一個未決的概念：快照的誕生、發展與定義

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學藝術史研究所碩士論文. National Taiwan Normal University Graduate Institute of Art History Master’s Degree Thesis. Snapshot: Birth, Evolution, and Definition of a Problematic Notion 一個未決的概念：快照的誕生、發展與定義. Advisor：Dr. Valentin Nussbaum 指導教授：諾斯邦教授 Graduate Student: Liu, Yu- Yun 研究生：劉玉雲. 中華民國102 年 7 月 July 2013.

(2) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Abstract ........................................................................................................................... i 中文摘要...................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................... v Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 General Background and Purpose of the Research ................................................ 1 Literature Review................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 1: The Birth and Evolution of the Snapshot ..................................................... 7 1-1 The Context of William Herschel’s “Instantaneous Photography” ............... 10 1-2 Amateurs of Photography: from Scientific Background to Knowing – Nothing Orientation ............................................................................................. 16 1-3 The Kodak Age .............................................................................................. 20 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2: Instantaneity and Shooting in Professional Photography........................... 29 2-1: Conflict and Wars ......................................................................................... 32 2-2 Snapshot, Paparazzi, and Intimacy ................................................................ 38 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 3: The Formulization of the Snapshot ............................................................ 48 3-1 Snapshot: Forms of Bad Photographs ........................................................... 50 3-2 Candid or Staged Intimacy by Nan Goldin and Larry Sultan........................ 59 3-3 Snapshot in Fashion Photography ................................................................. 70 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 76 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 78 Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 83 Figures.......................................................................................................................... 91 Appendix: Herschel’s “Instantaneous Photography” ................................................. 115.

(3) Abstract Today, images and photographic accounts of everyday life are ubiquitous. Digital photography, as well as the presence of cameras in our cell phones, has turned the snapshot taken by ordinary people casually into an important aesthetic category of photography. The prevalence of snapshots may explain why increasing research and snapshot exhibitions have erupted over the last decade. Just a few decades ago, snapshots were not discussed as a serious category in the history of photography because, according to the standards of “artistic” photography, they lacked any artistic ambition and creativity. But the term snapshot is also applied to another sort of photography which catches the instantaneous moment and might not be made by amateurs, such as the representation of a sportsman jumping or the decisive moment when a catastrophe occurs. The term is commonly used but actually contains different meaning, and the ambiguous issue of diverse usage is often neglected. It is thus necessary to readdress the fundamental contradictions related to snapshot photography. Originally, a snapshot was related to hunting and defined a quick and casual gunshot. It was later used by John Herschel in 1860 to describe a kind of photographic image based on quick exposure. One of the original goals of snapshot photography was to deconstruct continuous movements into still photographs. Another defining characteristic of snapshot photography by its users is not necessary related to the representation of frozen movement in photography. This thesis will discuss the evolution of the snapshot and the diversity of its representations according to different definitions, to clarify a common-used and ambiguous term. I would like to highlight that it will be necessary to understand the historical context in order to fully examine the evolution of the snapshot. i.

(4) The first chapter, The Birth and the Evolution of Snapshot, details the historical context and the evolution of snapshot, especially the photographers, and their attitudes which involve the transformation. Herschel’s intention, his scientific background, and the invention of a new visual apparatus able to make animated snapshots will also be examined. The second part of the chapter addresses the different uses of the term, when the Kodak Company provided cameras with an innovative service in 1888 and freed the practice of photography from experts and scientists to put it within the hands of amateurs who almost knew nothing about photographic technology. Chapter 2, Instantaneity and Shooting in Professional Photography, will discuss how the snapshot is used in war and paparazzi photography, two categories that capture continuous events and freeze them with an instantaneous image. The photographers of the two categories would chase tirelessly for worthy pictures and aim the targets without any hesitation. It also embodies that gunshot is a metaphor of taking photography. Chapter 3, The Formulization of Snapshot, will focus on the concrete images of amateur snapshots, especially the accidental mistakes made by the unskillful amateurs. The works of photographers Nan Goldin and Larry Sultan will also be taken into account in order to observe how their topics of daily life and aesthetic are relevant to snapshots.. Keywords: Snapshot, John Herschel, Kodak, amateur, instantaneity, shooting, bad photographs. ii.

(5) 中文摘要今日關於日常生活的照片和影像非常普及。數位相片以及照相手機的出現等，已經使一般大眾所拍攝的快照(Snapshot)成為攝影中一種重要的美學類型。快照的流行，或許可以解釋為什麼在近十年中，出現大量的針對此議題的研究和展覽。更早之前，根據藝術攝影的標準，因為快照缺乏藝術性表現和創造力，所以在攝影史的發展裡不被視作一項重要的類型。但是，快照也時常被指稱做另一種掌握瞬間時刻的攝影，例如拍下跳起的運動員，或是災難發生時的重要瞬間，且可能不是由業餘者所拍攝。人們是如此地經常使用快照一詞，但是經常忽略事實上這個詞彙存在著不明確與含糊的多種用法。因此有必要重新著手關於快照的根本矛盾。原先，快照一詞是指狩獵時的快速隨意射擊，爾後是 John Herschel 在 1860 年用來描述快速曝光下拍得的照片。快照攝影的希冀之一，便是將連續動作解構成一張張的靜止照片。不過，另外一種依使用者定義下的快照，卻未必強調在照片中提供任何的凝止動態。本研究將討論快照的演變，且將檢視不同定義下產生的快照圖像表現，以釐清這個普及使用卻充滿矛盾的詞彙。第一章：快照的誕生和演變，將首先探討快照的歷史背景和演變，尤其是參與轉變過程的使用者與其態度。我也會檢視 Herschel 的意圖、他的科學背景，與其發明視覺器械的目的。本章的另一部分，將會討論這個詞語的不同用法。當柯達公司 1888 年起提供的嶄新相機與服務，使得攝影從專業與科學轉變到一群幾乎不知道任何攝影科技的業餘者(amateur)手中。第二章：在專業攝影中的瞬間性與射擊/拍照(shooting)，將會討論快照是如何運用在戰爭攝影與狗仔隊(paparazzi)照片中。因為這兩種攝影類型，都意圖捕捉連續性的事件，且急速凍結在一張照片裡。而且這兩類攝影者，不懈地追逐可. iii.

(6) 能有版面價值的照片，毫不遲疑地瞄準目標，也都體現了攝影作為一種射擊的隱喻。第三章：快照的公式，聚焦於業餘者的快照格式，尤其是因為缺少技巧而意外造成的錯誤。而專業攝影師如 Nan Goldin 和 Larry Sultan 的作品也會受到關注，以便觀察他們作品裡和快照、日常生活相關的主題與美學表現。. 關鍵字：快照、John Hershel、柯達（Kodak）、業餘者、瞬間性、射擊/拍照、壞照片. iv.

(7) Acknowledgement 這本論文若不是在眾多人的協助之下難以達成。首先感謝論文指導諾斯邦教授 (Prof. Valentin Nussbaum)的耐心協助，在修課期間以清晰和嚴謹的教學，領我探索藝術史，和老師與同學針對各項藝術的討論，是痛快淋漓的腦力激盪。是您以開放自由的態度容許學生進行適合的研究，也是您在我迷失方向指點迷津，以縝密的邏輯點醒我論文的推理。也感謝論文口委林志明教授與邱誌勇教授細緻地閱讀論文，提出眾多建議，使論文能有更加精進的可能。感謝曾曬淑教授在我休學後成為美術所末代學生時，協助繁瑣的行政程序，讓我得以順利進入藝術史研究所；辛蒂庫絲教授(Prof. Candida Syndikus)以身教和言教，讓我明白研究者的熱誠和理性。黃蘭翔教授與盧慧紋教授的課程，提供我藝術史觀看與思考的路徑。Professor Anne-Marie Bonnet, Professor Sergiusz Michalski 和 Professor Reinhard Steiner 銳利了我觀看的方法，去除偏見的理性思考。研究所的夥伴們，我尤其要感謝 Lydia 和 Ann,是你們時時鼓勵我、提醒我勿忘初衷，才能今日到達終點。其他研究所的同學們，是你們豐富了研究所生活，相濡以沫相互扶持，或許互吐苦水抱怨一番，或者開懷痛飲，紙短情長，請容我不一一列舉。最後謝謝我任教的學校，容許與協助我追求自己的學業之夢；感謝我的家人，尤其是父母，包容我任性走自己的道路。. v.

(8) Introduction General Background and Purpose of the Research I have in my possession one photograph of my grandfather taken in 1989 by an unknown photographer in a touristic spot that I haven’t been able to identify (Fig. 35). This color picture that has slightly faded out because of the decades that have passed, shows my grandfather, elegant with his waxed hair, his slander face a little bit restricted, a quiet but also nonchalant smile on his face, and one cigarette in his hand. For me, this photograph constitutes a precious photograph, in which I can find a vivid representation of my grandfather. But for those who are not acquainted with him, it is merely an ordinary snapshot taken during a trip, the kind of picture that everyone would have realized since the Kodak Company democratized photography, when it promoted in 1888 an innovative camera and service. This kind of personal, private, and exclusive pictures has awoken a new interest by the end of the 1990s, when the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art decided to devote an exhibition to the category. 1 After the 1998 SFMoMA exhibition The Photography of Everyday Life, 1888 to present, several other major museums undertook an intense curatorial and scholarly investigation on the issue of photographs taken by non-professional photographers.2. 1. The purpose of this exhibition was to address the historical, theoretical and interpretive problem of amateur photography. Before this exhibition, there were also some others related to snapshots but the amount of photographs was reduced. For example, the Museum of Modern Art in New York selected photographs from the files of the Kodak Company in the 1944 exhibition The American Snapshot; in 1989, the exhibition A History of Photography from California Collections, curated by the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art to celebrate the 150 anniversary of the invention of photography, contained some amateur photographs. In 1997, the exhibition Photography’s Objects in the University of New Mexico Art Museum, was held by the curator Geoffrey Batchen and addressed the function of amateur snapshot. 2 In the late 1990s, Other Pictures: Anonymous Photographs from the Thomas Walther Collection, held by the Metropolitan Museum in New York in 2000, considered snapshots as anonymous masterpieces; In the Vernacular: Everyday Photographs from the Todger Kingston collection, held in Boston University Art Gallery in 2004, as well as Snapshot Chronicles Inventing the American Photo Album, held in Reed college's Douglas F. Cooley Memorial Art Gallery in 2005, focused on the usage, the 1.

(9) However, the term snapshot implies, since its first use by John Herschel in 1860, another aspect than a photograph taken by an amateur. Snap-shot means shooting quickly. It is a typical representation which is able, with the same speed as a gunshot, to catch a movement quickly. It is the picture of a moving figure that has been frozen, or the representation of a petrified slice of a continuous event. The term snapshot is used in this context to describe the great ability of photography to catch a movement and serve to distinguish this specific kind of photographs with those taken with a long exposure. In some articles, such as Carlo Rim’s contribution, the term was often used in the 1930s to make a comparison with posed photography, because the snapshot violates time, whereas the latter one collaborates with it.3 Thierry de Duve also defines the snapshot as the opposite of time exposure. 4 For him the exemplary snapshot is a press photography which freezes an event such as the photograph Mai, 1968 (Fig. 16) taken by Gilles Caron. If we compare the two different kinds of photographs called snapshots, we can find several contradictions: the photograph representing my grandfather is an amateur photograph that shows the stillness of the pose, whereas the picture made by the professional photojournalist Gilles Caron tries to catch the movement at its climax. The ambivalent connotations of the term cause such a trouble that it is difficult to know what kind of image we should have in mind or what kind of aesthetic it is. collection, and historical context of the photo album. In 2007, The Art of American Snapshot 1888-1978 from the Collection of Robert E. Jackson in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, addressed the historical context, and the change of representation. Even painters’ snapshots were also rediscovered as for example in the exhibition Snapshot: Painters and Photography, Bonnard to Vuillard held in 2012. My intention is not to list all the exhibitions on snapshots, but the important tendencies addressing this issue. For more detail on snapshot exhibitions, see: Stacey McCarroll Cutshaw and Ross Barrett (eds.), In the Vernacular: Photography of the Everyday, Boston: Boston University Press, 2008, pp. 12-13. 3 Carlo Rim also designates snapshot as an amateur photography taking banal events of the everyday life. See his article “On the Snapshot”, in: Photography in the Modern Era: European Documents and Critical Writings, Christopher Philips (ed.), New York: the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1989, pp. 3740. 4 Thierry de Duve, “Time Exposure and Snapshot: the Photographic Paradox,” in: October, vol. 5, 1978, pp. 113-125. 2.

(10) referred to when it is used. It is thus necessary to readdress the issue of snapshot photography in a new aspect, in order to take into account its fundamental contradictions. Literature Review In general, snapshot has been commonly widespread since the innovative camera and service of the Kodak Company in the end of nineteenth century, though it was coined by Herschel in 1860. But we only have a small amount of studies on snapshot in the first part of the twentieth century, even though the phenomenon of intantaneous photography became so prevalent. For example, Carlo Rim’s argument in 1930 compares the snapshot with posed photography and also uses the term for photographs taken by ordinary people.5 In his short article Rim depicts the basic contours of snapshot and leaves some questions open. Does the definition of snapshot depend only on the amateur nature of the users or the exposure time? Can we still call an amateur photograph as a snapshot if it is posed with a long exposure time? The troublesome issue of snapshot photography kept quiet till the 1970s, when John Kouwenhoven mentioned in 1972 that people were living at the time in a snapshot world. He claimed that the research on snapshot should not be restricted to aesthetic issues but should also focus on the social, cultural, and technological history of photography.6 A more in depth analysis can be seen in The Snapshot Photography: the Rise of Popular Photography 1888- 1939, one of the rare monographs devoted to this single issue. The book published in 1977 mentions briefly William Herschel as the first one who coined the term snapshot. It considers also that the snapshot should. 5. Carlo Rim, “On the Snapshot”, 2007, pp. 37-40. Stacey McCarroll Cutshaw and Ross Barrett (eds.), In the Vernacular: Photography of the Everyday, Boston: Boston University Press, 2008, pp. 11-12. 3 6.

(11) not be defined according to the exposure time but through the intentions of the users.7 The discourse of the book, quite similar to Kouwenhoven’s suggestion, focuses on the innovation of the Kodak Camera, the feature of the amateurs, and the photographic topics of daily life. But it is also one year later that Thierry de Duve made the distinction between time exposure and snapshot, arguing that the snapshot has nothing to do with a users-oriented notion.8 In general, amateur snapshots have been neglected in the history of photography. For example, Beaumont Newhall, in the 1982 revised version of his The History of Photography: from 1939 to the Present, 9 reserves only a few pages on the technological aspect of the Kodak Company and the rise of the snapshot, and mainly focus his investigation on individual photographers. For example, Herschel is not connected with the snapshot but is rather tightly connected with the representation of movement. Over the last two decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of publications and exhibitions on snapshot. Each research addresses this issue with a different point of view, but do not solve the inherent conflict of the snapshot. One exemplary discussion, such as Geoffrey Batchen’s, addresses the function of photographs as recording the memory of personal histories in Forget Me or Not: Photography and Remembrance, published in 2004. The book echoes the theories of Pierre Bourdieu on photography as a “middle-brow art” 10 , and Roland Barthes’. 7. Brian Coe and Paul Gates, The Snapshot Photography: the Rise of Popular Photography 1888-1839, New York: Ash & Grant, 1977, p. 6. 8 Thierry de Duve, “Time Exposure and Snapshot: the Photographic Paradox,” pp. 113-125. 9 Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography: from 1839 to the Present, New York: the Museum of Modern Art, 1982. 10 Pierre Bourdieu published the book Photography: Middle- Brow Art in 1965. He described that making snapshot was a ritual to conform the social norm. What makes snapshot is the function. In: Geoffrey Batchen, “Snapshots: Art History and the Ethnographic turn,” in: Photographies, vol. 1, no. 2, 1998, pp. 135-136. 4.

(12) Camera Lucida,11 by focusing on the personal memorial function of the photographic medium. The former one considers snapshots as objects determined by social relationships; whereas the latter discusses the personal reception and experience of photography. These discussions, which mainly focus on the users, the attitudes, and reception of amateur snapshots, do not emphasize the core meaning or the visual representation of snapshots. On the other hand, the visual qualities of snapshot photography has been emphasized in several catalogues, such as for example The Photography of Everyday Life, 1888 to present, or The Art of the American Snapshot, 1888-1978: from the Collection of Robert E. Jackson. Besides introducing the social background, and the technological innovations taking place in the history of photography, these publications consider the innovative aspects of the snapshots and relate the creativity we can find in this “genre” with the development of instantaneous photography and the invention of the Kodak Camera. Anonymous photographs with a naïve but innovative form are in this context reappraised by the collectors or the museum curators.12 The different approaches show the problematic utilization of methodologies. But they all offer a different vision which does not help to have a clear view on what a snapshot really is. As snapshot catches the fleeting moment in a picture, how fragmentary time can be represented in a picture? This thesis will detail the history of snapshot photography. It will focus on the. 11. Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflection on Photography, Richard Howard (trans.), New York: Hill & Wang, 1982. 12 This aspect has been criticized by several scholars. The way snapshots are often selected in order to fit the artistic taste cannot show the true snapshot, which is often banal, boring, and formalized. Removing the original social context of snapshots previously hanging on walls or mounted in photo albums makes the snapshots isolated in museums. See: Geoffrey Batchen, “Snapshots: Art History and the Ethnographic Turn”, in: Photographies, vol. 1, no. 2, 2008, pp. 130-132, or Catherine Zuromskis, “Ordinary Pictures and Accidental Masterpieces: Snapshot Photography in the Modern Art Museum,” in: Art Journal, 2008, pp. 105-125. 5.

(13) first usage of the term and the evolution that took place later. My intension is not to consolidate Herschel’s status as the inventor of the term, but I would like to see how the idea of catching the instant became one main issue of photography, and how it has been shown in photographic representations. I hope it would help us to understand the inherent meaning of snapshot. Then, I will also focus on the visual formula proper to the representations of the fleeting of time, no matter their amateur or professional origins. I will analyse how a still picture can embody movement and in which way a photograph show the inherent ability of the medium to seize the instant. I will also try to determine which forms and subjects are specific to this practice of photography. Though most photographs in the photo albums are unique, they nevertheless repeat poses or situations we can find in million of other pictures. Furthermore, as the snapshot has become a style in itself, it will be necessary to see in detail how its aesthetic has been quoted by art photographers. It would also help us to understand what snapshot means when it becomes a representational aesthetic.. 6.

(14) Chapter 1: The Birth and Evolution of the Snapshot The word “snapshot” is today an indicator of non-professional photography, and refers mostly to casual representations recording daily life.13 When we browse the internet, most of the pictures uploaded by billions of anonymous people are snapshots. If the ubiquity of the snapshot seems to reflect its popularity among the population, the origin of the phenomenon is less well known. In the Oxford Dictionary, the snapshot is described as: “An instantaneous photograph, esp. one taken with a hand Kodak.”14 Published in 1989 just before the prevalence of the digital camera, the dictionary addressed a practice that was intimately connected to a certain type of camera: Kodak’s. However, the definition given by the dictionary does only reveal one part of the reality and the history of the word. Before it was associated with the Kodak Camera, and even before the invention of photography, the word had been widely used in daily life. Its meaning was first related to hunting, and more specifically to a gunshot, indicating a quick and hurried shot without deliberate aim, especially when the target constituted rising birds or quick-moving animals. 15 However, in the field of photography, John Frederick William Herschel (1792-1871) was the first person to use the term, when he published in 1860 his article, “Instantaneous Photography” in the journal The Photographic News.16 Herschel’s main purpose was to proclaim the future of photography, foreseeing:. 13. Richard Zakia, “Snapshot Photography,” in: The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory, and Application, History, and Science, Focal Press, 2007, p. 346. 14 John Simpson and Edmund Weiner (eds.), The Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989, vol. 10, p. 838. 15 For example, we can see this sentence in 1808 from Col. Hawker’s Diary: “Almost every pleasant I fired at was a snap shot among the high cover.” In: The Oxford English Dictionary, vol. XV, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989, p, 837. 16 John Frederick William Herschel, “Instantaneous Photography,” in: The Photographic News, William Crookes (ed.), vol. IV, 1860, p.13. See the whole article in the appendix. 7.

(15) “ […] the possibility of taking a photograph, as it were, by a snap-shot of securing a picture in a tenth of a second of time” through the“stereoscopic representation of scenes in action” and natural color pictures. His motivation was intentionally based on the knowledge, available at that time. By combining the skills of the stereoscope, a device that creates three-dimensional relief, and the phenakistiscope, another device that can combine several serial images of a movement to create the illusion of movement, Herschel was actually imagining an apparatus that could record and provide three dimensional pictures in movement, something that resembles today’s 3D moving images. However, Herschel’s vision of the future had to face different difficulties. For example, the images for the phenakistiscope were still hand drawn, a deficiency that was also mentioned in Herschel’s article.17 The fastest available exposure speed could scarcely capture movements, and it was still impossible to take serial photographs of a movement. Herschel discussed this issue in his article: “a prepared plate may be presented, focused, impressed, displaced, numbered, secured in the dark, and replaced by another within two or three- tenths of a second.”18 Herschel knew that if he wanted to take a series of photographs of a movement, he must try to simplify all these processes. Herschel’s vision of the photographic snapshot was related to a series of technical inventions. At that time, photography had been around for more than twenty years. Slow exposure and troublesome technical procedures had been the main issues to overcome. Herschel wanted to contribute to the improvement of the photographic apparatus. So we should not see Herschel’s vision for the future as a fantasy but 17. “ […] and we have only to substitute for such a periodically recurrent set of pictures imperfectly drawn by hand […].” In: John Frederick William Herschel, “Instantaneous Photography,” in: The Photographic News, p. 13. 18 Ibid. 8.

(16) instead should locate his idea in the bigger context of the history of photography and the development of different kind of visual devices at that time. Though the term “snapshot” was introduced in photographic context in 1860, it was not commonly used even though the improvement of faster sensitive emulsion was taking place between the 1860s and 1880s.19 The popularity of the term and the idea of taking photographs casually became a reality much later when the Kodak Company developed new products. In 1888, the company released a new camera and an innovative service. It provided a camera that required no professional skill and also offered the service of a developing and printing system. Kodak contributed to the popularization of photography, allowing anyone to take photographs easily and even without any professional knowledge. Kodak even became a term with several declinations, such as “kodaking,” “kodakers,” “kodakery.”20 This was not without provoking negative reactions from professionals; the widespread acceptance of taking photography was, for instance, criticized by the musical comedian Corney Grain (1844-1895) who complained that, “Whatever you be – on land or sea, you hear that awful click of the amateur photographer, Click! Click! Click! ”21 As we can see, there are at least two origins of the term “snapshot” in the history of photography. The first one refers to the scientific instantaneous recording of a moment that can be characterized by the tenth of a second. The second one defines a category of naïve users. The change of users and attitude also followed the evolution of the definition of the word. But “snapshot” is not merely restricted to the. 19. Brian Coe and Paul Gates, The Snapshot Photography: the Rise of Popular Photography 1888-1839, p. 6. 20 Mia Fineman, "Kodak and the Rise of Amateur Photography,” in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kodk/hd_kodk.htm, accessed on 3th, December, 2013. 21 Brian Coe and Paul Gates, the Snapshot Photography: the Rise of Popular Photography 1888-1839, p. 18. 9.

(17) connotation of amateur photography. Before analyzing this aspect in detail, it is necessary to re-evaluate Herschel’s background. 1-1 The Context of William Herschel’s “Instantaneous Photography” 1-1 -1 The Relative Notion of Instantaneous Photography The invention of photography astonished the public with its quickness. In 1839, Dominique François Arago (1786-1853) addressed this issue in his presentation to the French Chamber of Deputies: “The rapidity of the method (Daguerreotype) has probably astonished the public more than anything else. In fact, scarcely ten or twelve minutes are required for photographing a monument, a section of a town, or a scene even in dull, winter weather. ”22 We can see that with Daguerre’s photography it was impossible to seize any movement. For example, Two Views of the Boulevard du Temple, Taken the Same Day (Fig. 1) in 1838 shows the city view from a high angle. In this image, one building occupies almost one quarter of the space. It also blocks our view and prevents us from seeing the boulevard behind it. The boulevard flanked by the buildings later goes from the lower left side to the right upper side. The picture is almost perfectly empty without any pedestrians and carriages on the street because no movement could be kept by the long exposure. We can only see the silhouette of one person raising his leg and keeping still on the corner of the boulevard probably for brushing boots.23 The exposure time for this photograph must have been too slow for somebody who wanted to catch a movement, but it was relatively fast compared to painting, since it required much less time to represent any kind of figures. We can understand from Daguerre’s Views of the Boulevard du Temple that it was impossible to take a snapshot with a Daguerreotype. However, improving the exposure time 22. Dominique François Arago, “Report,” in: Classical essays on photography, Alan Trachtenberg (ed.), New Haven: Leete’s Island Books, 1980, p. 19. 23 Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography:From 1839 to the Present, p. 16. 10.

(18) became an important issue in the beginning of photography. As long as the movement could be captured, it could be considered “instantanée,” a feminine term often used in the beginning of photography to refer to a photograph taken in a brief instant, in order to respect the autonomy of the subject.24 Charles Nègre (1820-1880), for example, in his series of photographs of chimney sweepers at rest or walking on the banks of the Seine in 1851-1852, used the term “instantanée” to describe his work. The commentary Ernst Lacan made on one part of the series Stonecutter emphasized the lively aspect of the representations as “full of movement and life,” requiring only three seconds to be “burned.”25 The work was considered as a great achievement because it could freeze the movement of walking. However, the exposure of three seconds would only cause blurred images. In the photo Chimney Sweepers Walking (Fig. 2), the three men are not moving because none of their feet is suspended in the air. The men were actually performing a stretched gesture. The photograph was staged to create a plausible “instantanée.”26 Later, the stereograph A Rainy Day on Broadway (Fig. 3), taken by Edward Anthony (1819-1888) in 1859, showed the ability to capture movement. In this photograph, reflections on the wet roads indicate that the picture was taken on a rainy day, and it revealed from the negative a better sensitivity because the weather increased the difficulty of recording the actions. As we see, the photograph is taken from a high angle, so the figures walking on the street are not conscious of the camera and behave naturally, walking in several directions. Some pedestrians are caught by the camera in the last second before walking out of the lower part of the frame. In the 24. Michel Frizot, “The New Truth of the Snapshot,” in: Snapshot: Painters and Photography, Bonnard to Vuillard, Eliabeth Easton (ed.), New York and London: Yale University Press, 2011, p. 24. 25 The original sentence is “such speed that in three seconds a portrait is burned.” Quote after: Frizot Michel, “The New Truth of the Snapshot,” in: Snapshot: Painters and photography, Bonnard to Vuillard, pp. 24-25. Originally in: Ernst Lacan, La lumière, September 10, 1853, pp. 146-147. 26 Michel Frizot, “The New Truth of the Snapshot,” in: Snapshot: Painters and Photography, Bonnard to Vuillard, p. 25. 11.

(19) lower right part of the picture, one man is stretching out one of his legs with one hand suspended in the air. Due to the improvement of the camera, this man’s pace was stopped by the shot, as if his movement was frozen. Technically, Anthony’s work can be considered as a snapshot, since it conveys the movement of the walk in a short aperture time. The most obvious indication that it is a snapshot is that it presents a frozen moment from a continuous movement and suspends the flow of time. Actually, walking was considered as one of the best motifs to show the apparatus’s ability to catch the movement. It had been also one of the most difficult problems for photographers to solve as we can see in Charles Nègre’s work.27 The accuracy of the snapshot made by Edward Anthony also provided for new perspectives and applications in the field of physiology. The American scientist Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), also known for his improvement of the stereoscope, declared that the accurate photographic representation of a man waking could serve as a useful reference for designing artificial limbs for the soldiers hurt in the Civil War.28 He called these stereographs “instantaneous photographs” because they were able to catch a fragment of a movement.29 For Holmes, the stereograph in which we can see walking men in the raining city was an important tool to study the human body. Like Hershel, he was looking for a picture that could defeat the flow of time and seize the 27. The perfect instantanée in France was realized by Hippolyte Jouvin (1825-1887) after Nègre. He took many city views of Paris streets as stereographs. The photograph, Le Pont Neuf, had a high point of view. In the foreground, we can see the bridge with pedestrians and carriages on it. The bridge leads to the high horizontal line which is occupied with several houses. The houses show the new face of Haussmann’s urban reconstruction. The slice of Parisian life and the high angle, are reminiscent of Monet’s Boulevard des Capucines, which also depicts the boulevard in a high angle. People are walking on the street. On the left side of the canvas, we see a row of houses renewed by Haussmann’s plan. The painting shows the instant moment with dots and blurred figures. Both of the works illustrate the modernity of daily life: strolling people, and the new face of the city. On the issue of the walk and instantaneity, see: Nancy Forgione, “Everyday Life in Motion: the Art of Walking in Late –Nineteenth -Century Paris,” in: The Art Bulletin, vol. 18, no. 4, 2005, pp. 664- 687. 28 Aaron Scharf, Art and Photography, Baltimore: the Penguin Press, 1969, p. 141. 29 Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, p. 117. 12.

(20) moment undetectable by the naked eye. Holmes praised the identical-natural photographs improved by the illusion made by the optical tool. However, the illusion provoked a contrast between physical substance and virtual images. He called all of these images transportable and cheap “skin[s] of form.” Original objects were supposed to lose their value because their forms could be hunted into endless numbers of photographs.. 30. He describes in his. article using the metaphor of hunting: “Every conceivable object of Nature and Art will soon scale off its surface for us. Men will hunt all curious, beautiful, grand objects, as they hunt the cattle in South America, for their skins, and leave the carcasses as of little worth.”. 31. Holmes’s analogy, which relates photography to a gunshot or hunting, was very close to Herschel’s vision of the snapshot. The purpose of hunting or taking photographs is not to take the whole object but the skin of form. This metaphor reminds us of the trophies hanging above fireplaces, which represent the fragments of life detached from their content. Just like trophies, photography could not represent all the substantial experience but only “skin[s] of form.” 1-1-2 the Stereoscope Another kind of illusion Herschel mentioned in his article on instantaneous photography is the stereoscope, a type of picture that gives the illusion of the real presence of objects or figures thanks to its ability to capture three dimensionality (Fig. 4). The model of the stereoscope Herschel talked about looks like a binocular modified by David Brewster (1781-1868) in 1849. It contains two tubes and might look like a truncated pyramid in which two painted or photographic images are 30. Oliver Wendell Holmes, “The Stereoscope and the Stereograph,” originally published in 1859, in: Classic Essays on Photography, p. 80. 31 Ibid., p. 81 13.

(21) inserted behind the subjective lens. By using two images which depict the same object from two different angles, this apparatus can simulate the vision of two eyes. When looking through the viewfinder, it is possible to see a relief-like illusion.32 This illusion can be more convincing than hand-drawn images.33 By 1856, more than half a million stereoscopes had been sold, and this had led to more than ten thousand models of stereoscopic photographs on the market.34 The shooting topics were usually related to touristic locations such as the Alps, the exotic middle Asia, city views, or erotic representations. The stereoscope in the Victorian period became one of the most popular forms of entertainment for the consumers to tour the whole world in three-dimensions without leaving their sitting rooms.35 The photographs were installed in spectacular machines, perceived by human eyes for the virtual reality produced by the stereoscopic images, never quite the same as the true reality. For example, the image regarded with the stereoscope is relief similar, but it lacks continuity. Items in the near or in the middle ground are seen as obtrusive and tangible. As Holmes puts: “The scraggy branches of a tree in the foreground run out at us as if they would scratch our eyes out,”36 the distance 32. The archetype of the stereoscope was invented by Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875) in 1838 for scientific purpose. In his report in the Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society in London, he illustrated the stereoscope with drawings of solid geometrical forms representing different perspectives from different viewpoints. Later, he demonstrated the viewpoints by inserting them into an instrument, which was called the stereoscope. In 1839, some photographs replaced the drawing pictures. He mentioned, “to my request, Mr. Talbot, the inventor, and Mr. Collen (one of the first cultivators of the art) obligingly prepared for me stereoscopic Talbotypes of full –sized statues, buildings, and even portraits of living persons.” Quote after Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat, New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, p. 215. Since the stereoscope was demonstrated by Charles Wheatstone in 1838, the instrument also had some evolution. The type which is narrated is one of the most common types. Though the type could be various, the basic principle is the same. 33 The pair of stereographs could be made by taking photographs at the same time with double cameras or by doing it twice with one camera. The method of taking with one camera is to move a couple of inches of the camera after taking the first photograph. In: Oliver Wendell Holmes, “The Stereoscope and the Stereograph,” p. 76. 34 Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat, p. 216. 35 Ibid., p. 216 36 Oliver Wendell Holmes, “The Stereoscope and the Stereograph,” in: Classical Essay of Photography, 14.

(22) between the relief-like items and the background does not change evenly but provides a sharp uncertainty which breaks the traditional way of presenting distance in a well-constructed perspective.37 The tangibility of stereography did not correspond to any experienced reality. “Form is henceforth divorced from matter,”38 as Holmes also puts. The disconnection of the object and the images also echoes Holmes’s concept of photographic image as “hunting” or “skin[s] of form.” The hunted images can be appreciated independently from their origin. We can understand that Herschel coined the term snapshot according to the common concepts of the photographic images that were prevailing in his time. 1-1-3 the Principle of the Phenakistiscope: Overlapping Snapshots and Afterimage Herschel’s vision of instantaneous photography was not only focused on the tenth of a second or the reproduction of the reality through three dimensional photographs; his final intention was to create a dynamic illusion by overlapping a lot of snapshots. The principle of animation he was imagining was based on the study of the afterimages that Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) introduced in 1810 in his book Theory of Colour, one of the major sources for part of the scientific research on the retina in the nineteenth century. 39 In 1825, John Ayrton Paris (1785-1856) measured the continuity of the afterimage with a toy like gadget, the thaumatrope, consisting of a. p.77. 37 The very effect of tangibility turned into a mass form of ocular possession that made the stereoscope became the synonymous of erotic or pornography, in: Jonathan Crary, Technique of the Observer: on Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press, pp. 124-126. 38 Oliver Wendell Holmes, “The Stereoscope and the Stereograph,” in: Classic Essays on Photography, p. 80. 39 He was recognized as a German writer, scientist and politician. The experiment he made in Theory of Colour was to stand in a dark room with one small hole about three inches in diameter, while the sunlight is forming a beam and casting light on a sheet of white paper. After staring at the circular light on the paper, the observer is asked to look toward the darkest part of the room. Later, the observer would see different colors which are not real but only based on the reaction of the retina. See In: Jonathan Crary, Technique of the Observer: on Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 98-99. After Goethe, the research on the illusionistic image of the retina continued. 15.

(23) small circular disc with a drawing on either side that will mix together when the disc is spun.40 He declared that the afterimage “lasts for about the eighth part of a second.” The invention based on the scientific research of the afterimage went further more complicated. In 1833, the Belgium scientist Joseph Plateau (1801- 1883) invented the phenakistiscope. Its simplest form (Fig. 5) consists of a disc divided into eight or sixteen wedges. Each segment contains a small slit crack and a figure that represents one sequence of a continuous movement. The spectator, holding the rotating phenakistiscope in front of a mirror, sees the reflection of the figures through the cracks, and the vivid animation in a sequence of movement. When Herschel coined the term snapshot in 1860, it was still not possible to record the movement with a camera, so the figures of the phenakistiscope were drawn by hand, commonly representing dancing girls, rope-skipping people, or any kind of figure in action showing a sequence of movements. As a scientist and a man of his time, Herschel was defining the snapshot not as an end in itself, but as a means to provide a new kind of image able to record the movement of life. The snapshot, as the expression of the instantaneous, was integrated into a larger system of visualization, based on the most recent discoveries regarding vision. The tenth of a second characterizing the future of photography also introduced a paradoxical dichotomy between still and moving images. 1-2 Amateurs of Photography: from Scientific Background to Knowing – Nothing Orientation Besides developing the techniques of photography, Herschel also researched astronomy, a discipline he inherited from his father William Herschel, as well as 40. John Ayrton Paris, “Philosophy in Sport Made Science in Earnest, Being an Attempt to illustrate the first Principle of Nature Philosophy by the Aid of the popular Toys and Sport,” in: Thornburn, vol. 3, 1827, p. 13. 16.

(24) mathematics, chemistry, physics, and optics. Herschel’s research in light, optics, and chemistry helped the early improvement of photography, and he is largely recognized as the first to discover hyposulphites as a photographic fixing agent.41 From the context of promoting photography, Herschel’s scientific background, and the context of researching on the afterimage in nineteenth century, Herschel’s article constitutes a serious proposal for the future. Its scientific impact would be emphasized if we take into account the specificity of the journal, in which Herschel published his articles. The aim of Photographic News was to provide “information, derived from foreign as well as domestic sources, of all discoveries and improvements in photography, optics, photographic chemistry and the cognate science."42 Although commonly reserved to scientists, the journal also addressed non-professional readers, in brief “to all who are interested in the development of science.”43 At that time, the distance between professionals and amateurs was not great, since the amateurs still had to spend a lot of time learning the photographic process correctly. As a forum for all questions and inquiries, the journal provided technical help for amateurs who were glad to learn how to choose lens or tents, what the latest chemical or optical invention was or to know any new source hints.44 Both professionals and amateurs were technically and scientifically oriented and socially connected through journals to share information, or clubs to meet and organize exhibitions. For example, The Photographic Society (the Royal Photographic Society, now) was established in the winter of 1851 to 1852 just for the preparation of an exhibition of more than 700 photographs, including professionals 41. John Herschel, “John Herschel’s letter to Alfred Brothers,” in: The British Journal of Photography, May 18, 1866, vol. 13, p. 236. 42 William Crookes (ed.)“Introductory Address,” In: Photographic News, vol.1, no. 1, 1858, p.1. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. The third feature of the Photographic News is “III. Elementary lessons in photography, together with a dictionary of photographic terms.” 17.

(25) and amateurs. 45 The number of amateurs increased with the development and improvement of the photographic technology. In the 1860s, only a small group of photography lovers were committed with the hard labor of wet plate. Taking photography was thus restricted to a small amount of professionals and amateurs. In the 1870s, the number of amateurs increased with the invention of the dry plate.46 Before the dry plate, photographers had to endure the heavy pains of coating, developing, and carrying heavy equipment such as a tent, chemicals, and water. After the invention of the dry plate, however, they could buy ready-made dry plates on the market. In the beginning, they had to replace the dry plate after taking one photograph. With the invention of the roll film, taking several photographs in one trip and developing them days later became possible.47 Though the numbers of amateurs increased due to this innovation, the hobby was only shared by a specific group of people who could afford the cost of the equipment, and also had the leisure time to learn it.48 With the shift from the wet plate to the dry plate, the motifs of amateur photography also changed gradually. The uncomfortable poses caused by the long exposure time could finally be eliminated. Shorter exposure time allowed amateurs to easily record slices of life. The photographs could thus reveal more casual atmosphere 45. In: the Royal Photographic Society website, http:// http://www.rps.org/history, accessed in 23th October, 2012. 46 In 1871, physician Richard Leach Maddox announced that his use of an emulsion of gelatin. This process was called by the editor as “the driest of the dry process.” Quote after: Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, p.123. Originally in: “An Experiment with Gelatin Bromide,” vol. 18, 1871, pp. 422-423. Later, Charles Harper Bennett improved the dry plate in 1878. The dry plate could be prepared several days before exposure, and the sensitivity to light was also enhanced. It was possible to take people jumping or water drops dripping. Several companies also manufactured gelatin plate packages which were ready to use, for example, The Eastman Dry Plate Company was founded in 1881. In: Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, pp. 123-124. 47 For example, in 1885 the Eastman Dry Plate Company released the roll film. Brian Coe. "Eastman, George." In: Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online, http://0-www.oxfordartonline.com.opac.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/subscriber/article/grove/art/T024764 , accessed in 13th October, 2012. 48 Brian Coe and Paul Gates, The Snapshot photography: the Rise of Popular photography 1888-1839, p. 16. 18.

(26) and spontaneity than before. More and more amateurs aimed the camera toward their intimate life, taking pictures of their beloved friends and relatives, as it can be observed, for example, in the way the painter Edgar Degas (1834- 1917) learned and took photography.49 Degas was one of the amateurs of the era of the dry plate. He started to take photographs as early as 1895, when the Kodak Company released a new camera and declared that “anybody can use it.”50 The painter still used to develop and enlarge his photographs by himself and conscious of the technical difficulties, he also requested some help and tips from Guillaume Tasset, a professional photographer. Degas paid also attention to the latest invention in photography. For example, two months after the releasing of the panchromatic plate, Degas requested that Tasset offer him the new support which was supposed to provide a better sensibility to all the color of the spectrum.51 Degas embodies the average amateur photographers who became more and more numerous during the first decades of the twentieth century. He often took photographs of his friends after dinners by instructing them to take a proper pose for his 49. There are two reasons that Degas is taken as an example here. First, he considered photography as a kind of memory aid for his painting. Degas also took photographs of the street scene and ballet dancers. Sometimes he took photographs for the preparation of his painting, but sometimes not. In: Malcolm Daniel, “The Atmosphere of Lamps or Moonlight,” in: Edgar Degas, Photographer, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1995, pp. 17-23. His painting is often compared with snapshot, for example, Aaron Scharf quotes Jacques- Émile Blanche’s argument made in 1919: “Perhaps he will one day be reproached with having anticipated the cinema and the snapshot,” in: Aaron Scharf, Art & Photography, 1969, p. 143. The text is quoted and translated from Blanche’s De David à Degas, (Paris, 1919, pp. 297-298). If we compare Degas’s painting to his photographs, we can see that his painting reveals more instantaneity and movement than his photographs or those made at the same time. On the contrary, the topic of his photography is intimate, but the composition is more stable. And the idea of arranging carefully someone’s pose before taking the photograph, is related to the process of studio photography. 50 The earliest reference that Degas took photography can be seen in a letter written by the Italian painter Federico Zandomeneghim, who mentioned that Degas made four photographic portraits of him. In: Malcolm Daniel (ed.), Edgar Degas, Photographer, New York: the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, p. 20. 51 The panchromatic plate was described by August and Louise Lumière bothers in The Bulletin de la Société française de Photographie in 1895. Cited after Malcolm Daniel, “The Atmosphere of Lamps or Moonlight,” in: Edgar Degas, Photographer, pp. 22-23. 19.

(27) compositions. Although Degas attempted to convey his artistic perspective, his photographs seem to reveal the fact that imperfection and ambiguous atmosphere were still inevitable, especially if we compare them with the photographs made by professional studios. For example, the photograph he took of his friend Louise Halévy (Fig. 6) is well composed. The figure is perfectly located in one third of the lower part of the picture. The frames hanging on the wall and the cushion of the sofa form parallel horizontal lines, but the presence of the model’s hand raised, intensifies on the other hand the intimacy and lightness of the photograph. From the topic and the sitter, this photograph could be considered a souvenir revealing a close friendship. 52 Furthermore, the light in the right side is over exposed and offers too sharp a contrast according to the standard of professional studio photography. 53 The technical orientation, the subject itself, and the imperfection reveal the amateur character of Degas’s photography. 1-3 The Kodak Age 1-3-1 The Kodak Cameras The example of Degas’s photography corresponds to the phenomenon of democratization of photography that took place thanks to the development of the dry plate. But the popularity of photography was also promoted by the miniaturization of cameras. In 1881, the so called “detective camera,” a camera with dry plates and in the shape of a cube, was introduced into the market.54 Later, some models were small enough to be concealed under waistcoats or disguised as parcels, hats, or opera. 52. Malcom Daniel, Edgar Degas, Photographer, p. 12. Ibid. 54 In 1881, Thomas Bolas introduced a small box camera which he called detective camera. Actually, George Eastman and his technician, Frank Cossitt also designed their own detective camera which was also box-like. It was released in 1886 but the camera was only sold in small quantity. In: Todd Gustavson, “Innovative Devise: George Eastman and the Handheld Camera,” in: Snapshot: Painters and Photography, Bonnard to Vuillard, p.15, p.21. 20 53.

(28) glasses. But these kinds of hidden cameras were still not very popular, since the results were not satisfying for the users. 55 Soon, the term detective camera was applied to most of cameras with a cube form. The detective cameras released themselves from the tripod because of their light weight and the higher sensibility provided by the dry plate. For example, the “Express Détective Nadar” (Fig. 7), released in 1888, can be recognized as the precursor of the Kodak camera according to its shape. Because of its portable character, it allowed the photographer to catch pictures in unusual angles, and due to its smaller size, the photographer could also hide his tool and took images closer to his target. The dry plate and the detective camera illustrated the tendency of simplification that had been taking place at the time. However, the process of developing and printing film was still a big issue for amateurs. In 1888, a determining change happened when the Kodak Company released the “Kodak Camera,” a small box containing a roll of negative film which allowed one hundred exposures. It provided a fixed aperture and one V sighting lines on the camera top, but without a view finder. . It conveyed the idea that adjusting the exposure time and the focus were no longer necessary.56 This simplification was emphasized by an advertisement (Fig. 8) that indicated that only three simple steps were necessary to take a photograph: “Pull the cord,” “Turn the key,” and finally “Press the button.”57 Moreover, this camera was accompanied with a printing service. After one hundred exposures, the user could ship the Kodak camera back to the Kodak Company. Around ten days later, the camera would be returned with new loaded negative films and the developed and printed photographs. This innovation led to a new revolutionary system of consuming 55. Though some of the detective cameras were not too far from toys and the result was not satisfying enough, it was sometimes still possible to have good results. In: Brian Coe and Paul Gates, The Snapshot Photography 1888-1939: the Rise of Popular Photography, p.16. 56 Ibid., pp. 16-17. 57 Ibid. 21.

(29) photography, as promoted in the slogans of the company, “You press the button, we do the rest,” and “Anybody can use it.”58 The prevalent phenomenon was noticed in the journal Photographic Times soon after the release of the Kodak camera in1899 targeting the new consumers and their lack of skills: “Amateurs” in its original meaning is “a lover of,” and as applied to photography would convey that the man to whom it was applied was an enthusiastic lover of, and consequently a skilled adapted in the art. Now the meaning is degraded, and the man who buys a detective, pressed the button, and sends his paper or plates to be developed and printed from, is an amateur.59 This comment shows that the democratization of photography was endangering the quality of artistic and scientific photography. Apparently, the writer of the professional journal annoyed by the degradation of photography criticized not only the new cameras and the new service, but also the characteristics of its users. However, the Kodak camera in 1888 was still not affordable to everyone. The price of 25 dollars was not cheap,60 and this made the less wealthy unable to purchase the new camera.61 The company was conscious of the potentialities of the market and. 58. Brian Coe and Paul Gates, the Snapshot photograph: The Rise of Popular photography 1888-1939, p.17. 59 Quote after Pamela J. Inglesby, “Button–Presser Versus Picture-Makers: the Social Composition of Amateur Photography in the Late 19th Century U.S.,” in: Visual Sociology Review, vol. 5, no. 1, 1990, p. 20. Original in Photographic times, no. 19, 1889, p. 608. 60 The price equals to around $600 dollars in 2012, in: Todd Gustavson, “Innovative Devices: George Eastman and the Handheld Camera,” in: Snapshot: Painters and Photography, Bonnard to Vuillard, p. 16. 61 44.5 % of the cost of living of industrial workers in the United States and Europe in 1888 to 1890 was still for food and only 1.9% for recreation. We can imagine that it was unthinkable for them to spend so much money to purchase a Kodak camera just for fun. Dora L. Costa, “Less of a Luxury: the Rise of Recreation since 1888,” Working Paper 6054, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1997, p. 4. 53 Originally, the Brownie was a mischievous and helpful creature for domestic works. It was attached 22.

(30) kept improving and diversifying its products. In 1889, the company progressively issued new cameras called the Kodak no.2, the Kodak no.3 and the Kodak no.4, but the prices were even higher than the first Kodak camera.62 In 1900, the company produced and sold the “Brownie camera” at the cost of only one dollar, introducing a new strategy by borrowing the name Brownie from Palmer Cox’s (1840-1924) children books illustrations.53 Cox’s Brownies were a group of mischievous spirits who liked to adventure the new world, both geographically and technologically. They were in this respect perfectly adapted to the aims of the Kodak camera, which embodied the same magic as the little creatures. The advertisements for the Brownie are particularly (Fig. 9) interesting. 63 Instead of the written instructions we can find in the 1888 first Kodak camera, the 1900 advertisement shows six Brownies playing around the camera and discovering the new apparatus. Among them, three are running or staring next to the camera, one is looming through the lens, and the other two are manipulating the top of the camera. The slogan, brief and clear, is asserting that: “Any school boy or girl can make good pictures with one of the Eastman Kodak Co.’s Brownie Cameras.” The image and the slogan demonstrate that photography is as easy as a game. The advertisement and its childish mood show that the children were also identified as potential customers.64 Since then, photography has embraced enthusiasts of all the ages who were rejected before because of their age, gender, or economic status. The meaning of snapshot also to specific houses and also worked when human beings were sleeping. Marc Olivier, “George Eastman’s Modern Stone-Age: Snapshot Photography and the Brownie,” in: Technology and Culture, vol. 48, No. 1, 2007, p. 4 62 The Kodak Official Website, in: http://www.kodak.com/global/en/consumer/products/techInfo/aa13/aa13.shtml, accessed on 26th, October 2012. 63 In: the Youth’s Companion, 26th July 1900, p. 371. Quote after: Marc Oliver, “George Eastman’s Modern Stone- Age Family,: Snapshot Photography and the Brownie,” p. 8. Cox was a Scotch-Irish descent. Actually he adopted the idea of the Brownie from a Scottish legend. 64 For example, the photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson had also one Box Brownie when he was a boy though he only “played” with this camera for holiday snapshots. In: Henri Cartier-Bresson, The Mind’s Eye: Writing on Photography and Photographers, New York: Aperture, 1999, p. 20. 23.

(31) transformed with the expansion of the number of amateurs who commonly knew nothing about photography except clicking the button of the camera. 1-3-2 Taking Photography Everyday As a Kodak employee noted, the charm of photography mattered even more than the twenty-five dollar black box. 65 What mattered was that one could enjoy the fascinating activity of clicking and catching pictures. The Kodak Company also encouraged the new-generation users to shoot all kinds of subjects from their daily life, a concept which was before condemned or despised by professional users. For example, Kodak suggested that any moment was worth being captured: “Kodak as you go,” “Every trip that is worth taking is worth a Kodak story,” “The companion of every outing—the friend of all lovers of the open—the Kodak” and “A vacation without a Kodak is a vacation wasted,” all these slogans showed that leisure and traveling activities were worth a picture.66 Besides that, the Kodak Company also encouraged the users to record family life, such as, “At home with a Kodak,” and “Let Kodak keep the history.” The rise of the middle class was accompanied with a clearer separation between work and leisure time. The moments spent with friends or a journey taking place during holiday became progressively the source of happiness and worth a picture.67 Simultaneously, the advertisements of the Kodak cameras were also spreading from trade journals to popular magazines, such as Harper’s Bazar, Ladies Home Journal. 65. 68. and the company published its own magazine under the title, A Journal for. Diane Waggoner, “Photographic Amusements: 1888-1919,” in: The Art of American Snapshot 1888-1978, Sarah Greenough (ed.), Washington: Princeton Press, 2007,pp. 18-19. 66 Ibid., p. 18. 67 Ibid., pp. 10-11. 68 Ibid., p. 19. 24.

(32) Amateur Photography.69 But the advertisements in various magazines indicated that the purpose of buying a camera was not only for shooting, but also related to fashion, traveling, domestic life, or the owner's living style. With the new cameras, people were encouraged to take pictures when they were on a beach, at a picnic, and in celebrations of birthdays. Daily topics which were not approved by professional photographers were largely embraced by the new Kodak generation. Casual actions such as pulling faces, being mischievous, or denying the camera in a photograph (Fig. 10) increased, and received at the same time many complaints. As Pamela J. Inglesby quoted, the new amateurs were “[…] firing away at anything they may fancy, no matter in what position the sun may be.”70 The new attitude toward photography transformed also the definition of snapshot. One photograph by Marjorie Parker (Fig. 11) can be taken as an example.71 It is mounted on a black cardboard paper of a photo album. The scenery takes place on a deck of a boat where a group of women is sitting. This photograph reveals many failures. In the left side, one part of the sail almost covers one third of the picture. One of the women in the middle of the picture is smiling at the beholder but the bright sun makes her unable to open her eyes. The woman on her left hand is also blinded by the sun, and the third woman raising her head on the right side, seems to be conscious of the presence of the camera, but her face is hidden by the hat worn by another woman. According to the chaotic composition, this photograph is far away from a good picture. There are clear mistakes, such as the loss of focus and the truncated faces and. 69. The journal had been published from 1913 to 1932 by the Kodak Company itself. The Kodak camera or the Brownie buyers could have one year subscription free. 70 Quote after Pamela J. Inglesby, “Button–Presser Versus Picture-Makers: the Social Composition of Amateur Photography in the Late 19th Century U.S.,” p. 20. Originally in: Robert T. Tramoh, “Thoughts About Amateurs,” in: Philadelphia Photographer, vol. 21, 1884, pp. 172-173. 71 Jennifer N. Thompson (ed.), Snapshot Chronicles: Inventing the American Photo Album, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006. 25.

(33) bodies. The person standing on the deck behind the women is even totally cut by the frame, and only her legs are seen. The photography is mysterious and trivial. The photographer took the photograph as a souvenir without taking care about the artistic value of the composition. The topic is light and the photography records happy moments from a journey: it becomes the evidence of the time passing and helps the viewer to keep the memory of a nice moment. That is the reason why the “bad” photograph has been cherished and kept in the album with the inscription written under the picture: “We had such a good time.” Conclusion Herschel’s definition of snapshot is based on the aperture time related to a scientific and professional usage. His dream was partly fulfilled by the end of the century through the experimentations in chronophotography, led by Etienne-Jules Marey (1830- 1904)72 and Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904)73. One of Marey’s works, Flight of Gull (Fig. 12) records several images of the trajectory of a flying gull in the same photograph with the help of multiple exposures. 74 We can see clearly the anatomy and the way the wings cup the air thanks to the black background. The one photograph of a continuous movement also helps to comprehend the special and temporal dimension of the movement. Muybridge’s work, published in 1887 in. 72. Marey was a French doctor and a physiologist. He invented a method to record a sequences of images on the same negative. He also published his research in 1890 Le Vol des Oiseaux, and in 1894 Le Mouvement. In: Patricia Strathern, "Marey, Etienne-Jules," Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed on 14th May, 2013. http://0-www.oxfordartonline.com.opac.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/subscriber/article/grove/art/T054301. 73 Eadweard Muybridge is an English photographer but active in the United States. He successfully took motion pictures by using sequences of photographs. His first research of trotting horses was published in 1877. In: J. P. Ward, "Muybridge, Eadweard," Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed on 14th May, 2013. http://0-www.oxfordartonline.com.opac.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/subscriber/article/grove/art/T060619. 74 In 1882, Marey constructed a small portable rifle- like camera which could take twelve photographs in 1/720 of a second. He described this instrument as a “photographic gun” (fusil photographique, in French) in a letter to his mother. In: Marta Braun, Picturing Time: the work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830- 1904), Chicago: the University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 57. 26.

(34) Animal Locomotion also reveals the petrified movement of animals and human.75 The plate no. 137 (Fig. 13) records the descending movement of a woman. The rectangular plate contains twenty three photographs divided into two rows. The upper row shows reversely from right to left twelve images of a woman descending stairs. The sequence begins with her left profile and ends frontally. The lower row has eleven pictures and begins at the far right side with the frontal view of the model and ends with her right profile. As we can see, the second and the third photographs on the lower right side are bigger than the others. This is not the only reason why Muybridge’s image lacks scientific precision. Though his series of photographs helps to present the movement clearly, it is still difficult to measure the space and the time between two photographs even though he added white lines behind his model in the background short after he began the experiment.76 On the other side, the development of snapshot is not merely related to the shortening of the aperture time but also the photographic medium to a large audience with the simplification of new camera. The constant development of new cameras with easier handling established what can be defined as the snapshot aesthetic. We have seen in this respect that the definition of snapshot evolved and the term became the synonym of amateur photography. The definition of snapshot when used in the field of amateur photography is aesthetically distinct from the context of Herschel and Muybridge, though the concept of instant plays in both cases an essential role. It will be necessary in this respect to tackle the relevance of both practices and analyze concretely what can be the common denominator between the scientific and amateur interest for the instantaneous image. In other words, we need to see if Muybridge’s 75. The work of Muybridge is not subordinated to the scientific order strictly. From the very beginning, Muybridge had declared that his achievement was good for scientific and artistic use. In: Martha Braun, Picturing Time: the Work of Etienne- Jules Marey 1830-1904, pp. 231-232. 76 It was suggested by the realist painter Thomas Eakins (1844- 1916) to add white lines on the background for measurement. Ibid. 27.

(35) photograph deconstructing the movement of a moving figure shares in formal terms some similar feature with a picture taken during a trip, such as for example Marjorie Parker’s photograph. The improvement of technology has been deeply rooted in the desire to visualize more concretely the slightest portions of fleeting time. The scientific and the amateur photographer have shared the same interest in instantaneous photography but their goals and results were different. If the term snapshot became more popular with the increasing number of amateurs, its significance and implication tended to designate bad photographs realized by naïve users. But there is at least one connotation of the term snapshot that seems to have kept some persistence. The use of the verb “to shoot” instead of “taking” or “making” a photograph, is the most significant. Among several examples, many professional photographers such as Lisette Model or Walker Evans preferred to use the verb “to shoot” instead of “to take pictures.” Model, for example, gave clearly the advice to her students to “shoot from the gut,” while Walker Evans explained that the pictures he took in the New York subway during the late 1930s and early 1940s were made as if he were hunting.77 As we will see, shooting and hunting have found in professional photography a concrete illustration through the figures of the war photographer and the paparazzi. As Thierry de Duve claims in his article, “Time Exposure and Snapshot: the photograph as Paradox”. 78. the typical snapshot, as an abrupt artifact staging instant at its most. exemplary level, can be found in press photography.. 77. Sarah Greenough, ‘Introduction’, in: The Art of American Snapshot: 1888-1978, p. 2. Thierry de Duve, “Time Exposure and snapshot: the Photograph as Paradox,” in: October, vol. 5, 1978, pp. 112-125. 28 78.