Reading to Connect –
Strategies to Enhance Students’
Learning Capacity
Professor Evelyn Y. F. Man
12 th May, 2012
“Connect” in the title word - at many levels
Across the curriculum – RAC / WAC
Strategies and pedagogical practice
Implementation of LAC
Connect everyday English language with academic language used for studies
Connect English with other subjects in the curriculum
Connect reading with other skills, e.g. writing, speaking etc.
Connect the primary and secondary English school curriculum
Connect students’ learning experiences in school
with what happens outside school – and for life-
long learning
Deliberate effort by the government to
promote reading - reading much emphasized in the English language curriculum
A Reading Culture taking root in many
schools – various reading programmes at all levels
Facilitate reading across the curriculum and connect students’ learning experiences
Enhancing learning capability in school and
for life-long learning
Situations for English reading
◦ Reading for personal use
◦ Reading for public use
◦ Reading for education
◦ Reading for work (occupational)
◦ For our students, what do they need English for?
What English have students learnt in primary school?
Students lose motivation as they get older
Lack of vocabulary and poor word attack skills
Inadequate phonics training, difficulty in spelling
Inability to express concepts and ideas in English
Inability to follow a lesson conducted
entirely in English
Inability to deal with longer and linguistically more complex texts
No confidence speaking in English
Students find English difficult and frustrating
Reading habit not well-developed
Poor classroom discipline
Is there a gap between the primary and secondary English curriculum, and if so, what is the nature of this gap? How do you bridge the gap?
What are the demands for English in EMI education? – examine some
examples from textbooks
There are two sets of lines on the map.
They are called grid lines. Each grid line is numbered by a two digit value. The vertical grid lines are called eastings. Their number values increase eastwards. The horizontal grid lines are called northings. Their
number values increase northwards.
A grid reference on a map is formed by the
number of an easting and the number of a
northing. It may be either four-figure or
six-figure.
What happens to the colour of the indicator?
Exhaled air contains ______ (less/more)
carbon dioxide than fresh air.
lots of artificial dialogue (i.e. spoken English written down)
limited academic language
much repetition of simple words and structures
Use of high frequency words - for daily conversation
limited narrative or expository writing
books assume role of a teacher
story-telling, songs, drama, big books, use of visuals etc.
Fun and pleasure emphasized
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Knowledge & linguistic structures in academic text type
◦ Highly complex and condensed structures for students tocomprehend
◦ E.g. An organ is a structure in an animal or a plant, which is
composed of several different tissues grouped together to make a functional unit.
The logic of academic language is different from the logic of our usual, everyday language: it has got a high density of information units!
ESL/EFL students will need a transition phase: e.g.,
from short, simple sentences to complex sentences,
and then to extended paragraphs
BICS vs CALP ( Cummins – Basic
Interpersonal Conversational Skills &
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency )
5-7 years for immigrant students to
achieve peer-appropriate levels in English academic skills as native-English-speaking students
Conversational fluency / discrete language skills / academic language proficiency
Need for co-operation between language and subject teachers
Need for LAC - RAC, WAC
Importance of extensive reading and
writing
Understanding rhetorical patterns in the language
Explore content-based genre in content subjects for reading and writing
Knowledge construction & negotiation of meaning
Construction of texts - deconstruction and reconstruction
Develop common expectations and descriptors of texts students should produce
Understanding basic linguistic cues, e.g.
prefixes, suffixes, root words
Use subject-specific and theme-related
examples
‘Academic’ (rhetorical) function: the effective use of
language to achieve different purposes. Different types of texts use different language and different text organization to achieve different purposes.
The functions of language:
Any of the kinds of things that can be done in or through language. We speak or write to
give information, to explain, to express an opinion, to try to get someone to do something, to give a solution, to make people laugh etc. Text types / Functions:
Discussion / Recount / Procedure / Narrative / Information Report / Exposition (Analytical
argument) / Explanation ……
Examples of Functions in
Academic Texts:
◦ Retelling
◦ Describing
◦ Citing information
◦ Hypothesizing
◦ Predicting
◦ Estimating
◦ Sequencing
◦ Showing cause and effect
◦ Giving and supporting opinions
◦ Exemplifying (giving examples)
Curriculum Context
Academic text-types:
Academic functions
Sentence patterns
Academic vocabulary
Comparing
Contrasting
Disagreeing
Drawing conclusion
Persuading
Measuring
Constructing charts, tables and graphs
Distinguishing fact from opinion
Summarizing
Identifying relationships
How are academic functions expressed? What language structures or patterns are used, e.g.
defining, classifying, describing, comparing and contrast, explaining ….
Strategy: develop a common language among different subjects using similar English
language structures or patterns
Example:
What is a definition?
◦ A definition is an exact word or phrase of the meaning, nature, or limits of something.
◦ A definition usually answers the question what.
Simple definitions:
What is Science?
Science is the study of nature and how it affects our environment and us.
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There are different branches in Science. Some common examples are Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology and Astronomy.
Physics is the study of matter, energy, and natural forces.
Chemistry is the study of the properties, composition and reactions of substances.
Biology is the study of living things.
Geology is the study of rocks, soil and the structure of the Earth.
Astronomy is the study of the Sun, the Moon, stars, planets etc.
(adapted from: Interactive Science 1A pp. 4-5 & EDB Science Teaching Resources http://resources.edb.gov.hk/~s1sci/R_S1Science/sp/)
Teaching students the sentence patterns to write science definitions
For example, a simple sentence pattern used for writing a definition is “X is Y.”
What is the pattern of a definition?
◦ In English, we say It uses the simple subject (S) + verb (V) + clause structure.
◦ Besides, the definition of a term consists of its class and characteristics.
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Subject Verb Relative Clause A
laboratory
is a place where experiments are performed.
Term =
General Class Word
Relative Pronoun
Giving Specific Characteristics
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(adopted from Zimmerman (1989), English for science.)
= Conduction
is
a process
by which
heat is transferred.
The water cycle
various forms of water moves around the Earth.
= Physics
is
the study of matter and energy.
Energy the ability to do work.
Light energy the energy carried by light waves.
= Petroleum
is a non‐renewable resource.
Litmus paper a pH indicator.
Term
Term
Term
general class word
general class word
general class word
specific characteristics
specific characteristics
specific characteristics
Magnesium is like
similar to
as important as
aluminium.
Magnesium resembles parallels
aluminium in many ways.
(adopted from Zimmerman (1989), English for science.)
Unlike
In contrast to
alkali, acid is sour.
turns universal indicator red.
Lemon juice is more acidic than water/detergent.
relatively
comparatively
sourer/ more acidic.
Acid is different from alkali.
differs from
Object A (subject)
Object A (subject)
Object A (subject)
Object A (subject)
Object B (object)
Object B (object)
Object B (object)
Object B (object)
“is” + comparing phrase
“is” + contrasting phrase
comparing phrase
contrasting phrase
An increase in temperature causes results in produces
particles to vibrate more vigorously.
If When As
the temperature increases,
the water droplets in the clouds gather and become heavy,
the particles vibrate more vigorously.
they fall to the ground as rain.
(adopted from Zimmerman (1989), English for science.)
More vigorous vibrations of particles are
caused by due to a result of produced by
an increase in temperature.
Particles vibrate more vigorously if when
the temperature increases.
Cause
Cause
Cause
Cause
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Cause-and-effect phrase
Cause-and-effect phrase
Cause-and-effect phrase
Cause-and-effect phrase
An explanation text tells you how something works or to explain some phenomenon.
This text is an explanation of scientific investigation.
This
sentence is an example of definition.
This
sentence is an example of description of process.
[X] is [Y].
A scientific
investigation is an activity carried out by scientists to answer questions and solve problems.
A hypothesis is a reasonable guess.
[X] is [Y].
Biology is the study of living things.
An experiment is a test which is carried out to find out
whether a hypothesis can be accepted or not.
A scientist is a person who studies science.
Writing portfolios
Simplification of language – reflected in the selection, organisation and use of English
◦ Filling in the blanks
◦ Use of bullet points
◦ Matching exercises
◦ Short and simple words and sentences
◦ Allows for little active involvement in text
organisation, imagination, creativity or critical thinking
Diluted, watered-down course content through simplifying the structure,
grammar and vocabulary is not conducive to good language
development
Secondary students need to deal with longer texts, structurally more
complex sentences, more new
vocabulary, less visual material, much higher-order thinking and more
creative skills
Topics and theme-related approaches:
repetition of content and tasks
Modeling and scaffolding
Classroom language, e.g.
understanding classroom instructions, explanations about concepts and
exercises, apologies and excuses
Narrative texts provide a comforting linear structure (for reading fluency)
However, expository texts provide useful repeated exposures of key salient vocabulary
exposure of different genres / text
types / speaking models important for the L2 learner
importance of extensive reading and writing
Need for subject teachers to make
strategic use of reading and writing
activities
Knowledge construction & negotiation of meaning
Understanding basic linguistic cues, e.g.
prefixes, suffixes, root words
Use subject-specific and theme-related examples
Need for language learners to use the
structures to express concepts and ideas
Need for engagement and interaction in
learning
Focus on vocabulary – is that the main thing? Conceptual understanding?
Higher order thinking skills?
Structures need to be practised both
formally and informally and in a variety of contexts
A focus not just on form, but also on meaning and use
the need to broaden both the quality
and quantity of input; increase amount of exposure
learning beyond the classroom
In nature, water keeps changing between liquid water and water
vapour. It goes round and round between the land, the sky and the sea. The way water circulates in nature is called the water cycle.
The water cycle involves four main processes.
Evaporation: When the sun heats up the water in oceans, rivers and on land, the water absorbs heat energy and evaporates to become
water vapour. Warm air rises and carries the water vapour up to the sky. The surrounding air flows in to replace the rising warm air.
This forms a convection current.
Condensation: As the upper part of the sky is cooler, water vapour cools down and condenses to small water droplets. Water droplets join together to form clouds.
Transportation: Clouds may be carried to other places by wind.
Raining: The water droplets in the cloud gather and become heavy.
The water droplets then fall to the ground as rain. Rainwater either becomes underground water or gathers in rivers and returns to the We have learnt how rain is formed in nature. sea.
(adopted from Master Science 1B, pp. 85-86, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press)
•
Without referring to the original passage again, can students reconstruct the text based on the graphic representation?
•
Can students ‘talk around the text’?
•
Lead students to construct / reconstruct the
passage and write it up – the importance of
having the final output in English
Lexical density
Lexical variation
New word density
Words may have both a common and scientific meaning e.g. ‘reflection’ and
‘force’
3 kinds of academic vocabulary
Subject-specific technical
vocabulary e.g., photosynthesis,
respiration, oxygen, carbon dioxide, solar energy, glucose…
General academic vocabulary e.g., characteristics, patterns, processes, convert, break down….
Signalling words or connectives e.g., first, second, finally, however, as a result, furthermore…
◦ Different sentence patterns for
different functions
Tasks to raise awareness of academic language:
◦ First, circle the technical terms in the text.
◦ Second, find some useful academic words and underline them.
◦ Third, highlight the signalling words, and discuss
the function of each of these words.
Can you identify words or sentences that e.g.
define, describe, show cause and effect….?
What is the text type for this piece of academic text?
Encourage students to ‘retell’ the water cycle
afterwards – speaking and writing (individual
and/or group work).
In nature, water keeps changing between liquid water and water vapour. It goes round and round between the land, the sky and the sea. The way water circulates in nature is called the water cycle. The water cycle involves four main processes.
Evaporation: When the sun heats up the water in oceans, rivers and on land, the water absorbs heat energy and evaporates to become water vapour. Warm air rises and carries the water vapour up to the sky. The surrounding air flows in to replace the rising warm air. This forms a convention current.
Condensation: As the upper part of the sky is cooler, water vapour cools down and condenses to small water droplets. Water droplets join
together to form clouds.
Transportation: Clouds may be carried to other places by wind.
Raining: The water droplets in the cloud gather and become heavy. The water droplets then fall to the ground as rain. Rainwater either
becomes underground water or gathers in rivers and returns to the sea.
We have learnt how rain is formed in nature.
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(adopted from Master Science 1B, pp. 85-86, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press)
Context:
The wonderful solvent – water
“The Water Cycle”
Text-type:
Explanation
example…For
In nature, water keeps changing between liquid water and water vapour. It goes round and round between the land, the sky and the sea. The way water circulates in nature is called the water cycle. The water cycle involves four main processes.
Evaporation: When the sun heats up the water in oceans, rivers and on land, the water absorbs heat energy and evaporates to become water vapour.
Warm air rises and carries the water vapour up to the sky. The surrounding air flows in to replace the rising warm air. This forms a convection current.
Condensation: As the upper part of the sky is cooler, water vapour cools
down and condenses to small water droplets. Water droplets join together to form clouds.
Transportation: Clouds may be carried to other places by wind.
Raining: The water droplets in the cloud gather and become heavy. The water droplets then fall to the ground as rain. Rainwater either becomes underground water or gathers in rivers and returns to the sea.
We have learnt how rain is formed in nature.
(adopted from Master Science 1B, pp. 85-86, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press)
Subject-specific technical vocabularyGeneral academic vocabularySignalling words
example…For
In nature, water keeps changing between liquid water and water vapour. It goes round and round between the land, the sky and the sea. The way water circulates in nature is called the water cycle. The water cycle involves four main processes.
Evaporation: When the sun heats up the water in oceans, rivers and on land, the water absorbs heat energy and evaporates to become water vapour.
Warm air rises and carries the water vapour up to the sky. The surrounding air flows in to replace the rising warm air. This forms a convection current.
Condensation: As the upper part of the sky is cooler, water vapour cools
down and condenses to small water droplets. Water droplets join together to form clouds.
Transportation: Clouds may be carried to other places by wind.
Raining: The water droplets in the cloud gather and become heavy. The water droplets then fall to the ground as rain. Rainwater either becomes underground water or gathers in rivers and returns to the sea.
We have learnt how rain is formed in nature.
(adopted from Master Science 1B, pp. 85-86, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press)
simple present tense
example…For
Conditional sentence patternmodal (showing possibility)
In nature, water keeps changing between liquid water and water vapour. It goes round and round between the land, the sky and the sea. The way water circulates in nature is called the water cycle. The water cycle involves four main processes.
Evaporation: When the sun heats up the water in oceans, rivers and on land, the water absorbs heat energy and evaporates to become water vapour.
Warm air rises and carries the water vapour up to the sky. The surrounding air flows in to replace the rising warm air. This forms a convection current.
Condensation: As the upper part of the sky is cooler, water vapour cools
down and condenses to small water droplets. Water droplets join together to form clouds.
Transportation: Clouds may be carried to other places by wind.
Raining: The water droplets in the cloud gather and become heavy. The water droplets then fall to the ground as rain. Rainwater either becomes underground water or gathers in rivers and returns to the sea.
We have learnt how rain is formed in nature.
(adopted from Master Science 1B, pp. 85-86, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press)
example…For
DefiningDescribingShowing cause and effect
(Adopted from Utah Education Network. Introducing Text Structures in Science Writing-5th Grd. Retrieved 15thFebruary, 2011, from http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview?LPid=11287)
Description
(Adopted from Utah Education Network. Introducing Text Structures in Science Writing-5th Grd. Retrieved 15thFebruary, 2011, from http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview?LPid=11287)
Sequence:
Series of events Sequence:
Cycle
(Adopted from Utah Education Network. Introducing Text Structures in Science Writing-5th Grd. Retrieved 15thFebruary, 2011, from http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview?LPid=11287)
Comparison
(Compare and contrast)
Text types Signal words Classification many, several, one, another, still another
one type, another type also, among, in addition to
Procedure first, second, third…
first, next, then, finally
steps, sequence, later, before, after, to begin
Comparison / contrast
compare, comparison, contrast same, different, like, as
similarities, differences, similarly but, also
on one hand, on the other hand
Cause and effect cause(s), effect(s) as a result of, results
affect of, consequence of, consequently, therefore for this reason
Problem / solution problem(s), issue(s)
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Junior secondary years
• Acquiring basic technical
vocabulary
• Reading and writing simple sentences
• Reading &
writing simple academic text- types
Senior secondary years
• Acquiring more technical
vocabulary
• More complex sentence
structures
• More
complicated academic text- types
Tertiary years
• More condensed sentence
structures
• More complex academic passages
In order to help students to read and write academic
language, different kinds of language support are needed:
◦ Context/ideas level: graphic schemata, organizers,
diagrams, tables, pictures, comic strips, etc. / read aloud and think aloud / construction and de-construction of text
◦ Text level: genres/text types (information structuring)
◦ Sentence level: grammar
◦ Word level:
vocabulary
note how language works across the curriculum – grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation features, language and
organizational patterns, variety of genres/text types, knowledge structures
acquire plentiful exposure through different means
be trained in classroom language, language skills and study skills
develop enquiry skills, e.g. asking for information and explanation, repeating questions and seeking clarification
develop a large vocabulary size
develop a school culture that favors change and the use of English
become brave enough to speak up in English
develop confidence in learning through English
have ample opportunities for English language use – wide variety of support measures needed
study independently
Diagram-based (use graphic organizers, visual diagrams, tables and charts to
present content first), then have students write out in sentences and paragraphs
Keyword and key phrase approach
Point-form approach
Continuous text – essay approach
Topic/Theme-based
Daily-life related topics
e.g., food pyramid, digestion
Cross-subject mini-projects
e.g., global warming (English + Science)
Co-planning between Subject Content teachers and Language teachers
◦
Subject teachers identify the targeted genres/text types in their academic materials and texts
◦
Language teachers support subject content teachers to
teach the genres or language features based on the science content, e.g. procedural text, cause and effect, comparison and contrast etc.
◦
The first step of co-planning - to have input and support from both science and language teachers
Scaffolding in teaching of language / language demand of tasks
◦
Topic Reading passages Scaffolding Task
◦
Read Answer Produce (e.g. S3 food pyramid and
suggestions for a balanced diet)
(Courtesy: Mr Kayson Kan, Munsang College)
Hearing Smelling Touching Seeing Tasting loud,
soft, quiet, noisy, raspy, high/ low- pitched, rumbling.
odors, rotten, flowery, burnt, delicious, putrid, bad, good, sweaty.
hard, soft, hot, cold, rough, smooth, grainy, sharp.
bright, dark,
shiny, dull, colorful, purple, clear, twinkling.
sweet, sour, bitter, gooey, salty, syrupy, lemony, tart.
English teacher helping to teach vocabulary related to the 5 senses and writing observations
Administrative
◦
Allow time and opportunity for
discussion and meetings between language and science teachers –
academic exchange important
◦
Peer classroom observations
◦
Sharing of texts &
materials – what
language is involved?
Any common areas, themes, topics?
Curriculum
◦
Joint / separate training for language and subject content teachers
◦
Co-planning and/or co- teaching
◦
Teacher exchanges for sharing of good
practices
◦
Bridging work for
students – e.g. summer
bridging programmes or
camps, ELAs. What to
focus?
Need for bridging and scaffolding that involves
◦ Plentiful Exposure to Academic Language –
◦ Framing of Concepts and Ideas in the content areas e.g. science, mathematics
◦ Comprehensible Input (large amounts of time for actual text reading needed) and a variety of input resources
◦ Output - whether reading or writing or speaking:
final product in English
◦ Expressing meaning in English – more than just
filling in blanks of single words, phrases or simple
sentences. Need to go beyond discrete language
items of pronunciation, grammar and spelling. Go
for the expression of meaning and concepts.
Adopting a whole-school approach? Having a school language policy?
Professional development courses for EMI subject content teachers
Language elements to be introduced into the training of content subject teachers?
A EMI Support Team? School-based?
Curriculum tailoring – trimming of the syllabus?
Co-operation between language and subject teachers for LAC
Liaison with publishers for suitable materials
Share success stories
Diversity of needs in different schools -
specific help to individual schools?
Reading and writing across the curriculum:
accessing prior knowledge
Reading and writing for everyday life and seeing how that is different from reading and writing for school subjects
Understanding genres and discipline-specific text types
Understanding the academic functions of scientific texts
Dealing with the use of vocabulary in academic texts
Using language to express meaning To teach or not to teach English? and concepts
To use or not to use Chinese?
Skills and strategies
◦ Language skills and thinking skills
Content knowledge
of subjects e.g. science, humanities, maths etc.
and of topics
Vocabulary
◦ Field-specific technical vocabulary
◦ General academic vocabulary
◦ Signalling words