身分認同、觀感和社會融合: 以西班牙穆斯林移民為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)International Master’s Program in International Studies National Chengchi University 國立政治大學國際研究英語碩士學位學程. Identity, Perception and Integration: A Case of Muslim Immigrants in Spain 身分認同、觀感和社會融合: 以西班牙穆斯林移民為例. Shing Yi Ma Advisor: Dr. Chung-hung Cho. June, 2016.

(2) Acknowledgement. I would like to thank my family, my adviser, my boyfriend, my cousin, and everyone that helped me with my thesis. It would not have been possible without all of your supports throughout these months..

(3) Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... i Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................... j 1.1 Historical Background ......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Motivation ............................................................................................ 3 1.3 Research Question and Purpose of Research ....................................................... 4 1.4 Limitation of Research ......................................................................................... 5 1.5 Literature Review................................................................................................. 6 1.5.1 Identity .......................................................................................................... 6 1.5.2 Integration ..................................................................................................... 9 1.5.3 Effect of terrorist attacks............................................................................. 12 1.5.4 Attitudes ...................................................................................................... 13 1.5.5 Confusion of Identity .................................................................................. 15 1.6 Organization of Thesis Chapters........................................................................ 17 Ch. 2: Research Method and Approach .................................................................. 18 2.1-Theory: Constructivism ..................................................................................... 18 2.2 The Others-Perception, image and stereotype ................................................... 19 2.4 Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 20 Chapter 3: Analysis of Immigration Policies........................................................... 23 3.1 Law 4/2000 ........................................................................................................ 23 3.2 European Union Blue Card Policy ..................................................................... 24 3.3 Residence and Nationality ................................................................................. 26 3.4 Policy Analysis .................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 4: Background of Interviewees .................................................................. 32 4. 1 Overall Background .......................................................................................... 32 4.2 Second-Generation Muslims.............................................................................. 33 4.3 First-Generation Muslims .................................................................................. 33 Chapter 5: Content and Analysis of Interviews ...................................................... 35 5.1 Overall Content .................................................................................................. 35 5.2 Attitudes towards Spain ..................................................................................... 35 5.2.1 Second-Generation Muslims....................................................................... 35 5.2.2 First-Generation Muslims ........................................................................... 37 5.3 Racism and Islamophobia and Gender Discrimination in society ..................... 39 5.3.1 Second-Generation Muslims....................................................................... 39 5.3.2 First-Generation Muslims ........................................................................... 40.

(4) 5.4 Responses to Political Policies and Action of Governments ............................. 42 5.4.1 Second-Generation Muslims....................................................................... 42 5.4.2 First-Generation Muslims ........................................................................... 43 5.5 Integration and Adaptation in society ................................................................ 44 5.5.1 Second-Generation Muslims....................................................................... 44 5.5.2 First-Generation Muslims ........................................................................... 45 5.6 Different identity roles ....................................................................................... 46 5.6.1 Second-Generation Muslims....................................................................... 47 5.6.2 First-Generation Muslims ........................................................................... 50 5.7 Differences between generations ....................................................................... 52 Chapter 6: Conclusion ............................................................................................... 56 6.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 56 6.2 Implications........................................................................................................ 58 Appendix 1. Questions for Interview ....................................................................... 59 Appendix 2. Summaries of Interviews ..................................................................... 60 Interviewee No.1 and No.2 ...................................................................................... 60 Interviewee No.3 ...................................................................................................... 61 Interviewee No. 4 ..................................................................................................... 62 Interviewee No.5 ...................................................................................................... 62 Interviewee No.6 ...................................................................................................... 64 Interviewee No. 7 ..................................................................................................... 64 Interviewee No. 8 ..................................................................................................... 65 Interviewee No.9 ...................................................................................................... 67 Interviewee No. 10 ................................................................................................... 69 Interviewee No.11 .................................................................................................... 69 Interviewee No. 12 ................................................................................................... 70 Interviewee No. 13 ................................................................................................... 70 Interviewee No.14 .................................................................................................... 72 Interviewee No.15 .................................................................................................... 72 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 74.

(5) Table of Figures Figure 5.1 Perception of Second-Generation Muslims and their views of Spanish Policies ........................................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 5.2 Perception and of First-Generation Muslims and their views of Spanish Policies .............................................................................................................................. 38 Figure 5.3 Identities of Second-Generation Muslims ......................................................... 47 Figure 5.4. Identities of First-Generation Muslims ............................................................ 48.

(6) Abstract It is easier and faster for people to move to different places nowadays with the advanced development of technology and globalization. Although it is easy to move to foreign countries, it is difficult for immigrants to adapt and integrate into a society with distinct cultures, ethnicities, religious and historical background. Identity can be seen as an important factor during the process of integration. From the attitudes of European citizens, self-identification of Muslim immigrants, perceptions and stereotypes imposed toward the immigrants, the difficulties and challenges of integration into the society can easily be observed. The researcher propose to conduct interviews with Muslim immigrants living in Spain to see their perspectives of the process of integration and the challenges they faced. Many scholars believed that the Muslim immigrants were not represented in the society and often face many discriminations and misunderstandings due to their identity. For other scholars, immigration in Spain is not perceived to be a threat to national identity because of the lack of visibility of immigrants. However, with recent event of terrorist attacks and the economic crisis, the attitudes of local citizens are becoming less tolerant toward Muslim immigrants. When Muslim immigrants face difficulties of adaptation and integration into the foreign society, they would become segregated and form their own social group; or they would assimilate into the foreign country and lose their identity. If Muslim immigrants are accepted and welcomed by local communities and the government, they would be able to create a new identity and integrate into the society better. Key words: Identity, integration, constructivism, Muslim immigrants, perception.

(7) 摘要現今科技的進步和全球化，人們能更容易且迅速地遷移到不同的地方。移民遷移國外不難，但要適應居住國不同的文化、種族、宗教、歷史背景和社會融合就因人而異。身分認同是社會融合中重要的因素，而社會融合的困難與挑戰則可以從歐洲公民的態度、穆斯林移民的自我身分認同、對於移民的觀感和刻板印象中觀察出。論文藉由和西班牙穆斯林移民的實地訪談，試圖了解這些移民在社會融合的過程以及挑戰。許多學者認為穆斯林移民在社會的代表性較差，以及其認同常常遭受許多歧視和誤解。其他學者並不認為西班牙移民威脅到國家認同，因為移民在社會中缺乏能見度。然而，近年來歐洲經濟危機和恐怖攻擊事件導致當地公民對於穆斯林移民的態度有所改變。當穆斯林移民面臨在異鄉的適應和社會融合的困難中，他們或許會選擇從當地社會中分離並組成自我的社會群體，或選擇融入當地社會而失去自己的身分認同。如果穆斯林移民能夠被當地社群和政府接受，或許會更容易融入社會。關鍵字: 身分認同、社會融合、建構主義、穆斯林移民、社會觀感。.

(8) Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Historical Background It is easier and faster to travel and immigrate to other countries in the world due to advancements in technology. Many people move to different places for various reasons and they face many challenges adapting to new environments, especially when it’s very different from their own background culturally, socially, and religiously. Spain has had a long history with influences and interactions from the Arab World. From the 8th century to the 15th century, Spain was under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate. Spain was under Islamic and Arab influence for many centuries. Islamic architectures can still be found in Spain, especially in the south, for example in Andalucía. Due to the geographical location of Spain, many people from North African countries could move to other European countries and to Spain. Besides the convenience of traveling to Spain, the immigration policy of Spain also attracted a lot of foreign workers from North Africa. In fact, the growth of foreign populations from countries such as Romania, Morocco, the United Kingdom, Bolivia, and China increased significantly from the years 2001 to 2011.1 From this data, we can see that many immigrants came from countries belonging to the former Spanish Empire. Immigrants from Morocco were formerly the largest foreign group in Spain, but immigrants from Romania have been the largest foreign group since 2007. Before 1985, Moroccans did not need a visa to enter Spain. At that time, many companies in the agriculture and industry sectors in Spain needed employees for. 1. Population and Housing Censuses 2011, INE. http://www.ine.es/en/prensa/np756_en.pdf. 1.

(9) seasonal or short-term work. The passage of Law 4/2000 in 2000 created mechanisms for family reunification, regularization of illegal migrants, and acquisition of permanent residency. Through these mechanisms, Spanish Immigration Law tried to facilitate integration for migrants.2 However, the primary suspect in the March 11, 2004 Madrid Train Bombings was Jamal Zougam, who was of Moroccan descent.3 He was charged with multiple counts of murder, attempted murder, stealing a vehicle, belonging to a terrorist organization and four counts of carrying out terrorist acts. Emilio Suraez Trashorras, a Spaniard, was also arrested for supplying dynamite in return for drugs.4 This incident raised questions concerning the foreign policies of the Spanish government and its involvement in the Iraq War. The general election was affected heavily by this incident, since the bombing took place just three days before the election. The incumbent political party, Partido Popular (PP) was defeated and Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) came to power from 2004 to 2011. The change of political party also affected Spain’s immigration policies. The population of Moroccan migrants continues to grow steadily despite the changes in immigration policy. The above only provides a brief overview of the history of Spanish immigrants. Morocco provides a good example of Muslim immigrants living in Spain due to its historical connections with the country, whether it is in the work force or cultural and historical ties. However, the researcher would not limit the research to 2. Nuria Empez Vidal, Social Construction of Neglect: The Case of Unaccompanied Minors from Morocco to Spain, Feb. 2007. http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2007-007.pdf 3 “Jamal Zougam: Madrid bomb suspect,” BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3515790.stm. Accessed November 10, 2015. 4 Mass murderers jailed for 40 years as judge delivers verdicts on Spain's 9/11, The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/01/spain.international. Accessed November 10, 2015.. 2.

(10) only Moroccan Muslims in Spain. In this research, organized focus groups with Muslim immigrants in Spanish cities around Spain will be conducted to compare the results and analyze the responses of the interviewees.. 1.2 Research Motivation “Migration is an expression of human aspiration for dignity, safety, and a better future. It is a social fabric, part of our very make-up as a human family.”- UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon.5 The main focus of the research will be on the challenges and conflicts that the Muslim immigrants faced in Spain, whether it is with their identities, the adaptation to a new environment or just stereotyping by local society and the media. With evidence collected from field research, the researcher would like to find out how immigrants have changed their identities in order to adapt to the local society and whether their adaption was successful or not if they have a different identity consciousness from the Spaniards. What conflicts of identity have the immigrants faced in the new environment? With the recent crisis of terrorist attacks that were conducted by Muslim immigrants and also second and third generations of Muslims living in Europe, the researcher would like to investigate whether it is because of the challenges of adaptation into the society and the confusion or conflict of identity. If the attitudes of the local citizens are not friendly and welcoming to the immigrants and the next generations of the immigrants, they would not feel a sense of belong in the country. If 5. Statement. Secretary- General’s Remarks to High-Level Dialogue on Migration and Development, New York, October 3, 2013. http://www.un.org/sg/statements/index.asp?nid=7175. Accessed December 3, 2015.. 3.

(11) immigrants and their next generations do not have the same opportunities to participate in the political arena, job market, or social communities, they would also feel rejected by the community and not integrated into society. The government and local communities should examine the reasons behind the recent terrorist attacks that were conducted by their fellow European citizens of immigrant descent. It might be the policies that were implemented by the government, the unfriendly attitudes of the European citizens, or the failure to integrate into society due to many reasons. In order to understand what the immigrants think about identity, the attitudes of local citizens, the stereotypes immigrants face, their opinions about the policies made by the government, and the challenges of integrating into local society, the researcher would like to conduct interviews in different cities in Spain and combine the findings with existing literature about the integration of Muslim immigrants in Spain to examine the situation of Muslim immigrants in Spain.. 1.3 Research Question and Purpose of Research Identity has been seen as an important concept in the theory of constructivism, it shapes people’s values and behaviors and many immigrants might identify themselves differently in terms of different identities, thus, the researcher would like to know how identity affects the integration of immigrants into local society? In order to analyze the situation and condition of the Muslim immigrants and their second-generation descendants living in Spain, the researcher proposes the following questions: How do attitudes toward immigrants influence the integration of immigrants into local society? What challenges do second-generation immigrants face in their new homeland? How are they adapting to the local society? How do they deal 4.

(12) with the challenges? Lastly, the researcher would like to investigate what the government has done to help the immigrants to adapt and what more the government can do to help the immigrants adapt into the society, from the perspective of the immigrants. The purpose of the research is to find out the relationship between identity, perception and integration in the society. The targeted interviewees are first and second generation Muslim immigrants living in Madrid, with second-generation Muslims as the main focus. Many second generation immigrants were born in Spain and were educated in Spain, so the identity of these interviewees might vary amongst themselves. However, the perceptions they received in the society may still be stereotyped and even racist and this might be difficult for the interviewees to adapt and integrate in society. The research questions are proposed to figure out the relation between identity, perception and integration.. 1.4 Limitation of Research There will be some limitations of this research. First, finding the interviewees might be difficult because they might be reluctant to express their opinions especially after the recent terrorist attacks and they might doubt the intentions of the interview. Second, the concept of identity is subjective and abstract, maybe second generations of Muslim immigrants might not have such a big concern of the identity that they possess or that they are already assimilated into the society and do not face so many challenges. Third, it is difficult to judge and analyze fairly and subjectively other ethnicities. Fourth, it is not certain that the interviewees are representative enough of the 5.

(13) whole population of Muslim immigrants in Spain. Everyone acts and feels differently, so it might be hard to make generalizations just based on this research. However, if the findings of these interviewees are similar to each other no matter where they are from in Spain, then the findings may be able to provide insight into a general pattern of feelings towards integration from the Muslim immigrants in Spain.. 1.5 Literature Review “The face of migration is changing. Today, migrants are coming from, and going to, more places than ever before.”- UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon.6 1.5.1 Identity Identity and attitudes of local citizens For scholars that believed identity to be a key factor towards the integration of the society, they believed that if the attitudes of local citizens are more accepting towards immigration it would help immigrants to adapt into the society. In order for local citizens to be more willing to accept immigrants, they would have to not feel threatened by the immigrants. Possessing an identity that is very different to those that of the host society can raise some problems. Due to the lack of information, knowledge, and misconception towards different identities, people might not be so friendly towards another identity. This phenomena will be explained in the chapters to come when the theory of “the Other” is being discussed. According to John Sides and Jack Citrin (2007), residents of countries with large immigrant populations or countries experiencing economic difficulties are not. 6. Ibid.. 6.

(14) especially likely to oppose immigration.7 However, immigration can challenge the identity of a national-state.8 The conclusion of the authors’ argument is that the vision of immigration viewed by the Europeans depends more on symbolic attitude about the nations (identities) and on misperceptions of the size of immigration population, and less on economic status. In the case of Spain, the percentage of foreign born estimated by Europeans is around 17% instead of 6% in 2002-2003. The authors also believed that ethnic background and immigrant status also affects attitudes towards immigration. The perceptions are more positive among self-identified minorities; however, the size of this effect depends on the degree of the immigrant’s incorporation in the host society. From this research, the role of cultural and national identities is an important factor in determining the influence of opinions of Europeans. Cultural differences is significant in Europe especially because there are many Muslim immigrants in Europe and they possess cultural traditions that are sharply divergent from the current European mainstream. Identity is an important concept consisting of the expression of one’s own identity (self-identity), or the collective identity, such as religious, social, cultural or national identity. The formation of identity is influenced by one’s surroundings and the psychological feeling of belongingness. The attitudes of others also affect the perception and identity formation of an individual.. Muslim identity In that sense, when identity is being discussed, there are different ideas about 7. John Sides and Jack Citrin, European Opinion about Immigration: The Role of Identities, Interests, and Information, Cambridge University Press, 2007. 8 Ibid., p.481.. 7.

(15) what identity is. Some scholars believed identity is imposed towards people externally, some believe that it is involuntary, and some believe that it is self-defined. There are also different types of identity, such as cultural identity, racial identity, ethnic identity, religious identity, national identity and so on. The types of identity that will be discussed will mainly be focused on religious identity, cultural identity and national identity. Muslim identity can be seen as either self-defined or imposed according to different scholars. In the book, “Citizenship, Identity, and the Politics of Multiculturalism-The Rise of Muslim Consciousness”, the author, Nasar Meer (2010), defined the concept of Muslim identity with references of what Muslim identity was viewed from other scholars. When Muslim identity is viewed as a sociological category, it becomes a less exclusive and more valid way of operationalizing Muslim identity because it includes opportunities for self-definition. The space for selfdefinition is helpful to conceptualize the difference between racial and ethnic categorizations. Muslim identity can be seen differently by different people; however, when one is born into a Muslim family, one becomes a Muslim. Scholars like Marshall-Andrews recognized Muslim identity as an involuntary category, whereas Younge believed to be an externally imposed narrative.9. Religious Identity and Ethnic identities Meer raised a perspective from Pnina Werbner that separates religious identity and ethnic identity. Wernber believed that Muslims in Britain have become. 9. Nasar Meer, Citizenship, Identity and the Politics of Multiculturalism-The Rise of Muslim Consciousness, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.. 8.

(16) problematized through their religious rather than ethnic identities. “Whereas Asians are seen to be integrating positively into Britain, contributing a welcome spiciness and novelty to British culture, Muslims are regarded as an alienated, problematic minorities…”10 Why would Muslim identity be seen as “problematic” when other ethnic identities are seen as welcome? What would happen, for example, according to the excerpt by Wernber, if the immigrant is both Asian and Muslim? How would he or she be viewed in this context? Meer believed that Muslim identity should be recognized differently from racial categorization or “minority group”, because Muslims are subjected to discrimination and exclusion as a group and by protesting against discrimination 11 .. 1.5.2 Integration Integration is defined as the structural process of incorporation as equals into a society with different social groups. Integration should not be assimilation, members of minorities would be able to preserve their own cultural and religious identity in the society. Integration can be divided into many different fields, such as political integration, cultural integration and religious integration.. 10 11. Ibid. Ibid.. 9.

(17) Political integration Meer also raised an excerpt from Maleiha Malik (2005):. “If Muslims see their sense of identity reflected in legal and political institutions, and they see their concerns being taken seriously by these institutions, they are more likely to comply with the obligations of these institutions without feeling coerced. Therefore, in order for Muslims to feel that their concerns are being accurately reflected, it is vital that policy makers and legal and political institutions recognize Muslims as a distinct social group.”. From the excerpt above, it is clear to see that in order for Muslims to be fully integrated into the society, it is necessary to recognize the needs, differences, and concerns of Muslims in political and legal institutions. Without recognizing the differences of Muslims to the other social groups in society and to implement policies to help Muslims integrate, Muslim would not feel welcomed and be reluctant to comply with the obligations of these institutions. Unfortunately, the representation of Muslims in political and legal institutions is still rarely seen, or not present at all. With the lack of representation in the society, the researcher believes that the identity of Muslims might present in two ways, it would be either repressed and assimilate into the society or expressed and segregated in the society. In order to integrate into society, the Muslim identity might be neglected and Muslims might act just like normal citizens in the society. However, the Muslim identity can also be expressed by Muslims, leading them to create their own social group which might cause them to not integrate into the society. 10.

(18) Cultural/religious integration The lack of support for constructing a place of worship for Muslims can also be seen as a setback towards integration in the society. As Ricard Zapata-Barrero said in his article, “The Muslim community and Spanish tradition-Maurophobia as a fact, and impartiality as a desideratum”, whenever a Muslim community wants to construct a mosque in a city, they would receive immediate protest from the neighborhood. This showed the reluctance of the local citizens in Spain to recognize the needs to give Muslims the public visibility such as Catholic Church that is enjoyed by the local citizens.12 Zapata-Barrero believed that the Spanish identity has been built in opposition to the picture of the Muslims in general and the Moroccans in particular due to its historical and cultural context. Spain was under the rule of the Islamic Empire from 711 to 1492 and the people that were ruling at that time were called the “Moors”. However, as mentioned by the author, nobody can deny that Spanish tradition cannot be understood without the Islamic legacy and cultural heritage. He believed that the negative images and immigration news are related to the Muslim community. Just as Zapata-Barrero argued, it is important to understand the perception and attitude of citizens against the Moroccan community in terms of sociological, political variables and also historical context. The author used Maurophobia (the phobia of Moors) instead of Islamophobia because he believes that it is the existence of Maurophobia instead of religious/ cultural racism that is present in Spain. The historical construction of the stereotype of “Moor” as somebody suspicious and 12. Ricard Zapata-Barrero, “The Muslim community and Spanish tradition-Maurophobia as a fact, and impartiality as a desideratum,” Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship-An European Approach, Routledge: Taylor and Fracis Group, 2006.. 11.

(19) potentially a criminal. This further enhanced the historical memory of separating “good” or “bad” immigrants following the criteria of language and/ or religion and they are the most tangible elements of Spanish tradition.. 1.5.3 Effect of terrorist attacks Zapata-Barrero also argued that as a consequence of 9/11 in New York, 3/11 in Madrid, and the bombing in London, there had been intentional policy favoring Central and Eastern European immigrants and South Americans over Moroccans. He believes the logical explanation of signing of the first bilateral agreement for sending migrant workers from Poland and Ecuador was due to the Christian identity and protecting the Spanish identity, because Moroccans or Muslim migrants are viewed as potential “cultural invaders” to the region. Zapata-Barrero believed that the authorities even restricted the Muslim community from accessing public spaces due to historical stereotypes, an action that forces members of the Muslim community to close in on themselves and search for their own identity, since Spanish citizenship is not open to them. This is an example of repression towards the Muslims and would lead to the segregation of the community. The recent terrorist attack in Paris 2015 claimed by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is seen as the deadliest in Europe since the Madrid train bombing in 2004. It was seen as a response to the French airstrikes on the region of Syria and Iraq. This attack has intensified the tension between the Muslims and the local citizens living in Europe and many countries around the world condemned the actions of ISIL, including the Muslims in many parts of the world. The importance of this thesis is to observe the relationship between identity, 12.

(20) attitudes of citizens and immigrants, the images and representation of both local citizens and immigrants and integration into the society. From the researcher’s point of view, Muslim identity can be seen as a mixture of cultural and religious identity and it can also be seen as a shared identity. Some scholars believe identity will influence the integration into society because identity can create a belongingness for the immigrants and it would be easier for them to adapt into the society. However, some scholars believe identity will not influence the integration into society, since identity can be changed easily and many people possess more than one identity.. 1.5.4 Attitudes “We need to improve public perceptions of migrants. Migrants contribute greatly to host societies… Yet far too often they are viewed negatively.” - UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon.13 Some scholars believe that identity and attitudes of local citizens and immigrants will not influence integration into the society. These authors believe that identity is not the main factor for immigrants to adapt into the society. In the perspective of Joaquin Arango (2013), the Spanish citizens did not strongly oppose the idea of existence of immigrants in Spain because the immigrants were perceived as benefits to the society and not a threat to national identity because most of the immigrants were working in construction sites or in the physical labor force and it is usually short-term work. However, recently the attitudes towards immigrants were becoming 13. Statement. Secretary- General’s Remarks to High-Level Dialogue on Migration and Development, New York, October 3, 2013. http://www.un.org/sg/statements/index.asp?nid=7175. Accessed December 3, 2015.. 13.

(21) less tolerable. Perceived benefit In the case of Spain, immigration is not perceived by the local society as threatening, and the sentiment of anti-immigrant is not so strong. 14 The outcome of immigrants working in labor markets is perceived as beneficial for local citizens. Thus, they would not feel threatened to the existence of immigrants. Provided by Arango, the percentage of foreign-born population in Spain had increased from less than 4 percent of the population in 2000 to almost 14 percent by 2011. The growth of the immigration population, in the perspective of the author, did not lead to significant anxiety because it was seen as a requirement for the labor market and an outcome of economic progress.. Not perceived as a threat with respect to national identity Moreover, the Spanish government has shown a strong commitment to immigrant integration, which has been a central component of immigration policy since the 1990s.15 For Arango, immigration is not perceived as a threat to national identity, and the lack of visibility of immigrants also plays a role. The author stated that Spanish integration policies have ranked high in all three editions of the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), since the integration policies of Spain do not require immigrants to pass tests on languages or civic knowledge. However, from the year 2015, the Spanish government issued a law for immigrants to take a language exam, “Diploma de Español como Lengua Extranjera (DELE)” and an examination 14. Joaquin Arango, Exceptional in Europe? Spain’s Experience with Immigration and Integration, Migration Policy Institute, 2013. 15 Ibid.. 14.

(22) on Spanish Constitution and sociocultural background in order to obtain Spanish nationality.16 In the point of view of the author, the national identity is not as relevant for the attitudes towards immigration in Spain because even the nationalism of Spain was under question itself, since there are separation of identity within Spain itself; such as the case of Cataluña. Identity of immigrants would not influence the integration into local society since there are many different kinds of identity within one country.. Attitudes of local community become less tolerant of immigrants Arango believed that the circumstances of immigrants was less desirable due to the crisis of the job market and the construction sector and was not because of social tensions. From the statistics of the attitudes toward migrants in Spain from 1993-2009, it is obvious that since 2003, the attitudes toward migrants have leaned towards ambivalent and adverse rather than tolerant, although the percentage of tolerant is still high. By 2005, the attitudes towards migrants had drastically changed into ambivalent. However, in 2006, the attitudes toward migrants have changed rapidly as well. From then on, the attitudes towards migrants showed mixed results between the three kinds of attitudes.. 1.5.5 Confusion of Identity Just as mentioned by Arango, the identity of Spain is questionable due to the variety of different ethnic groups in Spain. Identity is not so influential to the 16. Ley 19/2015, De 13 De Julio, De Medidas De Reforma Administrativa En El ámbito De La Administración De Justicia Y Del Registro Civil, 2015, http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2015-7851. Accessed December 17, 2015.. 15.

(23) integration of society. In the writings of Dietz (2004), the regional identity of Andalusia, Spain is a combination of different cultures and this identity is controversial.17 The identity of Andalusia were categorized into three types: “fiesta legacy”, “gitano legacy” and “moro legacy”. 18 These different types of regional identity of Andalusia has caused many conflicts in this region. The “fiesta legacy” is based on local and regional patron saints and it is Catholicism. The “gitano legacy” of Andalusian music symbolizes from gypsy flamenco styles and dancing. The “moro legacy” of the region is based on the multicultural past as Al-Andalus, which was a part of the history of Muslim domination. With that in mind, the identity is controversial in the region of Al-Andalus. For Muslim converts and Muslim immigrants, the identity that they possess is different and they usually do not have close relations. According to the author, Muslim population of Spain is concentrated in urban areas of the Madrid, Cataluña, and Andalusia. In cities of Cordoba and Granada, it is the major sector of Islam converts in Spain. Many Muslim immigrants and Muslim converts face many stereotypes when interacting with Catholic Andalusians. The history of Cordoba and Granada, and most of the provinces of Andalusia is very important because these provinces were conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. The historical factor also contributes to the integration of Muslims in Spain in this sense.. 17. Gunther Dietz, Frontier Hybridisation or Culture Clash? Transnational Migrant Communities and Sub-National Identity Politics in Andalusia, Spain, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 2004. 18 Ibid.. 16.

(24) 1.6 Organization of Thesis Chapters The third chapter will be about the immigration policy analysis, the immigration policy examined will be about Law 4/2000, the European Union blue card, and the process from gaining citizenship and nationality. By analyzing immigration policies, the attitude of the government can be demonstrated. It also shows how political and economic factors can influence integration in the society. The fourth chapter will be about the background of Moroccan Muslim immigrants. The main focus will be at the second generation Muslim immigrants, many of the second generation Muslims live in Spain for a long period of time and examine what they feel about their identities and stereotypes that they face. However, first generation Muslim immigrants are also interviewed and serve as a comparison of the two generations. Chapter five will be about the analysis of the content of interviews conducted to the interviewees. The field research will be conducted in Madrid, the capital. The findings of the interviews will be analyzed and compared. The last chapter will conclude the findings of the interviews, relate them to the literature reviews and offer implications for future academic research, policy analysis and clarify the linkage between identity, perception, and integration into the society.. 17.

(25) Ch. 2: Research Method and Approach. 2.1-Theory: Constructivism The core elements of the theory of constructivism concerns identity, interests and how these can change. Constructivists believe that ideas, values, norms, and shared beliefs matter and identities and interests of actors are socially constructed. State identities and interests are an important part constructed by social structures. Alex Wendt proposed that ideas, such as culture, are self-fulfilling prophecies.19 An idea or thought exists because people construct this reality and this idea or thought becomes the reality. Wendt believes that interests, ideas, and power are equally important; it is not just about idealism, but also about structuralism. Interests and ideas cannot be separated for they are constituted of material conditions and the reality of the society. There are many different streams of constructivism, one of the most important stream is investigating national interest and identity, how these two interact between each other and how state actors construct national identity from international interactions. National identity is complicated and changeable in the perspective of constructivism and it is constructed through socialization and the interaction between different countries. The theory of constructivism is important to this research because identity is an important concept and it influences and constructs the decision making, identification and reality of the actor in the society. In the case of this thesis, the identities (national, religious, ethnic, or cultural) are important to the Muslim 19. Alex Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1999.. 18.

(26) immigrants in Spain because they build up their presence, uniqueness, and belongingness in the society.. 2.2 The Others-Perception, image and stereotype Amikan Nachmani (2009), the author of “Europe and its Muslim minorities-Aspect of Conflict, Attempts at Accord,” mentioned that the images of Muslims, whether they are true or false, are perceived as extreme ideologies or radical by the Europeans. The image of Muslims being extremists was intensified especially after the attacks on September 11, 2001 and the bombings in Madrid on March 11, 2004, and the bombings in London in July 2005. Not surprisingly, the surveys conducted immediately after the events reflected the negative attitudes European citizens have of Muslims and Muslim immigrants. According to the findings of the 2006 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 83 percent of Spanish citizens perceived Muslims to be fanatical and were pessimistic about future relations with them.20 In the author’s perspective, mass migration is perceived as a threat, an obstacle to future harmony and unity of the European Union. It is a threat to the collective identity of Europe and threatens the European culture, languages and customs. Muslim immigrants are perceived as a threat not only because the ideology of Islam is distinct from that of the Europeans, but also because of the historical relations between Europe and former colonies of the imperial European powers. Many Europeans perceive the mass immigration of Muslim immigrants as an “Islamization” of Europe and fear becoming colonized by the Muslim immigrants and becoming part. 20. Amikam Nachmani, Europe and its Muslim Minorities-Aspects of Conflict, Attempts at Accord, Sussex Academic Press, 2009.. 19.

(27) of the Arab World. Michael Pickering (2001) also stated that people tend to stereotype and categorize people into different groups to feel secure in society. Stereotypes are seen as elements of broad cultural practices and process, carrying with definite ideological views and values that are not necessarily integral to our perceptual and cognitive organization of the social world; thus, creating stereotypes. 21 In order for people to feel secure, they tend to stereotype and categorize everything else that they do not recognize into “the Others”, and they use this perception to evaluate and define other people. Stereotyping is a simpler way to generalize and categorize people that are different from themselves.. 2.4 Research Methodology According to the Oxford Journals, “the fundamental aspect of qualitative field research is to position the investigator as close as possible to the subjects, so as to gain access from them and describe personal experiences. These are then interpreted in the context of the social setting.” 22 Field research, as stated by “Field Research: What Is It and When to Use It?” section 10.1 from the book Sociological Inquiry Principles: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (v. 1.0)”, it is a qualitative method of data collection and it is aimed to understand, observe and interact with people in their natural settings.23. 21. Michael Pickering, Stereotyping: The Politics of Representation, Palgrave, 2001. Oxford Journal. http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/tropej/online/ce_ch14.pdf. Accessed June 28, 2016. 23 “Field Research: What Is It and When to Use It?”, section 10.1 from the book Sociological Inquiry Principles: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (v. 1.0). http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociological-inquiry-principles-qualitative-and-quantitative22. 20.

(28) The method of participation in this investigation is complete participant, as stated by “Field Research: What Is It and When to Use It?”, because the researcher will identify her role as researcher when conducting each interview. The interviewees will be aware of the role of the researcher. The researcher will be participating and interacting with the interviewees during the interview and the identities of the interviewees will not be revealed in this thesis investigation. The researcher will observe the behavior and contents given by the interviewees, interact with the interviewees during the interview, record the interviews and document transcripts as well as summaries of the interviews. To protect the identities of the interviewees, only the summaries will be attached at the appendix. There are pros and cons of the complete participant method. The advantage is that the researcher will be able to modify the questions for each interviewees and understand the differences between each individuals better during the interviews. The disadvantage is that sometimes the interviewees might not answer the questions directly or they might refuse to answer certain questions and it will be difficult for the researcher to analyze. The questions that were developed for the interviews are located at Appendix 1. These questions are used to learn the background of the interviewees, the value or opinions of the individuals, and the perceptions or feelings they have in the society. These questions are used and modified according to the responses of the interviewees, and some additional questions might be added based on the answers of the interviewees. In order to obtain more in-depth understanding with each individual, the research methods/s13-01-field-research-what-is-it-and-.html. Accessed June 28, 2016.. 21.

(29) will apply the method of qualitative field research by conducting interviews with Muslim immigrants in Spain. As mentioned previously, the motivation of the researcher is to find out the relationship between integration and identity, perception, and attitudes of the local citizens towards Muslim immigrants (from the perspective of the immigrants) in Spain. The researcher will conduct in-depth interviews with groups and individual Muslims to understand their point of view on the process of integration into local society. What the researcher proposes to do is to conduct interviews in Madrid, the capital of Spain. By examining different social contexts from different parts of Madrid, the researcher hopes to present a better overview of the situation in Spain with different locations.. 22.

(30) Chapter 3: Analysis of Immigration Policies. 3.1 Law 4/2000 The immigration policy of Spain has changed over time and the most influential policy being made was in the year 2000 (Law 4/2000), it was intended to integrate migrants into the society and was different from the previous laws. This policy facilitated family reunification and also created forms of regularization for illegal migrants.24 Zapata-Barrero and Juan Díez-Nicólas mentioned in the chapter, “Islamophobia in Spain? Political rhetoric rather than a social fact”, there are many structural conflicts between Muslim communities and Spanish.25 The situation of invisibilities of Muslims in Spain is due to political rather than social reality. Many European countries such as France and Switzerland had many debates about the clothing and construction of religious centers. Especially after the incident of 311, the attitudes toward Muslim immigrants are negative. The characteristics that distinguish Spanish from Muslim immigrants is both due to historical and social point of view. According to this chapter, there are opposition against building of mosques and religious centers from both citizens and governments, there are also opposition against foreign-funding of mosques, the compulsory of public schools to offer Catholic education is also seen as unfriendly to other religions, even the traditional. 24. Nuria Empez Vidal, Social Construction of Neglect: The Case of Unaccompanied Minors from Morocco to Spain, Feb. 2007. http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2007-007.pdf “Jamal Zougam: Madrid bomb suspect,” BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3515790.stm. Accessed November 10, 2015. 25 Zapata-Barrero and Juan Díez-Nicólas , “Islamophobia in Spain? Political rhetoric rather than a social fact,” Islamophobia in the West-Measuring and explaining individual attitudes. Routledge Taylor& Francis Group. 2012.. 23.

(31) festival of Moors and Christians that celebrate the Spanish Reconquista can be seen as controversial to the presence of Muslim minorities and especially Moroccans in the society. In Article 2 Third Part of Law 4/2000 on Integration of Immigrants stated that “The public authorities shall promote the full integration of foreigners into Spanish society, in a framework of coexistence of identities and cultures limited only respect the Constitution and the law”. In this case, the establishment of new mosques should be allowed to promote the diversity of identities and cultures in the Spanish society. In Article 2 Second Part of Law 4/2000 on The Immigration Policy, it stated that “All government will base the exercise of their competences related to immigrants to the following principles: c) the social integration of immigrants through transversal policies guided to all citizen f) the effectiveness of the principle of non-discrimination and equal rights and obligations to all those who live or work legally in Spain.” 26 The immigration policy of this Law is to promote equality for legal immigrants and the attitude of non-discrimination towards the immigrants from the citizens of Spain.. 3.2 European Union Blue Card Policy The European Union Blue Card is a combination of temporary residence and work permit for highly qualified professionals that are non-EU citizen. People who want to apply for blue card must possess a university or college diploma from an educational program that last for three years or more or have at least five years of. 26. Ley Orgánica 4/2000, de 11 de enero, sobre derechos y libertades de los extranjeros en España y su integración social. http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Portal/es/ServiciosAlCiudadano/InformacionParaExtranjeros/Documents/ LEY ORGÁNICA 42000 DE 11 DE ENERO.pdf. Accessed December 1, 2015.. 24.

(32) professional experience. The work permit of the professional is tied to one sector and subject to geographical limits and any change in the employment must remain within these limits during the first year. Long-term residence is granted after five years of continuous and legal residence generally. Under the law 14/2013, there are some requirement to apply for residence for economic reasons, whether it’s the investors, professionals with high qualifications, investigators, entrepreneurs, and workers performing intra movement within the same company or group of companies. 27 The EU blue card policy is implemented to attract high qualified professionals to work with salary condition equal to nationals of EU, free movement within the Schengen area, they would have entitlement to socio-economic rights, favorable conditions for family reunification and long-term residence perspective. Foreigners who possess EU blue card and work for at least 18 months have the right work in other countries in the European Union, but they have to apply for another visa. When these high qualified professionals apply for a permit of EU blue card, they may also request a residence visa for their family members according to the procedure and regulation in relation to family reunification. The family members and the holder of EU blue card would have the same social benefits as the citizens of the EU state members.. 27. Law 14/2013. http://extranjeros.empleo.gob.es/es/normativa/nacional/movilidad_internacional/documentos/Ley_14_2 013_consolidada.pdf. Accessed December 1, 2015.. 25.

(33) 3.3 Residence and Nationality Foreigners can stay in Spain for different kinds of situation: short-term stay, temporary residence (short-term) residence, and long-term residence. For short-term stay, foreigners can stay in Spanish territory for no longer than 90 days with visa. For foreigners that are applying for the short-term residence, the time of stay in Spain is over 90 days and up to five years. Foreigners can apply for a long-term residence when they live in Spain indefinitely, they can work with equal work conditions as Spaniards and that they already possessed a short-term residence for 5 years continuously. Foreigners can apply for residence if they possess the following requirements28: a) Students: Student visas. Students who come to Spain from abroad with purpose of study or extension of studies or conduct research work or formation without pay. b) Stateless: The Ministry of Interior will recognize the status of stateless foreigners who lack nationality and declare the eligibility under the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and the documentation issued to them for this purpose. c) Undocumented persons: The foreigners who present in the Ministry of Interior accrediting that they cannot be documented by the authorities of any country. d) Refugees: The favorable decision on the request for asylum in Spain constitute recognition of refugee status. e) Concurrence of special circumstances: The Administration may grant a. 28. Permisos de residencia en España. http://www.conpapeles.com/Permisos-de-residencia-pag6.htm. Accessed December 1, 2015.. 26.

(34) temporary residence permit by rooting situation as well as for humanitarian reasons, collaboration with justice or other exceptional circumstances to be determined by the Government.. Under the law “Directiva 2003/86/CE, de 22 de septiembre” and “Ley Orgánica 4/2000, de 11 de enero”, a temporary residence permit may be granted to the families of the foreign residents in Spain under this right of family reunification.29. There are a few ways to gain nationality: Spanish nationality, nationality by option, citizenship by residence, citizenship by naturalization, and nationality for possession of State. What Spanish nationality refers to are those who are of Spanish origin: a) Those who are born of a Spanish mother or father, b) Those who are born in Spain when they are children of foreign parents, if at least one parent was born in Spain (the children of diplomats are exempt), c) Those who was born in Spain of foreign parents and both parents lack nationality (stateless), or the law of any of them attributes to the child a nationality, d) Children that are born in Spain of parents whose identity is unknown, and e) Those under 18 who are adopted by a Spanish. If the adoptee is 18 years, he or she may apply for citizenship within two years from the constitution of the adoption.. 29. Ciudadanos de otros Estados (Secretaría General de Inmigración y Emigración. Portal de la Inmigración). Accessed December 7, 2015.. 27.

(35) In the case of nationality by option, what this refers to are for: a) Those who are or have been subjected to the parental authority of a Spanish. b) Those whose father or mother was Spanish and born in Spain. c) Those whose adoption by Spanish comes after 18 years of age. In a period of two years from the constitution of the adoption. And in the case of citizenship by residence, it refers to: a) The form of acquisition of citizenship requires that the person’s residence in Spain has to be over ten years of legal, continuous and immediately prior to the application form. b) Other cases: 1. Five years: to grant Spanish citizenship to those who have obtained refugee status. 2. Two years: for nationals of Latin American countries, Andorra, Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Portugal or Sephardic origin people. 3. One year: (1) Those who were born in Spanish territory, (2) Those who do not adequately exercise their right to acquire Spanish nationality by option, (3) Those who have been legally subject to guardianship or foster care of a Spanish citizen or institution for two consecutive years, (4) Those who at the time of the application, are married to a Spanish for a year and are not legally separated, (5) The widow or widower of a Spanish, if they were not separated at the time of the spouse’s death 28.

(36) (6) Those that were born outside of Spain with father or mother (also born outside of Spain), including grandparents, provided that all of them originally had been Spanish. In addition, the applicant must prove to have good civil conduct and sufficient integration into Spanish society. Citizenship by naturalization is also another way to acquire nationality, this process has gracious character and is not subject to the general rule of administrative procedure. It will be granted or not at the discretion of the Government by Royal Decree, after evaluating the concurrence of exceptional circumstances. In the case that one has acquired Spanish citizenship by residence, by naturalization or option, he or she shall: 1. be above 14 years old and be able to provide a statement him or herself, he or she must swear or promise allegiance to the King and obedience to the Constitution and the laws. 2. Declare to renounce their previous nationality, except in the case of a person holding the nationality of a Latin American country, Andorra, Philippines, Equatorial Guinea or Portugal. The last way to acquire nationality is through possession of state. Those who has owned and used the nationality for ten years, on a continuous basis, in good faith, based on a title registered at the Civil Registry has the right to Spanish nationality. Spanish nationality will not be lost even though the title registered at Civil Registry is annulled. The applicant must have maintained an active attitude in the possession and use of Spanish nationality, this means that he or she should behave as Spanish, both in enjoying their rights and fulfilling their duties in connection with the Spanish state.. 29.

(37) 3.4 Policy Analysis There are several ways for foreigners to acquire Spanish nationality, the facility of nationality acquisition differs according to the different countries of origin of the immigrants. Citizens of former colonies of Spain, such as most Latin American countries, Philippines, and other countries as stated in the previous section can acquire Spanish nationality with two years of residence in Spain. The European Union Blue Card policy can be seen as a policy that serve as a gate keeper for those who want to obtain nationality in the European Union. The main emphasis of EU blue card policy is to attract high professional immigrants from nonEU countries to work and stay in countries in EU. Some words in the Spanish national immigration policy has been changed; for instance, “permeant” residence has been changed into “long-term” residence and temporary residence in some documents has been changed into “short-term” residence. These changes are made with accordance to the wordings of European Union, the condition of the residence will be the same from before, but the “TIE (Tarjeta de identidad de extranjeros)” or “Foreigner identity card” will have to be renewed every five years after the first five years of residence. From the acquisition of nationality, Spain has given privileges to its former colonies for the citizens of these countries only need to live in Spain legally for two consecutive years to obtain Spanish nationality; Whereas for citizens of other countries need to live in Spain for ten years consecutively and legally. According to the national statistics of Spain, the number of people gain concession of Spanish nationality through residence have increased significantly from. 30.

(38) year 2003 to 2013.30 Morocco became the largest group of foreigners obtaining Spanish nationality at the year 2013, with 46,547 people acquiring Spanish nationality. The second and third largest group of foreigners obtaining Spanish nationality are from Ecuador and Bolivia subsequently. The result from this data collection is interesting, as the number of Moroccan residents obtaining nationality has increased drastically from 2012 to 2013. At the year of 2009, the number of Moroccan migrants obtaining nationality declined rapidly with comparison of the year 2008, but then it steadily increased again at the year of 2010. The policy for acquisition of nationality has changed recently, immigrants would have to pass a language exam (DELE) and Constitutional and cultural knowledge of Spain (CCSE) to obtain Spanish nationality. 31 The cost of these exams is 85 euros. The first exam (DELE) is designed by Instituto Cervantes and it is a linguistic exam, foreigners would have to pass A2 level or higher of Spanish language, it consists of three hour exam: two hours of reading and writing and one hour of listening and speaking. The candidates would have to pass all exams to obtain the DELE certificate. The second exam is obligatory and it is about the Spanish constitution (60%) and the culture, history of Spain and the Spanish society (40%). 32. 30. "Concesiones De Nacionalidad Española Por Residencia." Secretaría General De Inmigración Y Emigración. Portal De La Inmigración. http://extranjeros.empleo.gob.es/es/Estadisticas/operaciones/concesiones/index.html. Accessed December 7, 2015. 31 Pruebas Para La Obtención De La Nacionalidad Española. Instituto Cervantes, Instituto Cervantes, http://nacionalidad.cervantes.es/ Accessed December 17, 2015. 32 Los Nuevos Exámenes Para Lograr La Nacionalidad Española: Leyes, Penélope Cruz Y Matemáticas - 20minutos.es. October 1, 2015. http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/2569207/0/examenes/nacionalidad/espanola/. Accessed December 17, 2015.. 31.

(39) Chapter 4: Background of Interviewees. 4. 1 Overall Background The background of the interviewees were divided into two groups: first generation and second generation of Muslim immigrants. All of the interviewees are from Morocco. Nine of the interviewees are second-generation immigrants, as the thesis is mainly focused on the mindset of second-generation Muslim immigrants. Six of the interviewees are considered to be first-generation immigrants, as they came to Spain at around nine years old or older. Some of the second-generation immigrants believed themselves to be first-generation Muslims because they came with their parents at around six or seven years old, but others believe themselves to be secondgeneration Muslims with the same age range. For the purpose of this thesis, the researcher has defined the first-generation Muslims as people who came to Spain at around age nine because they have memories of their lives in their country of origin and can distinguish the differences between the two countries and they identify themselves as first-generation Muslims. Most of the interviewees of second-generation Muslims were from an Arabic learning school at Fuenlabrada, Madrid. Some of the interviewees are involved in nongovernmental organizations or associations in relation to Islam. The interviewees are located from North-San Sebastian Alcobendas to the center of Madrid-Sol, and to the South-Fuenlabrada and Getafe.. 32.

(40) 4.2 Second-Generation Muslim The ages of the second-generation interviewees range from age 18 years old to 24 years old. The interviewees consist of eight female individuals and one male individual. The interviews were conducted in groups and on an individual basis. Two of the eight female interviewees do not wear the hijab and possess Spanish nationality. Three of the eight female interviewees do not possess Spanish nationality yet. The years of their stay in Spain ranges from 16 years to 24 years. Five of the nine interviewees were born in Spain, while the remaining four individuals were born in Morocco before living in Spain. The interviewees that were not born in Spain came to Spain with their family by the law of family reunification. All parents of the second-generation Muslims came to Spain for economic motives. All interviewees are educated or entering into higher education, such as the university. Some interviewees are working or searching for a job in the labor market. Interviewees of second-generation Muslims speak Spanish fluently and are more willing to speak in comparison with first-generation interviewees. The dominance of the language is more common in second-generation interviewees.. 4.3 First Generation Muslims The process of finding first-generation Muslims was not as easy as finding second-generation Muslims. Many potential interviewees were reluctant to respond and some even rejected the interview. The lack of proficiency in Spanish is one of the reasons given by first-generation immigrants for not participating. Interviews conducted with first-generation immigrants vary differently in comparison with the 33.

(41) ones conducted with second-generation immigrants. The level of dominance of the Spanish language is very different within the interviewees. Interviewees who have a good command of the Spanish language are more willing to share their opinions and elaborate their points by giving examples and personal stories. Some interviewees are more cautious about what to say and try not to comment a lot about topics like the actions of the government and terrorism. The types of jobs that the interviewees are doing are also different. Some are at commercial business, some are retired, some are working at Muslim associations, and some are unemployed. At the end, there were six people that were interviewed as first-generation Muslims, two of which were female. The purposes of the first-generation Muslims of coming to Spain varies, some came to Spain with their parents and some came alone for work or studies.. 34.

(42) Chapter 5: Content and Analysis of Interviews. 5.1 Overall Content The interviewees were asked about questions about their identity, how they feel about the Spanish people and culture, their experience of treatment and perception received from the society, and the actions of the government. Based on the opinion of the first and second generation of Muslim immigrants, they did not personally face a lot of discrimination or stereotyping in Spanish society personally. However, they do agree that the recent terrorist attacks have affected the Muslim community in Spain. The interviewees had mixed feelings about what to identify themselves as. The interviewees believed that the government and local Muslim communities should work together to improve the situation of Muslim immigrants in Spain.. 5.2 Attitudes towards Spain 5.2.1 Second-Generation Muslims The responses of the first and second generation of Muslims are similar in some ways and differ in others. The attitudes of both generations of Muslims towards Spain as a country are more positive than negative. The responses of the interviewees of first-generation Muslims and second-generation Muslims are organized into different figures. Figure 5.1 is the perception of Second-Generation Muslims and their views of Spanish policies. As shown in figure 5.1, the views of second-generation immigrants towards Spanish policies is positive. Some interviewees mentioned that there are some ignorant people in society, but felt that it was normal and occurs in every 35.

(43) society, not only the Spanish one. This figure will be used as a reference in the next sections. Figure 5.1 Perception of Second-Generation Muslims and their views of Spanish Policies. Interviewe e. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Perception Received in Society Hijab, negative perception Hijab, negative perception Negative perception with hijab, job interviews Rare job opportunities with hijab Islamophobia , ignorance, sexist Mosque being vandalized Stereotypes enhanced after attacks Hatred towards immigrants Prejudice for Arabs. Perceptio n towards Spanish. National Belongingnes s. Personal Experience with discriminatio n. Good. Spanish. Yes. N/A. Good. Spanish. Yes. N/A. Political Policy*. Good. Spanish. No. should homogenize laws and make laws more effective. Good. Spanish. Yes. improve coexistence in society. Good, friendly, openminded. Spanish. Yes. It is a replica of French model (integration). Good. Moroccan. No. Nothing has been done.. Good. Moroccan. No. Too general, focus on local. Good, but some are ignorant Good, openminded, tolerant. Spanish. No. Spanish. Yes. forming ghetto school, French model It doesn’t do anything. Should deal with Islamophobia. (Political Policy*: Political Policy is the responses of the interviewees about the actions of the government). 36.

(44) 5.2.2 First-Generation Muslims The comments that the first-generation Muslims have towards Spanish were mainly the same as those of the second-generation interviewees. They all believe that there are good and bad people in every society, so the Spanish are no exception. Their responses are organized in figure 5.2. Some interviewees believed that the society as a whole has matured throughout terrorist attacks, and that the Spanish people are able to differentiate between terrorists and Muslims. But others believe that there is still some prejudice towards Muslims in society. One interviewee also commented that Spanish people are too open-minded and some of them do not know other foreign languages, unlike people from her home country. Many people in her home country have learned at least three languages before graduating from high school.. 37.

(45) Figure 5.2 Perception and of First-Generation Muslims and their views of Spanish Policies. Interviewee. Perception Received in Society. Perception towards Spanish. 10. Mosque, religious acts are viewed negatively. 99.9% good. 11. immigrants, Gulf War, not viewed as Spanish due to physical attributes. Good, but has prejudice Good and bad, just the same as anywhere else Good, the society has matured. 12. No comment. 13. Hijab viewed negatively. 14. Viewed negatively after terrorist attacks. Similar, there are good or bad people. 15. Racism is present, hijab viewed negatively, terrorist attacks. No jobs with hijab.. Openminded, doesn’t study a lot, they don’t know many languages.. Personal experience with discrimination. Political Policy*. Spanish. No. Former government has done nothing. Should start dialogues with Muslim community and local community.. Spanish. Yes. Restaurant being egged after 311.. Agreement 92 should be implemented well. (Getafe). Moroccan. Try not to get involved. Stay low.. No comment. Moroccan and Spanish. Yes, many, but is used to it.. Agreement 92 is very unique and important. Spanish. No (People can’t identify where she is from, she is not wearing hijab). Should give information to people. A lot.. Government doesn’t do anything, there are no rights. National Belongingness. Moroccan. (Political Policy*: Political Policy is the responses of the interviewees about the actions of the government). 38.

(46) 5.3 Racism and Islamophobia and Gender Discrimination in society 5.3.1 Second-Generation Muslims None of the interviewees of second generation had faced threats or severe discrimination personally. However, they have faced some discrimination in the labor market. Many female interviewees responded that they had been asked to remove their hijab for job interviews and the job itself. The female interviewees felt that being requested to do this was absurd and believed the question to be a form of discrimination in the workplace. Female interviewees wearing a hijab are the most vulnerable to discrimination because of its visibility. Some interviewees also received concerns from Spanish people when they see these female interviewees wearing a hijab. One interviewee said, “I think what I am going to transmit to the world is my knowledge. I am not going to show other parts of my body, of my physical features to try to transmit my wisdom to you, talking like this. They are direct transmissions, you will listen to me without having to focus in other things.”33 The way an individual dresses should not prevent her from transmitting her knowledge to the world, especially if she is dressing according to her religious beliefs. It is counterproductive to say that Muslim women are oppressed by wearing a hijab and then refusing to let Muslim women wearing hijabs to work and be independent. Many Muslim women are facing the difficulties of finding a job position that allows them to wear a hijab to work. Many female interviewees said that some job positions, especially the ones that need to face the public, always reject Muslim women wearing hijabs for work, even if they are well qualified. One interviewee even commented after the interview that she has a friend with two master’s degrees who 33. Appendix 2. Interviewee 7.. 39.

(47) remains unemployed because she wears a hijab. Even the only male interviewee personally felt some discrimination, especially at the airport. “At the airports, because of having Arab features and an Arab name, they will ask you, they will look through your suitcase, they will tighten the security on you more than others. And this, especially if you are Spanish…”34 However, besides the cases in the airport, the interviewee did not feel a strong discrimination in the Spanish society.. 5.3.2 First-Generation Muslims The interviewees of first-generation immigrants faced many difficulties in society, especially those that came early in the 1990s when immigration to Spain began. Some were discriminated against in society and were not even recognized as Spanish by the Spanish people even though they possess the nationality. Female interviewees also expressed that the religious attire, the hijab, is viewed negatively in society. Almost no job opportunities will be offered to Muslims with hijab, even if it is just a job such as telephone operator. The younger interviewees of first-generation Muslims faced fewer difficulties because they had been educated in Spain. In the case of interviewee 10, he got a job after graduating and he is currently working in the same company. For interviewee 14, she had no difficulties finding a job because she did not wear a hijab. The rest of the interviewees of first-generation immigrants came earlier and at that time the economic situation in Spain was prosperous, so they had no problem finding a job. However, interviewee 12 is currently unemployed and has faced many difficulties in the society. 34. Appendix 2. Interviewee 9.. 40.