映當地居民的公共財需 求。 本計畫赴匹茲堡大學進行移地研究,除了以取得相關研究領域學者的意見 及中國研究成果的分享之外;更參訪了匹茲堡大學的東亞研究中心(East Asian Studies),該中心設立相當多的東亞研究計畫課題,其中更針對中國研究建立許 多研究資料庫,並透過專任的研究人員協助相關研究之進行;尤其,在匹茲堡大 學的 Hillman 圖書館中成立東亞圖書館,該館的中國研究書籍藏量十分可觀,同 時建立相關館外圖書交換機制,並定時訂購相關學術書籍與刊物,此對中國研究 的進行帶來相當大的便利性,更帶來學術發展巨大的貢獻,此可供國內相關研究 單位參考與學習。 本計畫赴匹茲堡大學移地研究,取得相關研究領域學者的意見,首先,中

(18)

3

國地方財政的焦點議題交換看法,其中包括對發展過程中政府所扮演角色及及影 響;其次,制度面的探討,就美國學者而言對於西方經濟發展經驗對中國大陸發 展的比較;最後,進一步了解及蒐集有關中國研究的未來發展及趨勢,此對充實 本計畫及未來進一步研究而言十分重要。

(19)

1

國科會補助專題研究計畫項下赴國外(或大陸地區)出差或

研習心得報告

一、國外(大陸)研究過程

本研究為兩年期的計畫,主要研究目的為觀察基層政府「鄉財縣管」的發展 趨勢,進一步對於縣鄉政府改革中的試點予以分類,並觀察轉型過程中政府角色 的變化。基於此,本計畫主持人於 2011 年 10 月 8 日前往美國匹茲堡大學 (University of Pittsburgh)進行為期 10 天的移地研究,與相關學者專家及學術單位 進行交流與考察,同時交換中國研究的心得與意見。

二、研究成果

計畫主持人在美國匹茲堡大學的訪問,與美國重要的中國研究學者經濟學 系的 Thomas G. Rawski 教授和政治學系的 Pierre F. Landry 教授交換許多研究上的 意見,對本研究的進行有相當大幫助,並就中國研究的發展帶來許多啟發與省 思。匹茲堡大學近年來開始對中國研究投入豐富的人力與資源,甚至開設許多相 關的研究課題與課程;其中,Rawski 教授長期對中國大陸經濟發展有深入的研 究與觀點,尤其是有關中國經濟統計數據的解讀與分析,包括中國經濟轉型、經 濟與社會關係等面向有具份量的研究成果與學術貢獻,更編著許多與中國經濟相 關的專書,包括:China's great economic transformation、China's rise and the balance

計畫編號

NSC 99-2410-H-004-114-MY2

計畫名稱

「鄉財縣管」

:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究

出國人員

姓名

趙建民

服務機構

及職稱

國立政治大學

國家發展研究所教授

出國時間

100 年 10

月 8 日至

100 年 10

月 17 日

出國地點

美國 匹茲堡

附件一

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2 of influence in Asia 等等,都是中國研究領域中不可忽略的重要著作。 Landry 教授對於中國地方發展投入相當大的研究精神,尤其常前往中國大 陸進行長期的移地研究與深度訪談,對於中國大陸的地方政經運作體系與政商關 係有相程度的了解;近年來,Landry 教授將地理學的研究方法運用在中國區域 發展研究中,提出許多不同的觀點與研究心得,在交流中所提出的想法對本計畫 未來進一步深入的研究帶來許多激盪。 就本計畫以中國大陸地方財政關係與政府角色為研究主軸,在交流中,與 兩位重要的學者進行相關的意見交換,取得的共識為中國大陸的農村經濟改革成 功的因素之一,即為賦予基層更多處理本地事務的自主權力,從而激發和激活鄉 村基層的內在動力與活力。近年來,中國大陸進行許多基層政府改革,「議事會」 等基層民主的制度創新;然而,在缺乏進一步政治體制改革的狀況下,即使進行 所謂的服務型政府建設,事實上並無法提高自治的程度。因此,在此行的交流中 集中在討論地方稅費改革的影響,並就中央與地方政府角色的扮演進行意見的交 換。另外,兩位學者對中國地方政府亂收稅費,也造成地方不穩、民怨高漲,自 農村稅費廢除後,地方政治生態必將發生重大變革,都提出對本計畫有相當幫助 的看法;尤其,近年來,中國大陸展開農村的綜合配套改革,未來更可能大規模 推廣的「鄉財縣管」等措施,未來的基層政權組因此出現不同的發展模式。 除此之外,我們也就農業稅取消之後的發展與影響進行討論,認為若無相 應的制度配合,地方鄉鎮可能會在很大程度上喪失自主權和獨立性,甚至鄉鎮幹 部就有可能出現行政不作為的現象;另一方面,作為一級政權,在目前的壓力型 體制環境下,鄉鎮幹部從自身的升遷出發,具有內在的「政績」衝動,相應的, 各種達標升級活動也就無法根本杜絕,鄉鎮機構改革的成本又變相轉嫁到農民身 上,沖淡減免農業稅給農民帶來的利益。Landry 教授認為基層政權當中原有的 條塊矛盾,使得行政成本很難降低,這問題都存在於鄉鎮和村委會之間。 在此次的研究交流中,對本計畫帶來的最大研究貢獻,稅費改革的直接效 果是大幅減輕農民負擔,而基層財政收支的不對稱仍存,出現巨額的收支缺口問 題,有學者提出財政民主化改革的看法,透過鄉鎮人大具有財政預算的審查權, 若此權限獲得充分發揮,地方公共財供給才能忠實地反映當地居民的公共財需 求。 本計畫赴匹茲堡大學進行移地研究,除了以取得相關研究領域學者的意見 及中國研究成果的分享之外;更參訪了匹茲堡大學的東亞研究中心(East Asian Studies),該中心設立相當多的東亞研究計畫課題,其中更針對中國研究建立許 多研究資料庫,並透過專任的研究人員協助相關研究之進行;尤其,在匹茲堡大 學的 Hillman 圖書館中成立東亞圖書館,該館的中國研究書籍藏量十分可觀,同 時建立相關館外圖書交換機制,並定時訂購相關學術書籍與刊物,此對中國研究 的進行帶來相當大的便利性,更帶來學術發展巨大的貢獻,此可供國內相關研究 單位參考與學習。 本計畫赴匹茲堡大學移地研究,取得相關研究領域學者的意見,首先,中

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國地方財政的焦點議題交換看法,其中包括對發展過程中政府所扮演角色及及影 響;其次,制度面的探討,就美國學者而言對於西方經濟發展經驗對中國大陸發 展的比較;最後,進一步了解及蒐集有關中國研究的未來發展及趨勢,此對充實 本計畫及未來進一步研究而言十分重要。

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1

國科會補助專題研究計畫出席國際學術會議心得報告

日期: 102 年 8 月 1 日

一、參加會議經過

2012 年 7 月 8-12 日,本人參加由國際政治學會(International Political Science Association)所舉辦的

第二十二屆世界政治學會議,會議地點在西班牙馬德里。本人參加立法專家小組所組織的會議場次, 討論主題為「威權和半民主國家議會的角色」,發表文章為 “Specialization, Autonomy and Legislative Capacity in a Rubber Stamp Legislature: The Case of China” (橡皮圖章式議會的專業化、自主性與立法能

力:中國大陸案例分析) ,此篇文章的共同作者為政治大學東亞研究所博士候選人張鈞智。

本場次的會議主席是 Werner J. Patzelt,共同主席是 Michael Mezey,評論人為 David M. Olson,這 幾位都是在比較立法研究學界擁有極高聲望的資深學者,我與其中幾位教授也有長期來往。此次會議 針對數個威權或新興民主國家的代議政治進行探討。此次發表文章是以中國大陸全國人大專門委員會 的專業化為主題進行探討,有鑑於中國大陸是威權主義國家的代表國家,具有高度的研究價值,許多 學者對於中國大陸人大發展具有極大興趣,對於本文的研究內容和成果諸多肯定。在會議之後,許多

計畫編號 NSC

99-2410-H-004-114-MY2

計畫名稱

「鄉財縣管」

:中國大陸縣鄉政府體制改革之研究

出國人員

姓名

趙建民

服務機構

及職稱

國立政治大學國家發展研究所

會議時間

101 年 7 月 8 日至

101 年 7 月 12 日

會議地點

西班牙馬德里

會議名稱

(中文)

第二十二屆世界政治學會議

(英文)

22nd World Congress of Political Science

發表題目

(中文)

橡皮圖章式議會的專業化、自主性與立法能力:中國大陸案例分析

(英文)

Specialization, Autonomy and Legislative Capacity in a Rubber Stamp Legislature: The Case of China

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2 學者特地鼓勵我們,應持續發表中國大陸人大制度的相關研究。 會後,我們參與了立法專家小組的行政會議,與多位學者進行更多的交流,小組主席邀請我們參 加 2014 年國際政治學會年會,並將定期告知相關活動,希望以我們作為學術的橋樑,引介更多亞洲或 台灣學者參與國際政治學會的活動。

二、與會心得

不同於美國政治學會,國際政治學會抱持更開放和包容的態度,鼓勵非英美國家研究的交流, 鼓勵不同研究方法的多元化探討。這樣的氛圍也充分展現於會議進行的過程當中,來自多個國家 的學者能夠以不同的觀點,進行相關主題的探討,也因此激盪出許多精彩的討論,對於我們的研 究有極大的助益。 此次會議更大的意義在於,與比較議會研究學界建立起良好關係,尤其本人是唯一代表亞洲參 與立法專家小組活動的學者,具有極為特殊的意義。此小組的主席和副主席,對於本人的參與都 表示極大的歡迎,有利於強化台灣與國際學界之交流。

三、發表論文全文或摘要

請見附檔。

四、建議

相較於每年有許多台灣學者參與美國政治學會年會,國際政治學會議受到的關注較少,也較 少台灣學者與會,我認為這是非常可惜的事情。希望未來能夠多多鼓勵台灣學者參加此一會議, 為爭取台灣做為東亞研究的代表者而努力。

五、攜回資料名稱及內容

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Specialization, Autonomy and Legislative Capacity in a Rubber

Stamp Legislature: The Case of China

Chien-min Chao Professor

Graduate Institute for Development Studies National Chengchi University

And Chun-chih Chang

Ph. D. Candidate

Graduate Institute for East Asia Studies National Chengchi University

2012.05.28

Paper to be delivered at the 22nd World Congress of Political Science held by the International Political Science Association, July 8-12, 2012, Madrid, Spain.

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Summary

China’s National People’s Congress (NPC) has been deemed as a rubber stamp for lacking in information processing capacity and poor autonomy. This paper tries to find out if the permanent committees of the NPC are becoming more specialized, and if so, whether it will bring more autonomy to the law-making process. After examining backgrounds of members of the nine committees, it is found that the NPC is indeed becoming more specialized. While the average time served by members of the legislative committees is declining, it is a deliberate rationalization to increase specialization as new recruits are more professional than their predecessors. It is also found that members who have professional backgrounds tend to have better chances serving longer term in committees. Riding the trend of specialization, committees are much more active in bill formulation and deliberation than before, and the NPC may gradually become arena where divergent interests might be contested. The paper concludes that the trend towards specialization in the NPC’s committees has rendered more capability and autonomy to the heretofore anemic legislature.

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Introduction

Legislative theorists have offered three explanations for standing committees’ behaviors in legislature in Western democracies – information efficiency, distributive benefits, and major-party cartel theory (Groseclose and King 2000). To what extent do these theories help delineate the role of permanent committees in an autocratic system like China? As a party-state system, it is only natural that the CCP party is guaranteed a special space in any political activities. This is why previous studies bear

resemblance to the major-party cartel theory in analyzing the development of China’s National People’s Congress (NPC). Whether the two institutions, the party and the NPC, are cooperating in order to maximize the efficiencies of the NPC in what has been know as a relationship of embeddedness, or engage in some sort of power competition so that some autonomy can be gained by the legislative organ, has long been a debate among scholars working to unravel the mysteries of the Chinese legislative system (Cho 2002; O’ Brien 1990; 1994; O’Brien and Luehrmann 1998; Xia 2000). By examining the legislative experiences since the 1980’s, Chien-min Chao (2002) concludes that institutionalization has taken a great stride and that the development has brought specialization to the fore. This paper, based on the

experiences of members of the NPC committees, argues that as the society demands more rules of law China’s legislature has been growingly relying on more informed personnel in its committees for the drafting and deliberating of bills.

Legislatures of Communist countries have been deemed as “rubber stamps” for their function is no more than providing a thread of legitimacy to the regime. Since there is hardly need for them in the making of any important policies, it is redundant to exercise quality control over members of the legislative chamber. The capacity of the organ is predictably low. As Johnson and Nakamura (1999, 6) vividly describe:

Since rubber stamp legislatures merely endorse decisions made elsewhere, they typically require little in the way of internal complexity and information processing capacity. While these things may help members in more active legislatures to make decisions, they are not needed when the only decision to be made is to endorse outcomes of other decision-making processes. Rubber stamp legislatures, by definition, do not make independent contributions to the process of governing their societies.

A NPC position is usually the last stop for China’s power-holders before

retirement and this “dead end” is another reason contributing to the ineffective rubber stamp nature of the NPC. For those powerful ministers and cadres who are selected into the assembly shortly before retirement the job is demoralizing and disheartening. Under this design, short average terms and high turnover rate seem to be the norm. By

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contrast, representatives in “career legislatures” in Western democracies tend to put more value into their work and normally have longer average term and much lower turnover rate. In yet another type of legislature, the so-called “springboard legislature”, members may not serve as long but they are highly motivated as their performance may dictate their fate in the power hierarchy (Squire 1988).

As China’s market economy is getting more sophisticated, is it possible that its legislature might get more specialized and hence, enhance its capacity? As a rubber stamp, the NPC has been an instrument to reward those who have made contribution to the state. This sacrosanct duty has made the NPC a defunct organ (Zhou 2005, 243-248). However, since the 1980’s a series of reforms have been heralded in the Chinese legislature to increase the CCP’s legitimacy, and a critical one among them is to have the committees expanded both in size and capacity (Chao 2002; O’Brien 1990, 148-156). This paper is to examine if specialization has been indeed a part of this reform process.1

Following Hamm, Hedlund, and Post’s (2011) framework, this paper gauges the specialization of NPC’s permanent committees from two dimensions—work

experiences before becoming a committee member and the length of staying in

various committees. We start by revisiting the history and membership recruitments of the NPC’s special committees. We then try to fathom the depth of the specialization in the committees between the 9th NPC and the 11th NPC. Last, we attempt to come to some senses in the context of law-making and deliberation processes.

Demographic data of all nine permanent committee members in the three NPCs, 680 in total, are compiled and analyzed. On average, each committee has 26 members, including 1 chairman, 6.8 vice chairmen, and 17.4 rank-and-file members.2

Biographic data is obtained from NPC’s website (www.npc.gov.cn),Renwu Online (www.renwuonline.com), and China Vitae (www.chinavitae.com).

Evolution of Special Committees in the NPC

When the NPC was established in 1954 there were only two committees, the Ethnic Affairs Committee and the Bill Committee, to provide technical assistance to the arguably biggest legislative structure on earth. As Mao’s regime became more mobilizational in orientation the legislative organ was pummeled just as the rest of the political system even before the start of the tumultuous years of the Cultural

Revolution. After Mao’s demise, in the wake of writing a new constitution in 1982 it

1

In the West, legislative committees are normally addressed as “standing committees.” But in the NPC, the term might be confused with the NPC Standing Committee which is actually the legislature when the NPC is not in session (the NPC is in session only very briefly) and therefore, the term “special committees” is coined.

2

All committees have one chairman, but the number of vice-chairman and rank-and file member changes each term with different committees.

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was decided that permanent committees were to be made part of the reformulation to help with the reconstruction of a new legal system that had quickly become hallmark of Deng Xiaoping’s reform policies. Six committees were established in 1983 as a result of this new drive of institution-building and legalization: the Law Committee (formerly Bill Committee), the Ethnic Affairs Committee, the Financial and Economic Affairs Committee, the Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Committee, the Foreign Affairs Committee, and the Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee. During the 7th NPC Congress, held in 1988, another committee, the Internal and Judicial Affairs Committee, was created. The Environment Protection and Resources Conservation Committee (renamed Environment and Resources Committee in 1994) was added to the 8th NPC’s Congress in 1993, and at last, in 1998 at the 9th NPC Congress, the Agriculture and Rural Affairs Committee was founded (Cai 2003, 243-250; Zhou 2005).

In general, legislative committees are responsible for introducing and reviewing new bills and acts, scrutinizing questions presented to the NPC and its Standing Committee (NPCSC), researching, making contacts, and investigating cases (Jiang 2002, 293-295). Although each committee has its own area of jurisdiction (see Appendix 1), the division of labor among committees is not well-defined and not in parallel to the division of labor in the administrative branch of the government. While some committees may be made accountable to many administrative agencies, others may only have to face one or two agencies. It is not unusual for some committees to only review a bill every few years. For instance, while Foreign Affairs Committee and Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee may process only one or two bills in average during a five-year term, the Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Committee entails a multiple policy areas. This institutional weakness will no doubt affect the effectiveness of the NPC (Yin, et al., 2003). Among the NPC committees, the Law Committee stands out as the most important. The Committee has the power to “universally review all bills” (tongyi shengyi) after being examined by a relevant committee.

The CCP party still plays important role in the legislature. According to Article 35 of the NPC’s Organic Law, members of the legislative committees as well as their leadership are to be nominated by the NPC Presidium and approved by the congress. Only NPC delegates are eligible for the nomination. When the NPC is not in session, the NPCSC can only fill in “individual deputy chairman” and “part of the committee members” and candidates for these supplementary elections shall be nominated by the NPCSC Chairman’s Meeting and approved by the NPCSC plenary meeting. In reality, the list is prepared by the NPC’s CCP Party Committee and handed over to the

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discussion and “fermentation” (yunniang). The delegates will then vote on the final list (Chen 2008).

In another sign of political maneuvering the ratio between CCP party

membership and non-CCP membership remains steady at about five to one for the three NPCs under review. If the eight Democratic Parties are to be included then the ratio for the tripartite membership is about 13:2:1 (Chao and Chang 2010). It is further regulated that only those with the CCP’s party membership are allowed to be in leading positions. Evidently, to keep the permanent committees in line is critical to safeguard the CCP’s rein.

From the way the NPC’s committees is structured and staffed to the maintenance of predominantly partisan presence say aloud the usefulness of the major-party cartel theory in the legislature in an autocratic polity. However, it should be pointed out that the increase of specialization and hence, the capacity of the legislature, does not bode ill with the CCP’s goal of maintaining a strong party-state structure. On the contrary, the growing specialization has reinforced the party’s image as a competent ruling force. Maltzman’s (1997) conditional model of committee responsiveness suggests that committees’ function may change contingent on the internal coherence of major parties. O’Brien (1994; O’Brien and Luehrmann 1998), built on the concept of “embeddedness”, argues that by cooperating with the predominant party, legislatures of Communist countries could enhance its capacity and challenge the State Council in the law-making process. Chao (2002) highlights special committees have been

consolidating their role in NPC and transforming the Chinese legislature from one that has been dominated by the chamber to one that is dominated by the committees. These studies vindicate the new developments in China’s legislative organ. In the following section, we will prove, by using empirical data, that the trend of

specialization in the NPC is gradually taking roots since the late 1990s.

Two Measures of Specialization

While studying the composition of local legislatures in the United States, Hamm, Hedlund, and Post (2011) build a two-dimensional model to gauge specialization in the committees: The external dimension is meant to judge members’ competence by tracing their pervious work experiences; the internal dimension, on the other hand, is the length members serve in relevant committees. The framework is transplanted in our study.

In what they call an information efficiency theory, Tom Gilligan and Keith Krehbiel (1987, 1989, 1990; Krehbiel 1991) illustrate that since lawmaking requires wide array of information and some of them unsubstantiated, it is not efficient, nor feasible, to have the whole chamber involved in the reviewing of bills. Permanent

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committees, with their professionalism, compact size and sufficient access to

information, can help reduce uncertainties in the policy-making process.This is why the chamber is willing to delegate powers to the committees and seek their advice before making decisions. We believe the two-dimensional framework is sufficient in judging if NPC committees are competent in accessing and processing information.

Different from distributive benefits theory which features self-selection hypothesis and preference outliers, efficiency theory underlines specialization as a low-cost means in composing legislative committees. The cost of information

collection will be significantly reduced by including representatives with professional knowledge. As Krehbiel (1991, 136; see also Gilligan and Krehbiel 1990; Hamm, Hedlund, and Post 2011, 132) points out:

[A] rational legislature is one that efficiently taps the special talents of its

legislators. Such a legislature appoints to committees members who can specialize at relatively low cost due to, for example, their prior experience or intense interest, in the policies that lie within a committee’s jurisdiction. Other things being equal, this form of interest is likely to make members work relatively hard to master the intricacies of policy-making.

Although members may have heterogeneous preferences, the decisions they make are normally in line with their professional backgrounds. For the chamber, it is preferable to endow committees with some freedoms so that it may reap the benefits of

professionalism. Certainly, the freedoms endowed upon the committees are not unlimited and can be exercised only under the chamber’s supervision. In this regard, information efficiency theory is also called “chamber-dominated committees

perspective” (Krehbiel 1991, 134-141).

Past experiences and backgrounds can not only bring down costs in

information-collecting, they also provide members with more diversified information so that the chronic problem of uneven access to information between the

administration and the legislature can be bridged. Zwier’s study (1979) concludes that specialists try to access information from a wide variety of sources such as the

administration, staff, and interest groups, while non-specialists are much more conservative and concentrate almost exclusively on information from within the legislature and his constituency.

To information efficiency theorists seniority contributes to committee specialization. The longer a member stays within a single committee, the more specialized he is likely to be. However, seniority can be accrued either by working in a single committee, or it can be attained cumulatively through working in a number of committees. Single-committee seniority is no doubt a more preferable system but

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sometimes members change committees for various reasons. In the latter case seniority is defined in a broader, sometimes referred as indirect, fashion. It is more fitting to address this phenomenon as legislative stability instead of seniority. The paper opts for the broader definition of membership stability.

Generally speaking, membership stability and committee experiences facilitate specialization in three ways. First, seniority means stability and is good indication that the committee is immune from improper outside interference. In his seminal study on congressional institutionalization, Polsby (1968) suggests “boundedness” helps with organizations differentiating from external environment when stable membership is easily identifiable and leaders recruited principally from within. If membership recruitment is institutionalized, it is less easy for outside forces such as the political party to penetrate which means more autonomy for the committee.

Second, it takes time to be professional. Bell and Price (1975, cited from Squire 1988, 66) indicate that normally it takes two years, or about 250 working days, for a full-time legislator (or six years for part-time legislators) in California to get

acquainted with the job he is supposed to perform. The problem with the NPC is that there are still too many part-time members in the committees and it takes long time for them to get competent.

Last, as Squire (1998, 24) rightfully points out, membership stability matters because new members of any legislature require some period of socialization or apprenticeship in order to develop collective identity, and shared values and interests. By using Denmark’s parliament as a case, Baekgaard (2010) argues that it is essential for a new legislator to learn by practicing and that members of the committees are likely to be more devoted when they become more experienced.

External Connections

For systemic reasons, the information theory is better suited than the distribution theory in explicating committee compositions in legislatures in the Communist

countries. Instead of going through popular balloting, the NPC deputies are selected by local PC members in a way to maximize representation from all walks of life (or

jie bie), including administrative agencies, local governments, democratic parties,

mass groups, and so on in a system that has been termed as “policy constituency” (Agh 1998, 88). Therefore, constituent interests are hardly a concern. We will then discuss career paths through which committee members are recruited.

To better understand the NPC committee members’ past connections, nine career paths are drawn: legal profession, experiences with the NPC, the State Council, the CCP, local leadership, academics, business and financial community, the Democratic Parties and mass organizations, and the military. As Table 1 shows, people who have

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links with the State Council in the past are expectedly claiming the largest share (22.8%). What is unusual is the relatively high representation from academics and the Democratic Parties and Mass Organizations, standing at 19.9% and 16.6%

respectively. A big chunk of the pie claimed by retired generals of the People’s Liberation Army (11.6%) is a shocking testimony to the rigor of the party-military corporate state structure. On the other hand, people with backgrounds in legal profession, the NPC, business and financial community, and the CCP have

representation lower than 10%. The reason for the low CCP presence is because many officials have experienced wide array of party and state duties in what has been known as the cross-section appointment (jiaocha renzhi). It is also due to the fact that most CCP background members come from the Organization Department, the

Propaganda Department, and United Front Work Department, institutions tasked not much with legislation and supervision.

In general, the career paths in the three terms of the NPC under review has shown slight increase of specialization. Members with backgrounds in legal

profession, academia, the NPC, and local leadership are on the rise while people who have experiences with the Democratic Parties, mass organizations and the military are declining. The representation of business and financial communities has been kept constant. In the future, to get more people with experiences at the NPC, the legal profession, and business community may be in need.

Table 1 Committee members’ career paths

N Percentage Cumulative Percentage The military 79 11.6 11.6

The NPC 23 3.4 15.0 Local leadership 89 13.1 28.1 The State Council 155 22.8 50.9 The CCP 29 4.3 55.1 The Democratic Parties and

mass organizations

113 16.6 71.8 Business and financial

community

27 4.0 75.7 Academics (universities and

research associations) 135 19.9 95.6 Legal profession 30 4.4 100 Career

Paths

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Richard Sisson (1973, 17-38) argues that recruitment of legislative personnel should be based on two thinking: First, a linkage between committees and the environment must be kept so that some sort of social mobility can be maintained. Second, to keep a organization young and rejuvenated a mechanism of leadership rotation must be in place. If these people could just seek out information in an unorthodox fashion, their decisions might be somewhat different in quality. Yin Zhongqing (Yin, et al. 2003), a seasoned Chinese scholar with prolonged years of work with the PC, comes up with a list which he believes might help in bringing vitality to China’s heretofore enervated legislature: people with past experience working with the legislature; scholars and experts; representatives of social organizations; and those who have experiences with the juridical system. These people will provide the system with pluralistic opinions to an institution which has seen heavy party-state penetration, a tradition hardly accordant with the duties required out of a watch-dog to oversee the monolithic system.

Based on these beliefs this paper regroups the NPC committee members into three professions: legislative professionals, representatives of social organizations, and party-state cadres. The legislative professionals cover those who have experiences with the PC system in the past or scholars and legal practitioners who possess legal and judicial knowledge. These people might offer the committees professional advice. Representatives of social organizations include those who have worked with the eight Democratic Parties, mass organizations, and business and financial communities. These people may bring in more diversified opinions into the ossified system. The party-state cadres (including the military), on the other hand, might have better knowledge about how the system works but departmentalism might be a risk.

Table 2 reveals that although committee members who serve as party-state cadres in the past still dominate the NPC committees (51.8%), those with legal backgrounds are gaining grounds. The distribution of career patterns clearly shows that a party-state system is still at work as many legislators are transferred from party-state apparatus. This is diametrically opposite from Western parliamentary democracies where government officials are also parliamentarians. This unique career path presupposes departmental interests in the making of laws in China.

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Table 2 Three types of career paths

career paths Legal professions Social Deputies Party-State Cadres Total N 50 48 112 210 9 % (23.8) (22.9) (53.3) (100) N 68 47 120 235 10 % (28.9) (20.0) (51.1) (100) N 70 45 120 235 Term 11 % (29.8) (19.1) (51.1) (100) B 188 140 352 680 Total % (27.6) (20.6) (51.8) (100)

Career pattern may not tell the whole story of specialization in the NPC

committees as many party-state cadres might have experiences relevant to legislative work. We try to resolve this conundrum by matching the duties delineated by each committee (see Appendix 1) with corresponding government agencies. The breakdown listed in Appendix 1 is borrowed from a scholar in China (Zeng 2004) with some revision. Data provided by Table 3 substantiates the finding that the NPC committees are becoming more specialized. Overall, 63.7% of the aggregate members are professionals, a climb of more that 3% during the three NPC terms under review.

Table 3 Professional backgrounds

Non-professionals Professionals Total N 79 131 210 9 % (37.6) (62.4) (100) N 87 148 235 10 % (37.0) (63.0) (100) N 81 154 235 Term 11 % (34.5) (65.5) (100) N 247 433 680 Total % (36.3) (63.7) (100) Relevant Experiences

Two measures are normally used to gauge legislative committee stability: seniority and average tenure (Squire 1988). For any institution to be stable, it is imperative that a certain proportion of its members are there to stay for relatively long

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period of time. In Western practices, committee stability is judged by the duration of members staying in a single committee. However, since members who have changed committees in the NPC are relatively few (only 36 out of a total of 680 or about 5.3% in the 9th, 10th and 11th NPC) the study takes all committee experiences into account. Seniority is calculated according to the total time a member stays with any NPC committee.

Table 4 illustrates that stability is not an asset in NPC’s committees. During the period under scrutiny the proportion of committee members who have previous work experience in other committees goes down nearly five percentage, from 34.8% in the 9th NPC to 29.8% at the 10th NPC, and further down to 28.9% at the 11th NPC. Overall, senior membership is averaged at a paltry 30.1%, lagging far behind the 60-80% rate in the U.S. Congress (Fenno 1973, 111-113).

Table 4 Ratio between freshmen and senior members

Freshmen Seniors Total 9th NPC 120 (65.2%) 64 (34.8%) 184* (100%) 10th NPC 165 (70.2%) 70 (29.8%) 235 (100%) 11th NPC 167 (71.1%) 68 (28.9%) 235 (100%) Total 452 (69.9%) 202 (30.1%) 654 (100%)

Notes: * The Agriculture and Rural Affairs Committee was established at the 9th NPC and therefore, no data is available.

A decline of term limit further testifies to the problem of insufficient membership continuity. Overall, the average term served in the committees is 1.30 (or about 6.5 years). However, the downward trend is obvious. It starts with 1.32 term (or about 6.6 years) in the 9th NPC, and is reduced to 1.30 term (or about 6.5 years), then falls down to 1.26 term (about 6.3 years). This is tantamount to reduction of 0.06 term (or about 3.5 months) per term. This lack of continuity in NPC committees undercuts the endeavors that have been taken to beef up specialization.

The decline in seniority and tenure is attributable to the policy of rejuvenating the hitherto aging institution by replacing them with younger and more capable personnel. However, the downside is that a transitional gap might be emerging, inhibiting experiences and knowledge from being passed on from generation to generation, making internal norms that much harder to be established.

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