地方政府的全球延伸：臺灣新北市的城市外交 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 地方政府的全球延伸：臺灣新北市的城市外交. sit. y. Nat. The Global Reach of the Local Government: The City. n. al. er. io. Diplomacy in New Taipei City, Taiwan. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: Hui-Lin Wu Advisor: Dr. Alex Chiang. 中華民國 104 年 9 月 September 2015.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) 地方政府的全球延伸：臺灣新北市的城市外交 The Global Reach of the Local Government: The City Diplomacy in New Taipei City, Taiwan 研究生：吳惠琳 Student: Hui-Lin Wu 指導教授：姜家雄 Advisor: Dr. Alex Chiang. 國立政治大學治政大碩士論文. 學. ‧ 國. 立亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 ‧ sit. y. Nat. A Thesis. er. io. n. al Submitted to International Master’s Programi vin Asia-Pacific Studies n U engchi National Chengchi University. Ch. In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master in China Studies. 中華民國 104 年 9 月 September 2015.


(5) Acknowledgement First and foremost, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Alex Chiang for your guidance, encouragement and patience throughout the process of thesis writing, and to Dean Kao-Cheng Wang and Professor Wen-Yang Chang for their helpful comments on this study. I would also like to appreciate IMAS of the NCCU, and its professors and classmates for the past two years. I am grateful for the knowledge and experience sharing in the classes and outside of them. Much gratitude also goes to my colleagues. 政治大 not have been possible 立 without their help.. in New Taipei City Government, Dolly Wu and Ching-Chung Ke. This thesis would. ‧ 國. 學. I take this as an opportunity to thank my family. To my parents, Mr. Te-Cheng Wu and Mrs. Shi-Chih Chen Wu, I would not be here without your endless love and. ‧. support. To Jay and Dana, you are my best siblings. I am proud of you and wish you. sit. y. Nat. all the best. To my boyfriend, Dr. Ming-Long Fan, I certainly would not have made it. n. al. er. io. this far without your understanding and encouragement at all times.. i n U. v. Last but certain not least, I am thankful to all my friends, Lisa, Nicole, Sara,. Ch. engchi. Wooder, Ying-Chun, Hsin Ju, Ya-Lan, Stone, Shu-Jung, Li-Wen, Yu-Ting, Mina, Evey, Emma, Dr. P., Mia, Yumi, Marlene and others who directly and indirectly have been helpful in some or the other way.. Hui-Lin (Sonia) Hsinchu, Taiwan. I.


(7) Abstract The history of city diplomacy discussed extensively in the academic community can be traced back to the town-twinning initiatives and sister-city movements after the end of WWII. City diplomacy in Taiwan has been flourishing since the 1960s; however, academic research on the topic is relatively new and few. This thesis attempted initiating this topic through a case study of New Taipei City (NTC), the largest city in Taiwan to make up academic inadequacies. The origin and implementation of city diplomacy was probed as an important basis for exploring the topic. The thesis. 政治大 international organizations 立 participation and further discussed the city’s achievements analyzed NTC’s bilateral city-to-city exchanges and multilateral city-based. ‧ 國. 學. and challenges from the legal and political perspective. The research findings revealed that the achievements of city diplomacy in NTC mainly focused on the fields of. ‧. education and culture. At the same time, the city encountered various difficulties, in. sit. y. Nat. addition to the internal and external limitations due to Taiwan’s diplomatic difficulties,. n. al. er. io. legal and political restrictions, such as dilemma of sister cities at district level and. i n U. v. political issue on cross-strait intercity exchanges are challenges that NTC faced with.. Ch. engchi. Keywords: city diplomacy, New Taipei City, sister city, local government. II.


(9) TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………….1 1.2 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………..3 1.3 Profile of NTC……………………………………………………………………..5 1.4 Research Purposes………………………………………………………………...8 1.5 Literature Review…………..……………………………………………………...9 1.6 Methodology…...…………………………………………………………….…..12. 政治大. 1.7 Chapters Arrangement...………………………………………………………….13. 立. Chapter 2 Development of City Diplomacy. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1 Definition and Origin of City Diplomacy………………………….….................15 2.1.1 Definition and Theoretical Debates………………………….…...................15. ‧. 2.1.2 Origin of City Diplomacy: Town Twinning in the Europe.............................17. sit. y. Nat. 2.1.3 Origin of City Diplomacy: Sister City Movement in the U.S........................22. n. al. er. io. 2.2 International Activities of Local Governments in the Global Arena…………….26. i n U. v. 2.2.1 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Culture…………………………………….26. Ch. engchi. 2.2.2 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Economic Development…………………..27 2.2.3 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Security……………………………………29 2.2.4 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Network…………………………………...31 2.3 The Impacts and Consequences of City Diplomacy……………………………..33 2.3.1 The Role of States and Cites in Foreign Relations………………………….33 2.3.2 Implementation of City Diplomacy and Public’s Response………………...35 2.4 Concluding Remarks………………....………………...………………...............37. III.

(10) Chapter 3 The Analysis of Intercity Cooperation in NTC 3.1 Bilateral City-to-City Cooperation………………………………………………39 3.1.1 Overview of City-to-City Cooperation in NTC………………………………39 3.1.2 Bilateral City-to-City Cooperation on Education…………………………….40 3.1.2.1 Student Exchange Program……………………………………………….41 3.1.2.2 Teacher Exchange Program………………………………………………44 3.1.2.3 Cooperation on Vocational Education……………………………………46 3.1.3 Bilateral City-to-City Cooperation on Tourism and Culture………………...48. 政治大 3.1.3.2 Cooperation on Culture………………………………………………….51 立 3.1.3.1 Cooperation on Tourism…………………………………………………48. 3.2 Multilateral City Network in NTC………………………………………………54. ‧ 國. 學. 3.2.1 International Organization Participation……………………………………54. ‧. 3.2.2 United Cities and Local Governments Organization (UCLG)……………..55. sit. y. Nat. 3.2.3 Intelligent Community Forum (ICF)……………………………………….57. io. er. 3.2.4 ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI)…………………….60 3.3 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………………..62. al. n. v i n C h and Challenges Chapter 4 The Achievements of City Diplomacy in engchi U NTC. 4.1 Sister Cities in NTC……………………………………………………………..65 4.1.1 Overview of Sister Cities in NTC…………………………………………..65 4.1.2 Indicators of Assessing Strategies toward Sister Cities...............................69 4.1.3 Strategies of Sister City……………………………………………………..73 4.2 International Exchanges at Home and Abroad…………………………………..81 4.2.1 Reception of Foreign Guests………………………………………………..81 4.2.2 The Mayor’s Overseas Visits………………………………………………..86 IV.

(11) 4.3 Legal and Political Restrictions………………………………………………….89 4.3.1 Internal and External Limitations of City Diplomacy in NTC……………...89 4.3.2 Sister Cities at District Level………………………………………………..92 4.3.3 Cross-Strait Intercity Exchanges...………………………………………...95 4.4 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………………..98. Chapter 5 Conclusion 5.1 Summary of Findings………………………….……………………………102 5.2 Future Work…………………………………………………………………..106. 政治大 Appendix 1: Agreements Signed with Foreign Local Government……………...108 立. Appendix. Appendix 2: International Organization Participation in NTC…………………..112. ‧ 國. 學. Appendix 3: Exchanges by Sister Cities at City Level in NTC………………….113. ‧. Appendix 4: Sister Cities at District Level in NTC…………………………...…117. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. References………………………………………………………………………..119. Ch. engchi. V. i n U. v.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Geographical Location of NTC…………………………………………...6 Figure 1-2: Administrative Districts of NTC………………………………………….7 Figure 1-3: Chapters Arrangement…………………………………………………...14 Figure 4-1: The Number of Mutual Visits between NTC and Sister Cities………….67. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. VI. i n U. v.

(13) LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1: The Number of Twinnings in Europe in 2010…………………………….21 Table 3-1: MOUs on Teacher Exchange Program……………………………………44 Table 3-2: MOUs on Vocational Education Cooperation…………………………….46 Table 3-3: MOUs on Tourism Cooperation…………………………………………..49 Table 3-4: MOUs on Cultural Cooperation…………………………………………..51 Table 3-5: The ICF's Award Winners by Cities in Taiwan………………………...…59 Table 4-1: Sister Cities of NTC………………………………………………………65. 政治大 Table 4-3: The Number立 of Reception of Foreign Guests in NTC by Country,. Table 4-2: Assessment and Recommended Strategy for NTC Sister Cities………….74. ‧ 國. 學. 2011-2014…………………………………………………………………………….82 Table 4-4: The Mayor Chu’s Overseas Visits and Exchanges, 2011- 2014…………..88. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. VII. i n U. v.

(14) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Since the last quarter of the 20th century, local governments have multiplied their international initiatives that are changing the face of traditional international relations and have been increasing their influences on various global issues. (Arnau, 2013:49; Langhorne, 2005:334) However, the local government-led city diplomacy or city’s involvement in the international arena is not a new phenomenon although academic. 政治大. research on the issue is quite recent. After the Peace of Westphalia1 in 1648, the. 立. concept of sovereign state was established, the diplomacy system developed by states. ‧ 國. 學. was therefore formed. In traditional practice, state is considered as the main actor and has monopoly over foreign policy and diplomatic relations. Under the principles of. ‧. Westphalia order, little space provided for actors other than states in the sphere of. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. within in the domestic sphere. (Joenniemi, 2011:124). sit. international relations and entities such as cities in essence were expected to remain. i n U. v. Traditionally, diplomacy has been understood as state-centered term in foreign policy;. Ch. engchi. however, in the recent decades the initiatives undertaken by non-state actors have increased their impact at the international level without replacing the states. (La Porte, 2012:444. Based on La Porte’s statement, Arnau (2013:50) further addressed one of these types of non-state actors, cities and emphasized cities’ active and significant role on the international stage has been labelled as ‘city diplomacy’. After the end of World Word II, a wide range of non-state actors, particularly human 1. The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in. Osnabrück and Münster.The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination.As European influence spread across the globe, the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order. 1.

(15) rights entities promoted by the Western countries emerged onto the diplomatic stage, and this evolution put an end to that the state has the exclusive right of diplomatic representativeness. (Langhorne, 2005:332) Along with the globalization process in recent decades, Van der Pluijm (2007:8) argued that actors other than the states, particularly territorial non-state actors like regions and cities are not the only actors of globalization but also have been affected by it. Global cities such as London, Tokyo and New York, shaped as the denationalized platform for varied mix of people and funds from all over the world, may be the best examples for this phenomenon. The. 政治大 nation states in terms of their massive population, powerful economic strength and 立. influences of global cities on international affairs could largely occur beyond many. deep involvement in international issues. (Sassen, 1996). ‧ 國. 學. The history of city diplomacy discussed extensively in the academic community can. ‧. be traced back to the city-twinning initiatives in Europe and sister-city movements in. sit. y. Nat. the U.S. after the end of World War II, especially in the 1950s. The Council of. io. er. European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR), established in 1951, is the oldest and broadest European association of local and regional government. It took strong efforts. al. n. v i n C h at the local level to encourage the international contact and endeavored at promoting engchi U twinning initiatives and exchanges. The process began with the city-twinning between France and German bordering cities with the passionate support of mayors and citizens who vowed that Europe should never again be torn apart by war. (CEMR, n.d.) In the U.S., the sister-city movement built on mutual cultural understanding and peacemaking through citizens also initiated with full support from United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower's citizen diplomacy policy at the White House Conference in 1956 (SCI, n.d.). The post-World War II climate just provided an ideal environment to launch the people-to-people exchange and sister-city affiliation in helping build a solid structure of world peace since the West tried to remedy their torn 2.

(16) relationships with each other. Until today, the majority of twinning or sister-city movements still occurred mainly among communities within the First World and generally operated on the basis of reciprocity between different but essentially equal entities. Although there are sporadic sister-city agreements among the Third Word and between the Global North and the Global South, sister city relationships dominated mainly in advanced regions. (Zelinsky, 1991:8). 1.2 Problem Statement. 立. 政治大. Taiwan develops its city diplomacy along with the above-mentioned historical context.. ‧ 國. 學. Its first sister city agreement was established in 1961 between Taipei City and City of. ‧. Houston. The number of Taiwan’s sister cities reached the peak between the 1970s. y. Nat. and the 1990s due to its diplomatic difficulties. (Hung, 2011:8) Taiwan local. er. io. sit. governments’ involvement in city-diplomacy work was seen as a significant supplement to the formal diplomatic difficulties faced by the central government and. al. n. v i n C hmade cities a dominant their active roles in diplomacy have player on the international engchi U stage.. City diplomacy in Taiwan is flourishing and active, every local government of six special municipalities (直轄市)2 set up specific international division to deal with relevant work. However, academic research on this topic in Taiwan is relatively new and few. If studies and promotion materials of local governments are not taken into. 2. According to Taiwan’s “Local Government Act,” The local governments are subdivided into the. provincial government and special municipalities. Regions with population of not less than one million and two hundred fifty thousand (1,250,000) and have special requirements in their political, economic, cultural, and metropolitan developments may establish special municipalities. 3.

(17) account, case studies on a specific city are even less. Researches from a specific local government’s perspective with the focus on achievements and challenges need to be fulfilled in the future. New Taipei City (NTC) is one of the six special municipalities in Taiwan with the largest population over 3.9 million (more than 1/6 of Taiwan’s total population) and with land area about 2,052 square kilometers (approximately 7.5 times of its adjacent capital, Taipei). As expounded in the following section, Profile of NTC, the city is a dynamic and diverse city on the move. Nevertheless, it initiated its first formal sister. 政治大 established between Taipei. city relationship with Richland County, Ohio in 1985, two decades late than Taiwan’s first sister-city relationship. 立. and Houston in 1961.. Moreover, it has only 9 formal sister-city or friendship-city relationships at city level,. ‧ 國. 學. compared to its five counterparties: Kaohsiung (28), Taichung (23), Tainan (34),. ‧. Taipei (46) and Taoyuan (3). Except newly special municipality, Taoyuan, established. sit. y. Nat. in 2014, NTC has fewer number of sister city agreements. It is certainly an issue. io. er. worthy exploring how a mega city has not done much on its sister city performance. In addition, administrative status of NTC was upgraded from county, “Taipei County”. al. n. v i n C h 25th, 2010. The U to special municipality on December original county-controlled cities engchi. and townships under Taipei County were renamed as“districts”(區) and lost their. legal personalities. Since districts became to branches of NTC, city diplomacy related budgets in districts were returned to the city. How to maintain the existing sister city relations at district level without sufficient budget after the reform of administrative divisions is a common issue faced by newly special municipalities in Taiwan. In view of this, this thesis will pay more attention to the period of NTC’s first mayor Eric Chu’s first term from the end of 2010 to the end of 2014. Given that Taiwan’s city-diplomacy work has been greatly influenced by the international relations, whether NTC follows the development of city diplomacy 4.

(18) withtrends in the world is another issue of concern. For instance, city diplomacy can be traced back to the exchanges of cultural understanding in Europe and the U.S. since the 1950s (Cremer, 2001:380); however, motivations of city diplomacy have gradually moved to economic development after the 1990s. (O’Toole, 2001:405) In addition, the city officials’ overseas visits and inevitable back-and-forth junkets involving dignitaries are often regarded as a waste of public funds by city councils and the public both in Taiwan and in other countries (Hung 2011:12; Zelinsky, 1991:24). The public’s attitude towards city diplomacy has also shifted from positive. 政治大 opposition after the 1990s. Along with the increasing impact of globalization and 立. support for peace advocacy during the post-World War II period to negative. urbanization, implementation of city diplomacy has its diverse dimensions (La Porte,. ‧ 國. 學. 2012:445; Van der Pluijm, 2007:8), there are several variations deserve to be. ‧. observed.. sit. y. Nat. In view of this, this thesis will attempt to explore history and evolution of city. io. er. diplomacy at international level as important basis and put emphasis particularly on evaluation of the pros and cons of city diplomacy in Taiwan’s largest city, NTC from. al. n. v i n C h to make up Uinadequacies perspectives engchi. both practical and legal. in academic and. practical works on this theme.. 1.3 Profile of NTC New Taipei City (NTC) is located in northern Taiwan and completely surrounds the capital, Taipei City. It is situated adjacent to Keelung City, Yilan County and Taoyuan City. (see Figure 1-1) The city is also the largest city in Taiwan with a population of 3,966,818 in 2014, which accounts for 17% of the total population. Its total land area is 2,052.57 square kilometers, approximately 6% of Taiwan. 5.

(19) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 y. Nat. io. sit. Figure 1-1: Geographical Location of NTC. n. al. er. Source:New Taipei City (2011, 2 January). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.. i n U. v. Retrieved August 9, 2015, fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Taipei_City. Ch. engchi. NTC formerly known as Taipei County (臺北縣), was upgraded its administrative status on December 25, 2010 as a special municipality (直轄市) with 29 districts (see figure 1-2). Dr. Eric Chu (朱立倫) is the first elected mayor of NTC.The city council is the city's legislative body, with the power to enact and enforce all ordinances and resolutions. The city council composes of 66 councilors elected from 12 electoral districts of the city every 4 years without term limits.. 6.

(20) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. Figure 1-2: Administrative Districts of NTC. io. er. Source: New Taipei City (2011, 2 January). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 9, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Taipei_City. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The city Government has a mayor, three deputy mayors, and a secretary general, two deputy secretary generals, as well as twenty-seven departments and their subordinate departments with twenty thousand employees. The average annual budget of the city during Mayor Chu’s first term from 2011 to 2014 is approximately NT$ 149.3 billion.3 The main industry in NTC is shaped through the information and high-tech as well as 3. Department of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, General Final Accounts of NTC Government.(n.d.).. Financial Statement of NTC Government (總決算暨附屬單位決算綜計). Retrieved November 10, 2015, from http://www.bas.ntpc.gov.tw/web/SG?pageID=50412 7.

(21) service and tourism industries. With NT$26.2 billion in registered capital in 2014, NTC accumulated the largest capital in Taiwan. As a major corporate center, the city is home to 124,205 registered companies with the majorities related to manufacturing, commerce and the construction industries. 4 NTC offers a richly-diverse pool of highly-skilled and multicultural workers. Nearly 40.75 percent of all adults have completed four years of college. With a labor force of approximately 2 million in 2014, NTC provided work for 50.56% of its total population.5. 1.4 Research Purposes. 立. 政治大. Motivated by the above-mentioned background, this study finds it interesting to probe. ‧ 國. 學. the performance of city diplomacy in NTC during the city’s first Mayor, Dr. Eric. ‧. Chu’s first term from December 25th, 2010 to December 25th, 2014. This study will. sit. y. Nat. pursue the following three purposes:. io. er. 1.) To analyze the origin, development and impacts of city diplomacy as an important basis for exploring NTC’s city diplomacy.. n. al. 2.) To investigate practical. v i n C hof NTC’s bilateral cases city-to-city cooperation engchi U. and. multilateral city-network participation in the global arena and generalize the findings. 3.) To analyze achievements and challenges of city-diplomacy work in NTC and make recommendations for future improvements. 4. National Statistics (中華民國統計資料網). (n.d.). Commercial and Industrial Statistic Indicators by. Cities/Counties in Taiwan (縣市工商業概況重要統計指標). Retrieved June 9, 2015, from http://statdb.dgbas.gov.tw/pxweb/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=CS2201A1A&ti=&path=../database/CountySt atistics/&lang=9 5. National Statistics (中華民國統計資訊網). (n.d.). Man Power Indicators by Cities/Counties in. Taiwan (縣市人力資源重要統計指標). Retrieved June 9, 2015, from http://statdb.dgbas.gov.tw/pxweb/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=CS0301A1A&ti=&path=../database/CountySt atistics/&lang=9 8.

(22) 1.5 Literature Review In during research for this thesis, it is surprisingly to find out that there is relatively little academic attention paid to the topic. The definition of city diplomacy is blurring and lack theoretical debates. Most of academic researches focused on overall historical discussion, practical cases only mentioned sporadically as supplementary means and were conducted mainly in the western countries. From the historical background perspectives, a number of studies (Cross, 2010; O'Toole, 2001; Van der Pluij, 2007; Zelinsky, 1991) indicated that city diplomacy can. 政治大 after the end of World War II. However, in addition to city-twinning or sister-city 立. be traced back to the city twinning in Europe and sister city movement in the U.S.. exchanges, cities’ other international participation, such as city-to-city cooperation. ‧ 國. 學. with formal agreement or city-based international organization are not detailed. ‧. discussed and even totally neglected in the academic researches.. sit. y. Nat. The role of states and cities in foreign relations has also gradually changed after the. io. er. World War II. Traditionally, foreign affairs are primarily a task of national government; however, globalization and the evolution towards increasing. al. n. v i n society C have brought non-state h e n g c h i U entities,. participation by civil. e.g. federal states,. provinces and cities onto the world stage. (La Porte, 2012:442) The notion of ‘paradiplomacy’ referring international relations conducted by subnational or regional governments with a view to promoting their own interests also has emerged in the 1980s. (Kuznetsov, 2014:26) However, due to the growing trend toward the internationalization of domestic issues, states and cities are not necessary in different diplomatic routes and should not be discussed separately. The paradiplomacy approach seems theoretically acceptable, in practice it appears to be a simplification of a more complex reality. In view of this, Hocking (1993:9) proposed a new approach “multilayered diplomacy” 9.

(23) interpreting the significance of different elements of the domestic and the international that are located in various political arenas, whether subnational, national or subnational actors, are blended together: a multilayered diplomatic environment. The multilayered diplomatic environment approach broke the concept of ‘paradiplomacy’ which refers to state and city actors conducting different diplomatic policies. Van der Pluijm (2007:11) based on this pragmatic new approach to conceptualize the definition of city diplomacy as “the institution and processes by which cities engage in relations with actors on an international political stage with the. 政治大 describe the relationship between state and city actors in reality may be ‘competitive 立. aim of representing themselves and their interests to one another.” The better term to. cooperation’. Van der Pluijm’s definition on city diplomacy may be considered as an. ‧ 國. 學. important breakthrough of the topic. He conceptualized city diplomacy with a precise. ‧. theoretical construction and put special emphasis on cities’ thriving role in. sit. y. Nat. multilateral city networks.. io. er. Literatures dating back to the 1990s indicated an evolutionary structure of city diplomacy have increased emphasis on economic development as primary motivators.. al. n. v i n Originally, the phenomenon ofC sister-city movementU h e n g c h i built on cultural understanding and peace promotion, now that the concept has gradually changed and there is robust. debate over commercial exchanges in sister-city relationships, specific to the increasing economic cooperation such as Australia and New Zealand’s close sister-city ties with economic rising China after the 1990s. (Cremer, 2001; O’Toole, 2001; Mascitelli, B., & Chung, M., 2008) However, this ‘mercantilism’ is not universally applicable, Cross (2010:112) pointed out Japan focuses mainly on people-to-people exchanges, economic development is only a part of Japanese sister-city objectives, and is in a very macroeconomic sense. Besides, Japan’s commercial and industrial structure is characterized by capital-intensive big 10.

(24) enterprises with high productivity and labor-intensive smaller companies with low productivity, the foreign firms are rarely through sister-city approach to achieve their commercial purposes. It seems that the motives of establishing sister-city tie between the West and the East are not the same and it is worth observing if NTC also follows the trend as the West to shift its emphasis to economic development. ‘Accountability’ in sister-city relationship is another widely discussed issue in the current literatures and as one of main concerns by local citizens and taxpayers. Local governments have received criticisms about their so-call ‘waste-money’ approach. 政治大 relationship does not limit itself to carrying a single project but rather opens the way 立. sister-city relationships over the last decade. Zelinsky (1991:3) pointed out sister-city. for shared activities included “the inevitable back-and-forth junkets involving. ‧ 國. 學. dignitaries”. Jayne et al. (2011:32) also highlighted that hospitality and reciprocity are. ‧. vital to understanding practices of sister-city relationship. In fact, hospitality is an. sit. y. Nat. important trust-built process, the greater cross-cultural understanding contribute to a. io. er. sustain sister-city relationship. To this end, mayors, councilors and municipal officials are expected to justify these activities. O’Toole (2001:406) claimed that under such. al. n. v i n C hactivities take precedence the pressure, short-term economic over long-term outcomes. engchi U In many instances, sister-city relationships have been transformed into short-term economic returns through trade, tourism and to a lesser extent investment. However, the direct and indirect sister-city relationship outputs are difficult to be measured technically, those intangible and indirect achievements may not be easy to gain the full support from the city council and citizen. In summary, relevant studies on city diplomacy are inadequate and practical cases on this theme are relatively fragmentary. The concept of city diplomacy has gradually from the parallel diplomatic routes between city and state to multilayered diplomatic environment approach. Besides, some studies indicate local governments have shifted 11.

(25) their motives to economic consideration due to ‘accountability’ issue after the 1990s, only short-term exchanges convince citizens the necessity of city diplomacy.. 1.6 Methodology This thesis is a case study on NTC’s city diplomacy during the mayor, Eric Chu’s first four-year term from the end of 2010 through the end of 2014. The study will mainly use the method of documentary analysis and supplement with field observation of. 政治大 directly from on-site local government archives and secondary sources of books, 立 practical cases. The documentary resources include primary resources assessed. journals, brochures, news media and websites. The practical cases will focus on the. ‧ 國. 學. city’s international cooperation and exchanges with formal agreements or. ‧. participation of international organizations.. sit. y. Nat. For a comprehensive understanding of actual situation of city diplomacy in NTC,. io. er. firstly, the research will utilize numerous secondary materials to explore the history and implementation of city diplomacy at the macroscopic level and construct an. n. al. Ch. overall foundation for exploring the topic.. engchi. i n U. v. Secondly, according to Van der Pluijm (2007:12), cities can engage in relations with other actors on the international political stage through bilateral or multilateral interactions, of which at least one is a representative of a city. This thesis will base on his classification of interactions among cities to evaluate bilateral city-to-city cooperation in NTC and the city’s involvement on multilateral interactions with associations of municipalities which involved various cities. Practical cases of bilateral and multilateral intercity cooperation in the city will be employed intensively for observing if the findings are consistent with the current situation of city diplomacy in the global arena. 12.

(26) Finally, since a state’s foreign relations and domestic political environment have a certain influence on cities’ diplomatic activities (Hung, 2011:6), this thesis will take the status of Taiwan’s international relations and political climate as basis to discuss the achievements and limitations in NTC.. 1.7 Chapters Arrangement This thesis consists of five chapters which can be divided into three parts (see Figure. 政治大 statement, profile of NTC,. 1-3). Part One will be discussed in Chapter One and Chapter Two, an overall historical background, problem. 立. research purposes,. methodology and literature review on the topic will be clearly illustrated. In this part,. ‧ 國. 學. we attempt to explore development of city diplomacy based on the existing academic. ‧. literatures, official documents and relevant materials from macroscopic perspective at. sit. y. Nat. the international level, as a basis for exploring NTC’s city diplomacy.. io. er. Part Two is composed of Chapter Three and Chapter Four, and is the main focus of this thesis. Abundant relevant examples are expected as important materials and. al. n. v i n C h We will analyzeUthe city’s bilateral city-to-city convincing evidences in this section. engchi. cooperation and multilateral city-network participation. In addition to city’s practice, city’s diplomatic status, strategies and challenges in terms of legal procedure and. political climate during NTC’s first mayor, Mayor Eric Chu’s first term will be explored comprehensively. Finally, in Part Three, Chapter Five of the thesis will conclude the findings, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of current city-diplomacy policies, and further provide recommendations for the future work.. 13.

(27) 學 Figure 1-3: Chapters Arrangement. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. Ch. engchi. 14. i n U. v.

(28) Chapter 2 Development of City Diplomacy. 2.1 Definition and Origin of City Diplomacy 2.1.1 Definition and Theoretical Debates Given that cities have become very active in the global arena since the last quarter of the 20th century, the term, ‘city diplomacy' has gained increasing usage and. 政治大 the definition of city diplomacy is not abundant. Van der Pluijm (2007: 11) proposed 立. acceptance in various international issues (Arnau, 2013: 50). Academic discussion on. the comprehensive concept of city diplomacy which is conceptualized as “institutions. ‧ 國. 學. and processes by which cities engage in relations with actors on an international. y. Nat. another.”. ‧. political stage with the aim of representing themselves and their interests to one. er. io. sit. Under Van der Pluijm’s definition, the representative of city is seriously taken, and the concept of city diplomacy could be considered as a form of decentralization of. n. al. traditional international. i n C hwhich was dominated relations engchi U. v. by states. With such a. definition, the interactions among cities are not only limited to sister city movement and city-to-city activities and are more consistent with the reality of cities’ thriving role in multilateral city networks on the international stage. In fact, in light of cities’ diverse roles in the global arena, the naming of city diplomacy is different in regions through the decades. In case of Russia and former Soviet countries, the terms of brother (pobratimy) cities or related (porodnennye) cities are used to describe formal city-to-city friendly relations. Other terms, such as municipal international cooperation, city-to-city cooperation, town-twinning, sister city movement, friendship city relationship and etc. are all used often worldwide. 15.

(29) Although these are no universal and coherent terms, these terms generally refer to “at least two local government bodies in different countries cooperate in a more or less official framework.” (Buis, 2009: 191) It is also noteworthy that citizens are important basis of the process of city diplomacy, especially in the U.S. where grass-root groups are dominant actor of development and practice of city-to-city exchanges programs in local communities (Cross, 2010). However, citizens’ active involvements in citizen movement cannot be considered as city diplomacy, unless they represent the city with authorization of the local. 政治大 between people from different countries, as opposed to official contacts between 立 government. There is another term to conceptualize citizens’ unofficial contacts. governmental representatives, namely ‘citizen diplomacy’. (Chigas, 2003). ‧ 國. 學. As expounded in Literature Review in Chapter One, there are various forms of. ‧. cooperation and exchanges among cities. Cities can engage in relations with other. sit. y. Nat. actors on the international political stage through bilateral interactions, such as. io. er. bilateral sister city movement and city-to-city cooperation or through multilateral city network participation. Unfortunately, in the current academic studies, most attentions. al. n. v i n C h while other types are paid to sister city related researches, of international exchanges engchi U. between cities are neglected. For a more complete picture of this topic, this thesis would like to explore the areas which have long been neglected. That is to comprehend the actual interaction status and robust debate over the role of sister city relationship in the academic studies. Regarding to the approach of the formal sister city agreement, Cremer et al. (1996) introduced the ‘integrated approach’ to analysis of sister cities, whereby “cities rediscover one of their original roles as meeting places between different people and cultures, and thus create a (market) place for economic and business activities.” O’Toole (2001: 405) identified three stages in development: the associative, 16.

(30) reciprocative and commercial approaches. Associative refers to “establish relations with other cities around the globe were based upon notions of international friendship, cultural. exchange. and. a. general. international. awareness”;. reciprocative. conceptualized from “the growth of an educational exchanges system that helped to broaden and development the sister city movement”; and the final stage, commercial is “an attempt to take advantage of the process to further their local economic aims.” These three stages do not been listed in sequence but interlinking approaches. Cremer et al. (2001) further expanded the debates and developed the hybrid approach,. 政治大 for viable and successful sister city relationship required significant community 立 ‘municipal-community entrepreneurship’ which suggested the distinguishing feature. activism for the mutual advantages of economic and social actors in both cities.. ‧ 國. 學. It is not difficult to discover from the above elaboration that exchanges of sister cities. ‧. have shifted from the traditional cultural understanding and peace advocating to local. sit. y. Nat. economic development. Nevertheless, relevant researches are few and far between. io. er. and mainly take cities in the western countries as instances, and may not provide the whole picture of the evolution of city diplomacy. There are many other practical. n. al. initiatives among cities. v i n C h to be explored. waiting However, engchi U. town twinning. initiatives/sister city movements are still the most representative phenomenon of city diplomacy due to peaceful atmosphere pursued by the western countries since the end of WWII.. 2.1.2 Origin of City Diplomacy: Town Twinning in the Europe The first recorded modern twinning agreement was between Keighley and Poix-du-Nord in Nord, France, in 1920 following the end of the First World War. The practice was continued after the Second World War as a way to promote mutual 17.

(31) understanding and cross-border projects of mutual benefit.6 The flourishing period of development of city diplomacy can be traced back to town twinning among border towns between France and Germany since the end of WWII. It was thought that if people of different nations got to know and understand each other on a personal level by meeting in their normal environments, even their private homes, then the horrors of war would never be repeated. The aftermath of WWII provided an ideal climate for the European countries to reconcile rival relations of the past. (Mascitelli, 2008) One of the most important factors for improving relations between France and. 政治大 fair attitude, not only the national political leaders of two countries make efforts for 立 Germany is the two sides were willing to face their historical issues with honest and. closer security and economic ties, but city mayors, city councilmen as well as local. ‧ 國. 學. private sectors, attempted to create a healthy environment through binational. ‧. exchanges, town twinning. A large number of town twinning initiatives between. io. er. improve hostile atmosphere in Europe. (Campbell, 1987). sit. y. Nat. towns on either side of Rhine therefore developed as a significant mechanism to. Since the 1950s, European integration has seen the development of a supranational. al. n. v i n C htwo fundamental U system of governance. There are goals in the years of European engchi. reconstruction: protecting the right of individual and of the community and creating a new atmosphere of Franco-German cooperation under the European framework. (Campbell, 1987) Local leaders in Europe learned the lesson from the inter-war period that the primary interest for people was peace. Town twinning initiatives under the concept of European integration have had gradually emerged for bolstering mutual understanding and restoring their torn relationships. (Joenniemi, 2011) The post-war initiative to improve Franco-German relations originated in Switzerland 6. "Town twinning in the UK and Germany". East Street Arts. Retrieved 2015-03-03, https://wygoveryonder.wordpress.com/about-town-twinning-in-the-uk-and-germany/ 18.

(32) through two Swiss scholars, Dr. Eugen Wyler and Dr. Hans Zbinden by calling a conference of French and German city mayors, Franco-German Mayors Committee at Mont Pelerin on Lake Geneva in June 1948. Initially, the meeting was not going well due to mistrust of two sides, until the third conference in May 1950 in Paris, the Mayors Committee was transformed into the International Mayors Union for Franco-German Understanding and European Cooperation (IBU), which was formally set up for the aim of promoting the European unity, the idea of development of friendly relations by various city-to-city and person-to-person cooperation among its. 政治大. members cities, namely town twinning initiatives therefore spread out. (Campbell, 1987). 立. Slightly later than the IBU, the Council of European Municipalities and Regions. ‧ 國. 學. (CEMR) established in January 1951 with supports of sixty-eight city mayors and city. ‧. officials from eight European countries. However, the central idea of the CEMR. sit. y. Nat. differed from the IBU. Unlike IBU taking Franco-German cooperation as essential. io. er. precondition before Europe integration and emphasizing on affiliations building only between French and German border cities, the CEMR; on the other hand, paid more. al. n. v i n C all attention to city partnerships in member countries without different h eEuropean ngchi U country priority. Nowadays, CEMR is still an active and broadest European. association of local and regional government which has more than 150,000 local-government members from 14 European countries. (CEMR, n.d.) According to CEMR’s statistics on town twinnings in Europe in 2010, there are 2,281 ties between France and Germany, far ahead of the second place, UK and France (1,065) and the third place, Poland and Germany (1,021). (see Table 2-1) Town twinning affiliations between France and Germany are closer than those with other European countries. Besides, France and German have in total 6,776 and 6,048 town twinnings respectively, which are far more than the second place country, Poland 19.

(33) (3,508) and other European countries. Town twinning has initiated among border cities between France and German and now is spreading out to the wide Europe since WWII. Until the end of 2010, there are in total 39,508 town twinnings in the European Union (EU). The data demonstrate that town twinning between France and German is more active than between other European members. Not surprisingly due to their unique political history and geographical position in Europe, the two countries have kept their leading position in town twinning development since the 1950s. Until today, the town twinning movement is still thriving and plays an important role under the structure of European unity.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 20. i n U. v.

(34) Table 2-1: The Number of Twinnings in Europe in 2010. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Source: Council of European Municipalities and Regions, Retrieved March 3, 2015, from http://www.twinning.org/uploads/assets/news/Number%20of%20twinnings%20in%20Europe %20in%202010.pdf 21.

(35) European Union (EU) plays an important role in promoting town twinning. In fact, the initial motivation of establishment of EU is to rebuild Europe after WWII, as well as concerns about Europe will once again fall into the quagmire of war. Within Europe, town twinning is supported by the EU. The support scheme was established in 1989. The Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR) also work closely with the European Commission (DG Education and Culture) to promote twinning initiatives and exchanges. The European Commission continuing provided long-term funding to support town-twinning movement as an important bridge to. 政治大 social tensions, such as economic depression, racial discrimination and religious 立 bring cities within the Europe closer. Today, European countries faced with certain. hostility. Now the EU takes the citizenship as an important element in strengthening. ‧ 國. 學. civic participation through the "Europe for Citizens" program for the period. ‧. 2007-2013, which aims to repair fragmented European society with a wide range of. sit. y. Nat. activities and organizations promoting ‘active European citizenship’ (European. io. er. Commission, n.d.). Town twinning has undergone a near-metamorphosis in the recent past, reflecting its position in an ever more rapidly changing world. Yet it is still. n. al. Ch. thriving and has retained all its original values.. engchi. i n U. v. 2.1.3 Origin of City Diplomacy: Sister City Movement in the U.S. Development of city diplomacy in the U.S. has been flourishing since the 1950s; however, follows rather different course from Europe. The first city in the U.S. to establish a sister-city relationship was Toledo, Ohio, which affiliated with Toledo, Spain, in 1931. The US sister city program formally began at the White House Conference on September 11, 1956 that when President Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed a People-to-People Program on citizen diplomacy initiative. President Eisenhower reasoned that people of different cultures could celebrate and appreciate 22.

(36) their differences and build partnerships that would lessen the chance of new conflicts. According to President Eisenhower’s speech at the Conference,“…… If we are going to take advantage of the assumption that all people want peace, then the problem is for people to get together and to leap governments - if necessary to evade governments - to work out not one method but thousands of methods by which people can gradually learn a little bit more of each other" which highlights the importance of citizens’ direct contact without intervention from the state. (People-to-People Program, n.d.). 政治大 House Conference on citizen diplomacy. Since its inception, SCI has played a key 立 Sister Cities International (SCI) was created at President Eisenhower’s 1956 White. role in renewing and strengthening important global relationships. Seeds of the sister. ‧ 國. 學. city movement are sown due to the lengthy conflicts of WWII. The war devastated. ‧. many cities in Europe, Asia and the Pacific, leaving millions dead and wounded.. sit. y. Nat. Many early sister city relationships formed out of the post WWII aid programs to. io. er. Western Europe. As Zinlinsky (1991: 5) pointed out, a number of war relief organizations emerged during and after WWII, e.g. Bundles for Britain, Russian War. n. al. Ch. Relief, and American Aid to France, Inc. The. engchi. v i n early U groundwork. for post-war. humanitarian aid efforts catalyzed the movement to forge linkages between North America and the stricken people of allied countries. Sister Cities International (SCI) published its 50th anniversary book in 2006, Peace through People: 50 Years of Global Citizenship, with valuable primary historical documents of the first half-century (1956-2006) of sister city movement in the U.S. In this section, the information from the publication will be used to capture the historical background of sister city development in the U.S. In the early stage of the sister city program, dozens of U.S. communities reached out to former battlefield enemies, Japanese and German cities and rebuilt their 23.

(37) communities. Considering the hostile atmosphere of anti-Japanese fever in war-time America, their friendly embrace in the period was remarkable. After the 1960s, the rapid expanding program soon faced with new challenges, sister city leaders at local level decided to establish a national association, the Town Affiliation Association, thus incorporated on June 12, 1965 to assist the growing American sister cities entering the program and serve those already affiliated. SCI became a separate corporation in 1967 due to the growth and popularity of the sister city program in the U.S.. 政治大 such as ‘school affiliation’ program and ‘We Agree’ workshops to help bringing 立. During the 1970s and the 1980s, series programs launched for youth and education,. students from around the globe together, these school-to-school linkages and global. ‧ 國. 學. education initiatives are now known as student-exchange programs between sister. ‧. cities. In addition to cultural and educational exchanges, the Technical Assistance. sit. y. Nat. Program (TAP) was established in 1977 to exchange technical expertise between the. io. er. U.S. and affiliated communities in developing countries. (SCI, 2006: 78-82) As Zenlinsky (1991) pointed out, sister city movements initiated from the advanced. al. n. v i n countries, then spreaded to theC developing countriesU h e n g c h i and then the Third World. The motives of sister city activities in this period had diverted attention from seeking post-war reconciliation. The U.S.–U.S.S.R. Sister Cities Conference was one of the notable events in the 1990s. Its second Conference held in Cincinnati, Ohio in September 12-13, 1991, brought 240 U.S. delegates with 210 counterparts from 65 communities and 11 republics within the Soviet Union. This unprecedented gathering was noted as largest-ever meeting of Soviet citizens in the U.S. (SCI, 2006: 145) Along with the development of globalization and various mutual facing issues in the global ecosystem, sister city conferences by region have been emerging after the 1990s. In 24.

(38) addition to the U.S.–U.S.S.R. Sister Cities Conference, the first U.S.–Africa Sister Cities Conference was held in Washington D.C. in 1992 and the first Sino–U.S. Sister Cities Conference also set up in Beijing in 1995. After the 2000s, sister city exchanges are diverse and enter the mature stage. The relationships that endured were generally based on cultural or educational cooperation that developed lasting friendships, and many cases related to humanitarian relief efforts could be found between sister cities. On September 11, 2001, the terrorist attacks hit New York and Washington D.C. and took nearly 3,000 lives. The. 政治大 Metropolitan Assembly members donated another US$50,000 to its sister city, New 立 government of Tokyo donated US$5 million to New York State, while Tokyo. York City, affiliated since 1960. (SCI, 2006: 186) Another example is the Great East. ‧ 國. 學. Japan Earthquake and Tsunami on March 11, 2011, which brought a numerous U.S.–. ‧. Japan sister cities together. Responding to the destruction and lives lost in their. sit. y. Nat. Japanese counterparts, an emergency meeting was set up by more than 100 residents. io. er. of Riverside, California for discussing how to get aid to Sendai, their sister city established since 1958. The New York Times article reported on this that “the funds. al. n. v i n C hto Sendai City HallUinstead of to international aid raised in Riverside would be sent engchi. organizations to ensure that the money would be spent locally.” (Wollan, 2011) These cases again verified the spirit of sister city movement proposed by President Eisenhower, if one city ever needed help it could be more easily and unbureaucratically received from another city than, for example, from national aid programs. With decades of affiliations building, sister city movements are not limited to the routine cultural and economic activities, the grass-root emergency aid and humane care are also widespread nowadays. It’s interesting that sister city movement in the U.S. seems to return to the mode of humanitarian aid of the post-war period. 25.

(39) 2.2 International Activities of Local Governments in the Global Arena 2.2.1 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Culture Along with Globalization and evolution towards increasing international participation by civil society, non-state actors have increased their direct involvement on the global stage. (La Porte, 2012) As expounded in the previous section, actors such as local governments have increased their involvement in international initiatives since the end of WWII. The process started with town-twinning movement between border cities between France and Germany, soon after cities in the Europe and the U.S.. 政治大 their long-lasting friendship立 by town-twinning/sister-city program.. initiated various cultural exchanges to improve mutual understanding and establish. ‧ 國. 學. Fostering cultural understanding between cities in rival countries is not only a way of diminishing tension of the Cold War, but a mechanism of rebuilding trust. O’Toole. ‧. (2000) proposed three different but interlinking approaches of sister city movement:. sit. y. Nat. associative, reciproeactive and commercial. Except the third one which is an. n. al. er. io. economic-oriented approach, the associative and the reciproeactive are based upon. i n U. v. the cultural exchanges and friendship establishment. The first associative approach. Ch. engchi. focusing on relationships, while the reciproeactive relationship is more symbolic in the exchanges of various activities, in particular, it puts emphasis on educational exchanges under sister-city program. Cremer (2001: 384) also emphasized “the cultural understandings that are built up over time that provide the positive environment which can reduce risks and uncertainties involved in economic enterprises such as trade, tourism and investment.” That is, the short-term economic-oriented cooperation and activities without the long-term cultural understanding and firm affiliation construction as basis of mutual trust, could lose the original spirit of city diplomacy and is difficult to achieve the 26.

(40) mutual benefit. It is worth noting that, the U.S and the Europe’s proactive approach on sister-city/town-twinning projects involving cities from the former rivals, such as the Soviet Union, Germany and Japan during the post-war period. Although the stakes were not as high as on the national level, cultural activities between cities undoubtedly have significant contribution to the promotion of peace. Cultural activities between cities in the global arena have its historical meaning. They refer to the early stage of cities’ active participation in foreign affairs, as well as the. 政治大 attention to economic development and other common challenges, the pure cultural 立. most essential element of city diplomacy. Nowadays local governments paid more. exchanges may not completely meet citizens’ expectation; however, affiliation. ‧ 國. 學. building is not only an important basis but a prerequisite for successful cooperation. ‧. between cities.. sit. y. Nat. io. er. 2.2.2 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Economic Development. Originally, the concept of city diplomacy was to promote cultural understanding and. al. n. v i n C hconcept has gradually peace at local level. However, the changed since the late 1990s engchi U and now there is a robust debate over the inclusion of commercial exchanges into. city-to-city cooperation. It was noted that when sister-city program first began in 1956, there were little references to international trade or economic development as one of the objectives of sister-city relationships. (Mascitelli, B., & Chung, M., 2008) Over the decades has evolved, as O’Toole (2001) and Cross (2010) highlighted, active economic cooperation between cities in Australia and New Zealand and their sister-city counterparts in rising China has changed friendship ties after the 1990s. Van per Pluijim (2007: 25-26) further pointed out that economic dimension of city diplomacy is an important part of cities’ international activities. And cities’ 27.

(41) ‘self-interest’ has increasingly become a driving force or even the only leading motive behind the diplomatic activities of cities. There are two ways which city diplomacy can ensure cities’ economic benefits for cities: the first is economic-pull activities, to attract tourists, foreign direct investment and international events to their city; and the second way is termed push-diplomatic economic activities, referring to export their knowledge and service or enter into partnership agreements with other cities. The first approach, economic-pull activities is common in many cities in developed world. Global cities like Tokyo, New York and London have reputation of being a. 政治大 such resource and position could attract more capital through attracting international 立. financial, political and cultural capital of the world. It is not surprised that cities with. tourists or multinational corporation headquarters stationed into these mega cities.. ‧ 國. 學. However, for smaller cities without strong foundation, van der Pluijim (2007: 25). ‧. suggested an interesting aspect of diplomatic activities of cities, ‘city branding.’. y. Nat. Urban development has come to include an economic dimension, aimed at increasing. er. io. sit. a city’s attractiveness and international visibility. To meet this challenge, cities are engaging in marketing and branding to improve their image on the international scene.. al. n. v i n And city branding is believed C to be a way of making h e n g c h i U place famous. Smaller cities, such as city of Dubai, with image of gateway to the world and Dutch city of Hague,. with its image of legal capital of the world, attract considerable foreign capital from creating certain image. (Anholt, 2010; Pluijim, 2007) Pluijim’s second approach, push-diplomatic economic activities is common with two cities having communal business through entering into partnership agreements. There are many examples of good partnership between harbor cities around the world. Such as Kaohsiung, a city with the world-famous yacht industry, concluded a ‘sister-port agreement’ with its sister city, Miami in 1992 to facilitate two-way personnel exchanges, information sharing, as well as the mutual cooperation in yacht and cruise 28.

(42) industry.7 (Kaohsiung Harbour Bureau, 2012) The technical staffs and civil servants in the two cities not only share their know-how, but also learn from their counterparts. These additional skills have positive effect on the work of civil servants as well as on the city’s economy.. 2.2.3 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Security The town-twinning projects are the best practices for historical involvement of cities in security dimension. As such, cities have increased their involvement in conflict. 政治大 end of the Cold War. Given that resolution of conflicts and sustainable peace need to 立. resolution and post-conflict reconstruction through city-to-city interactions since the. be concrete, and cities know best about localities and do not process arms that are. ‧ 國. 學. state’s monopoly, meaning that cities often perceived as more neutral than states.. ‧. (Pluijm, 2007: 20). sit. y. Nat. Despite cities have certain advantages than state on conflict prevention, they are in the. io. er. end at assistance level and cannot replace the exclusive right of military of states. Thus, this thesis would like to put emphasis on two atypical dimensions of security. al. n. v i n C hin the global sense: involvement one engchi U. with cities’ active. is international social. assistance development, and another dimension is environmental protection participation. International assistance provided by cities can be further divided into long-term humanitarian development and short-term emergency aid. Cities’ long-term humanitarian development is usually provided by association of municipalities, such as United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) led to the recognition as the voice of local and regional authorities in the OECD Working Party on Aid Effectiveness, as 7. Kaohsiung Harbour Bureau (2012). 高雄港與美國邁阿密港締結姊妹港暨參加邁阿密遊艇展出國報告書. Retrieved March 3, 2015, from http://report.nat.gov.tw/ReportFront/report_detail.jspx?sysId=C10100523 29.

(43) well as an observer of the Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation to bring governments, the private sector, and civil society together and to ensure maximum impact in eradicating poverty.8 While, short-term emergency aid assistance is geared toward sudden crises, for example, on March 11, 2011 the Great East Japan Earthquake triggered powerful tsunamis which led to numerous deaths and injuries, Taiwan local governments including Taipei, New Taipei and Tainan promptly formed a 28-member rescue team and flew to Japan for disaster relief efforts. (Taipei City Fire Department, 2013). 政治大 international stage is the Guang Da Xing (廣大興) No. 28 incident occurred on May 9, 立 Another example of emergency crisis in terms of cities’ active involvement on the. 2013, resulting from a fatal shooting of Taiwanese fisherman by gunfire from. ‧ 國. 學. Philippine vessel in the dispute waters. In addition to a series of sanctions against the. ‧. Philippines by Taiwan central government, major local governments including Taipei,. sit. y. Nat. New Taipei, Hsinchu, Taichung, Chiayi, Tainan and Kaohsiung, one after the other. io. er. announced to stop any form of city-diplomacy activities with the Philippine unless Philippine government takes positive measures to the incident.. al. n. v i n C hby 2030, two thirds In terms of environment protection, of world population will live engchi U. in urban, cities, especially those fast-growing in developing countries are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.9 Various networks of concerned local government therefore set up, such as the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), established in 1990 supporting local governments to become sustainable, resilient, resource-efficient, biodiverse and low-carbon; the Local Government Climate Roadmap, a broad coalition of local government networks 8. UCLG. (n.d.). Aid effectiveness. Retrieved March 4, 2015, from http://www.uclg.org/en/issues/aid-effectiveness 9 ICLEI. (n.d.). Tracking Local Climate Action in More than Two Decades. Retrieved March 8, 2015, from Local Government Climate Roadmap Secretariat: http://www.iclei.org/climate-roadmap/about-us/history.html 30.

(44) found in 2007, is designed and implemented to ensure a strong and ambitious global climate regime. Through these cross-border networks, cities are turning out to be a key factor in global climate changes issues and fully recognized, engaged and empowered. Given that cities have authority over the land-use planning and waste management and play an important role on transportation issue and energy consumption policy. (Betsill & Bulkeley, 2006) Apart from traditional security issue at the national level, climate change issues at the global level are also widely considered having a strong local dimension.. 立. 政治大. 2.2.4 The Expanding Roles of Cities: Network. ‧ 國. 學. Cooperation among cities or network of cities is a very common phenomenon at both. ‧. national and international level. Unlike the other dimensions discussed above in this. sit. y. Nat. chapter, international cooperation itself is usually not an ultimate objective of city. io. er. diplomacy but more an important means to achieve mutual goals.. Networking local governments within a country is common in developed countries,. al. n. v i n there are many associations of C municipalities that represent h e n g c h i U the interests of cities at. state level. Associations such as Australian Local Government Association, Federation of Canadian Municipalities, The National League of Cities (USA), Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces and other similar organizations are common national organizations as a platform to help local leaders build better communities in the country. One of the basic forms for city-to-city cooperation in the international arena is town-twinning/sister-city movement which widely discussed throughout this thesis. Activities under this bilateral interaction mode mainly focus on short-term and small-scale cultural and educational exchanges to promote the mutual understanding 31.

(45) and friendship. However, as rapid growth of globalization and urbanization, the development of structure through which local concerns can be very diverse and complicated. The UN Secretary General’s report to the General Assembly10, issued in July 2013, highlights the importance of sustainable development of cities. Some 70 percent of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050. Urbanization poses the challenge of providing city dwellers with employment, food, housing, transportation, clean water and sanitation, social services and cultural amenities. Association of municipalities within. 政治大 the global arena, network of cities beyond territorial broader gradually emerged as a 立 countries or bilateral city-to-city cooperation has been far to meet the need of cities in. platform for local leaders, social entrepreneurs and experts in their fields to deal with. ‧ 國. 學. common challenges.. ‧. One of the successful global networks of local governments is United Cities and. y. Nat. Local Governments (UCLG). UCLG was founded in 2004, as well as the largest local. er. io. sit. government organization in the world. The organization understands itself as: “to be the united voice and world advocate of democratic local self-government, promoting. al. n. v i n C hthrough cooperation its values, objectives and interests, between local governments, engchi U and within the wider international community.”11. Cities around the world are struggling to accommodate their multi-dimensional challenges of urban development. In addition to the integrated functional umbrella organization like UCLG, local government networks with targeted topics are also thriving, such as Alliance for Healthy Cities is an international network aiming at protecting and enhancing the health of city dwellers; Intelligent Communities Forum (ICF) seeks to share best practices by communities in adapting to the changing 10 11. Available at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/68/202 Available at: http://www.uclg.org/en/organisation/about 32.