Language-across-the-Curriculum (LAC) Approach

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Language cannot be effectively learnt without a context while learning in all subjects is dependent upon language. In view of the above, language and content are closely interrelated. In fact, content subjects provide a context for language while effective language development facilitates the learning of content subjects. It is therefore necessary to integrate language and content.

¾ What are the benefits of an LAC approach?

For the school: To ensure that there is an organisational structure in the school which helps to formulate and implement language policy across the curriculum. This enables teachers to contribute and get support in dealing with language in learning issues as well as to work for a common target.

For the teacher: To use the language to teach more effectively and help students learn more effectively

For the students: To minimise the problems of adjusting to the new medium of instruction and to learn the subject content better.

¾ What are the respective roles of content subject teachers and English teachers in an LAC approach?

English teachers introduce and teach the skills, reinforcing them from time to time in English lessons.

Content subject teachers re-teach those skills or introduce related skills/concepts in their lesson, integrating language and content.

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Example:

The idea of suffixes has been introduced in English lessons.

The History teacher can introduce the new suffix ‘-ism’ and give examples such as ‘communism’ or ‘colonialism’, or consolidate familiar suffixes, like ‘ion’ in

‘rebellion’.

(See materials “Teaching Ideas for English Teachers” and “Teaching Ideas for Content Subject Teachers” prepared by the CUHK Project Team)

z It is important for English teachers and content subject teachers to each know what the other is doing. For instance, the English teacher can teach students how to do a vocabulary log. The content subject teachers then ask students to keep a vocabulary log for their own subject. The English teacher can collect the vocabulary logs and check from time to time to make sure that students are on the right track.

z As every subject has to contribute to the language development of students, a balance between an emphasis on English and an emphasis on content is recommended.

z Since more time and effort has to be spent on the development of students’ language proficiency, the subject content may have to be reduced, especially at the initial stages.

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Unit 2

Teacher Language

A.

The importance of teacher language The classroom is an authentic social environment which provides plenty of opportunities for the genuine use of language. So, the language the teacher uses provides exposure to real language use.

B. Criteria of good teacher language 1. providing a reliable model (accurate, fluent and appropriate)

2. provide rich comprehensible input 3. being natural

4. exposing students to language that shows form-function relationships 5. varying the situational phrases e.g. the whole class, all together

6. not requiring students to understand every word in order to comprehend the teacher’s language

7. getting students’ attention before he / she starts talking

8. providing opportunities for students to hear genuine uncontrolled language used for authentic communicative purposes

9. providing opportunities for authentic use of language

C. Elements contributing to good teacher language

The following is adapted from Hoare P., Kong S. & Evans M. (2000). Principles and Practice of Immersion Teaching.

1. Speed

- adjusting the speed of the teacher talk to match the level of students’

understanding

- breaking up the teacher talk into smaller manageable ‘chunks’

2. Vocabulary

- using simple vocabulary

- using vocabulary that is generally known to the students

3

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3. Language structures

- using simpler structures e.g. active sentences - using short sentences

4. Content

- including familiar topics to arouse students’ interest

- including requests for repetition, clarification or explanation from students - including much encouragement for students to interact

5. Repeating and rephrasing

- repeating and rephrasing the sentences to help students understand

6. Flexibility

- using the language flexibly in different situations

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Unit 3

Classroom Language (Teachers’ List)

General Classroom Language

The items below are grouped according to their nature and use. They are neither prescriptive nor exhaustive. They are only for teachers’ reference.

1. Praising students Good.

Very good.

Excellent.

Perfect.

Great.

Superb.

Marvellous.

Lovely.

Exactly.

Good job.

Well done.

That’s very good.

That’s nice.

I like that.

You’ve done a great job.

You didn’t make any mistakes.

Excellent answer, ____________ (name of the student).

You are very good at this.

That’s right.

Good work.

That’s it.

You did that very well.

Keep up the good work.

Terrific.

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That’s the way to do it.

That was first class work.

2. Saying a student is wrong Not really.

Good try but not quite right.

I’m afraid that’s not quite right.

It’s not quite right. Could anybody help?

3. Encouraging students after they have given an answer Good try.

A good guess.

Not bad.

Don’t worry about the spelling.

Try again.

4. Encouraging students to speak Would anyone like to try?

Don’t be afraid to make mistakes.

We learn from mistakes.

It’s OK to make mistakes.

Don’t worry about being wrong.

We’d really like to hear what you think.

Tell me your answer. If it’s correct, good. If it’s wrong, we’ll talk about it.

You won’t be punished for a wrong answer.

I’d prefer to hear your answer, not your neighbour’s.

5. Beginning of a lesson Good morning / afternoon.

How are you today?

Did you have a nice weekend?

6. Ending a lesson It’s almost time to stop.

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Time is running short. We have to stop here.

Let’s stop here and continue next lesson.

That’s all for today. Are there any questions?

That’s all for this lesson. See you tomorrow.

We’ll discuss this further in the next lesson.

Before you leave, I have one more thing to say.

See you next week / Monday.

I don’t think we have time to finish this now. We will continue next lesson.

Have a nice weekend.

7. Marking stages of a lesson First, let me take the attendance.

Let me take a roll call first.

The first thing we’ll do is … I want to introduce …

Today we’re going to look at … Today we’ll find out about … In this lesson, you will learn …

We were looking at … yesterday/last lesson. Today, let’s look at … The next thing we’ll do is …

Now let’s look at … Let’s move on to …

When we’ve finished this, we’ll discuss …

I think you’ve all got that, so we’ll move on to a new topic.

If there are no problems, we’ll move on to something new.

8. Classroom organisation/management Now put your things away.

We won’t start until everyone is quiet.

Okay. I think we can start now.

Keep quiet.

Louder, please.

Say it a bit louder, please.

I can’t hear you. Say it again, but this time louder.

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Speak more clearly.

Not so quickly, I can’t follow.

Repeat / Once again, please.

Say it again / once more.

Again, but more quickly this time.

Say it after me.

Use a complete sentence.

9. Eliciting answers

Does anyone know the answer?

Can anyone tell us the answer?

Put up your hands if you know the answer.

Can anyone help him / her?

What can we do next / in this case?

What’s the answer?

10. Eliciting an explanation What does this mean / show?

How do you do this?

Why does it happen?

Any comments?

Do you have any ideas about …?

Can you give me an example of …?

Explain more, please.

What do you mean?

What is the meaning of this word?

Why do you do it that way?

What did you do next?

11. Clueing

Shall I give you some hints?

Let me give you some hints / help.

It’s used for … It’s the same as …

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It’s like a …

It’s the opposite of … It’s a type of…

12. Giving instruction for pair/group work Work with the person next to you.

Work together with your friend.

Find a partner.

Work in pairs.

Work in groups of two / three / four.

Work in twos / threes / fours.

I want you to form groups. Three / Four students in each group.

Get into groups of three / four.

I’ll divide the class into groups.

Here is an exercise / task for you to work on in pairs / groups / threes.

I want you to do this in pairs / groups.

13. Instructions for homework / assignments This is the homework for tonight.

Complete this exercise for homework.

Complete the exercises at home.

Memorise this passage and I’ll give you a test next lesson.

Learn this by heart.

Don’t forget your homework.

Revise the last two chapters for the test.

Copy the heading and underline it.

Write on alternate lines / every line.

You must hand in your homework by next Monday / next lesson.

Hand in your homework to the monitor / monitress.

Please take down the information on the board and finish the assignment at home.

Your homework assignment is to … Please write it down in your handbook.

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14. Asking students to do preparation at home Prepare Chapter X at home.

You must read Chapters X and Y at home.

By next lesson, I want you to read pages X and Y.

Recite this poem at home.

Look up the new / difficult words in the dictionary.

Find the meaning of these words in the dictionary before the next lesson.

15. Checking understanding

Is there anything you don’t understand?

Do you know the meaning of all the words?

Are there any words you don’t understand?

Is there anything you would like to ask about?

Are there any points you are not sure of?

Has anybody got anything to ask?

Is everything/that clear?

Do you understand everything?

Put up your hands if you have any questions.

O.K.?

All right?

Have you got any questions?

Would you like me to repeat that?

16. Instructions for tests and examinations Put away all your books.

Pass the papers to the back.

Don’t turn over the question paper.

Has everybody got a question paper?

Has everybody got an answer sheet?

Raise your hands if you have any problem.

Listen to the tape carefully.

Read the instructions carefully.

You have one hour to do the paper.

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You may start now.

You still have X minutes.

You have x minutes left.

X more minutes to go.

Time is up.

Stop writing.

All pens down.

Put down your pens.

No more writing.

Remember to write your name and class number.

Pass your paper to the front.

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Praising Students (A game)

A. Before the lesson

1. Make copies of the table on the next page.

2. Cut up each table along the lines and get a set of 22 strips of paper from each table.

B. During the lesson

1. After you have praised a student in class, give him / her a strip of paper.

2. Tell students that after one has collected a complete set, one will be given a small token like a bar of chocolate. For this reason, remind them to keep the strips of paper they have got and encourage them to raise their hands to answer questions in class.

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Good. Very good.

Excellent. Perfect.

Great. Great job.

Well done. I like that.

That’s very nice. You’ve done a great job.

That’s very good.

You didn’t make any mistakes.

Excellent answer. You are very good at this.

That’s right. Good work.

That’s it. That was first class work.

You did that very well. Keep up the good work.

Terrific. That’s the way to do it.

Superb Marvellous

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Unit 4

Classroom Language (Students’ List)

A. The importance of giving students a list of classroom expressions

To help students express themselves in different situations, it is necessary to give them a list of classroom language.

B. A list of student language in different situations 1. Asking for repetition

I’m sorry. I don’t understand.

I’m sorry. I can’t follow.

Could you say it again, please?

Could you explain again, please?

Could you repeat the last part, please?

Would you please explain this part again?

Would you mind saying it once more?

I beg your pardon. Could you repeat your point, please?

2. Asking for clarification

Could you please tell me the meaning of this word /sentence / part?

Could you repeat the instructions / steps, please?

Can you help me, please?

I don’t quite understand what that means. Could you explain it again, please?

Sorry. Did you say we have to prepare Chapter X?

What do we do next?

When will we have the test / dictation?

When will we hand in our homework?

Which chapter should we prepare?

3. Making requests

Can we have the test / dictation later?

Sorry. Can you speak louder, please?

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Sorry. I can’t hear very clearly. Would you please turn up the cassette?

I’m sorry. How do you say it in English?

Excuse me, can you tell me the English for x?

Excuse me, how do you spell X?

Excuse me, how do we pronounce this word?

4. Asking for feedback

Excuse me, is this correct / right?

Excuse me, why is this wrong?

Excuse me, have I done this right?

Excuse me, is this the way to do it?

5. Asking for permission May I go to the toilet?

May I be excused?

Can I turn / switch on / off the fan/air-conditioner?

Can I change my seat? I can’t see the blackboard clearly.

6. Apologising

I’m sorry. I don’t understand.

I’m sorry. I don’t know the answer.

Sorry. I’ve no idea.

I’m sorry. I’ve forgotten to bring my book/do my homework.

Sorry. I’ve left my book / homework at home.

I’m sorry I’m late. It’s because I got up late / missed the bus.

I’m sorry I’m late. It’s because there was a traffic jam.

7. Group work / pair work Shall we start?

Shall I start first?

What’s your answer to question 1?

Let’s go on to …

Shall we change over now?

It’s your turn.

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My answer is different.

What’s next?

Do you mean that …?

Yes, that’s right.

No, what I’m saying is …

Sorry. I can’t follow. Could you repeat that, please?

Have we finished?

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Unit 5 Listening

A. Point to note

The difficulty in listening is not only due to students’ inadequate knowledge of English. This is because listening involves motivation and concentration. Students may listen badly when they are not interested in the topic, do not know much about the topic or are distracted.

B. Ways teachers can help students in listening 1. Analysing students’ listening difficulties

z spend time looking at why students cannot get the correct answers by playing the section of the tape once more or several times

z suggested procedure:

i. Elicit answers from students after a listening task.

ii. When there are different answers, write them on the board.

iii. Play the relevant section of the tape again and ask students to listen for the correct answer.

iv. Ask the class to vote for the options on the board according to what they have heard.

v. Play the tape again if the majority of class has not voted for the correct answer.

vi. Ask the class to vote again.

vii. When the majority of the class has voted for the correct answer, play the tape again. In this way, the students who are not sure about the answer can hear it again.

viii. Help students reflect on their problems by focusing on the processes of

listening.

ix. Analyse the problems with students and suggest strategies to overcome

them.

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2. Developing students’ listening skills

z identifying word stress

z identifying sentence stress

z recognising and understanding intonation patterns

z recognising weak forms

z discriminating between similar sounds e.g. foot, food

z identifying discourse markers e.g. next, in fact

3. Choosing materials which engage students’ interest

z examples:

- listening to songs

- listening to an interview of a pop singer

- watching a TV programme featuring a current issue

C. Ways teachers can help students listen to subject-related explanation 1. developing students’ listening skills

2. informing students that to be good listeners, they have to collaborate with speakers

& take an active role in asking for repetition and clarification when they do not understand

3. familiarising students with the language for ‘asking for repetition’ and ‘asking for clarification’

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Unit 6 Speaking

A. Ways teachers can help students in speaking

1. boost students’ confidence in using English in class by

i. giving encouragement e.g. the whole class applaud after a student has answered a question in English

ii. instilling correct attitude in students regarding the use of English in class

z not to laugh at students with poor English

z not to think that students with good English are showy or arrogant

2. provide students with chances to express themselves e.g. conducting speaking activities, asking questions and chatting with students informally in and out of the class etc.

3. prompt students by giving signals / cues

e.g. help students organise their sentences in a logical way by providing them with connectives such as ‘because’, ‘so that’ and ‘therefore’

5. expand what students say

6. rephrase what students say in a more appropriate or accurate way

7. provide whole-class feedback to make general comments on common errors and / or to praise common strengths

8. teach pronunciation

9. equip students with discussion skills and discussion language (see P.21 – P.26)

B. Suggested speaking activities

z Games e.g. word games, spelling games, pronunciation games, board games

z Communicative activities

z Mime

z Role play / simulation

z Drama

z Problem-solving

z Discussion

z Oral presentation

z Impromptu talks

z Debates

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z Questionnaire surveys

z Project work (integrated skills)

C. Examples of subject-specific speaking activities

1. asking students to discuss and design a questionnaire for an EPA / History / Geography / I.S. / cross-curricular project

2. asking students to report the result of their findings for an EPA / History / Geography / I.S. / cross-curricular project

D. Examples of subject-specific discussion tasks

1. In groups, students plan the ideal layout of a shopping centre. They have to draw a simple map showing the land use of the district where the shopping centre is located. Afterwards, they have to give an oral presentation.

(English + Geography)

2. In groups, students work out the recipes of the food they have to prepare for a Christmas party. Afterwards, they have to give an oral presentation.

(English + Home Economics)

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Discussion Skills (A Game)

A. Before the lesson

1. Make enough copies of the table on P.22.

2. Cut up each table along the lines and get a set of 16 stripes of paper from each table.

3. Put each set in an envelope.

4. Make enough copies of the blank table on P.23.

5. Make enough copies of the handouts on page P.24-P.26.

B. During the lesson

1. Divide students into groups of 3.

2. Give each group an envelope and a blank table.

3. Ask students to put the strips of paper under

the correct heading. They may consult the dictionary.

4. When the students have finished, go through the answers with them.

5. Distribute the handouts on P.24-P.26 to students.

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Discussion Skills

speak clearly speak too quietly

listen to others attentively interrupt too often

try to include everybody dominate

state your ideas actively be passive

be polite when you disagree

be impolite when you disagree

give reasons to support your ideas

agree or disagree without giving reasons

focus on the topic lose the focus

put forward new ideas or examples

repeat points or examples

already made

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Discussion Skills

A. Do’s B. Don’ts

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Discussion Language

Getting started

z Let’s start. We must discuss …

z Is everybody ready to begin?

z So, are we all ready to start?

z Shall we start now?

z Shall I start first?

Expressing opinions

z I think that … (because …)

z I feel that … (because …)

z I believe that …

z In my opinion, …

Asking for someone’s opinions

z What do you think …?

z Do you think that …?

z Are you for or against …?

z What’s your opinion of …?

z X (name), what do you think?

z X (name), do you have anything to add?

Agreeing

z I think so, too.

z Yes, that’s exactly what I think.

z I (fully) agree with you.

z I feel that X (name) is right.

z You’re (absolutely) right.

Partial agreement

z I partially agree with you, but …

z Well, I can see your point, but …

z I agree with you on the whole, but …

z I agree with you up to a point, but … Disagreeing

z I don’t agree with you. The reason is …

z That’s not what I think.

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z You can’t really say that.

z I absolutely disagree.

z I’m afraid I don’t agree.

Countering

z But …

z However, …

z That may be true, but …

z You might be right, but …

z On the other hand, I think that … Asking for clarification

z Could you explain that again, please?

z I’m afraid I don’t really understand what you said.

z I’m not sure that we all understand what you mean.

z Do you mean that …?

Clarifying

z What I’m saying is that …

z What I mean is that …

z Let me explain.

z I mean …

z The point I’m trying to make is …

z In other words, …

z I’m talking about … Asking for repetition

z Could you repeat that, please?

z Pardon?

z Sorry, I don’t hear you.

z Would you mind speaking a little slower / louder, please?

z Sorry, I can’t follow. Could you repeat that please?

Giving examples

z For example …

z Let me give you an example.

Adding points

z In addition …

z Another point is …

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Delaying

z I need time to think about that.

z That’s a difficult question because …

z Well …

Making suggestions

z Why don’t we …?

z How about …?

z Perhaps we could …?

Interrrupting

z Excuse me, can I interrupt for a moment?

z Excuse me, I have a point I would like to make.

z Could I stop you here for a moment?

z Just a minute … Preventing interruption

z Please let me finish.

z Excuse me, I haven’t finished.

z I’m sorry, but I haven’t finished yet.

Presenting a number of arguments

z First of all, …

z To begin with, …

z For a start, …

z There are X (number) points here. First, … Second, … Third, …

z There are X (number) points I’d like to make. First, … Second, … Third, …

z … Also, …

Keeping the discussion moving

z I think we should go on to the next point.

z Let’s move on.

z We’d better move on to the next point.

z Is there anything to add before we move on to the next point?

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Unit 7 Writing

A. The benefits of introducing subject-specific writing activities

1. Themes and topics from content subjects are good resources for writing activities as different genres of writing serving different purposes can be developed.

2. Students are motivated to learn writing because they are asked to write something with a purpose.

3. It helps content-area instruction.

B. General and subject-specific writing activities suitable for S1 students 1. Generating word lists / groups

The teacher selects a word and asks students to generate words to describe it.

e.g. The teacher selects a kind of food or asks students to select a kind of food they like and describe how it tastes, smells, looks, feels, how it feels in the mouth, how it feels when it is swallowed and its aftertaste.

2. Writing interesting phrases and sentences

The teacher supplies students with a sentence pattern. After repeating this pattern several times, students can create simple poem-type arrangements.

e.g. I love / like to … I love / like …

I used to …, but now I …

I’m good at …, but I’m not good at … I like …, I don’t like …

I am the one who likes / plays … If …, then …

When …, I…

What’s he doing? He’s … What’s she doing? She’s …

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3. Telling stories

e.g. -the teacher supplies students with characters, settings and time frames and asks them to make up a story

-the teacher asks students to write a story from descriptive words like ‘dangerous’, ‘quiet’, ‘explosive’ and ‘noisy’

-the teacher begins a story and asks students to continue

-write a story of a day of life in an object e.g. a microscope (I.S.), a mummy (History), a frying pan (Home Economics), an identity card (EPA)

4. Writing letters

e.g. -writing personal letters that congratulate, apologise, invite or introduce oneself

-writing a letter to the government department concerned to complain about the pollution in the district where the school is located (EPA) -writing a letter to the government department concerned to raise the

awareness of protecting endangered species (I.S.)

-writing a letter to a historical figure and making inquiries (History)

5. Working with photos/pictures

e.g. -the teacher and students collect some photos and / or pictures and arrange them

-students collect a picture of some food and write ten (or X) words to describe the picture and using these words, they describe someone who would eat the food (Home Economics + English)

-students choose a photo or picture that is interesting (e.g. advertisement, cartoons and comics) and write what happened before and after the picture was taken or painted

-the teacher gives students photos / pictures showing Hong Kong in the past and asks them to describe the changes that have taken place since the photos / picture was taken / drawn (EPA)

-the teacher supplies students with photos showing the living style of the clans in the N.T. and asks them to write about the living style of a particular clan (History)

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6. Making a list

e.g. The teacher asks students to list:

- ten (or X) activities they like to do on Sundays - ten (or X) things that happened on their worst day - ten (or X) things to which they would say yes/no - ten (or X) excuses for not doing their homework - ten (or X) reasons for going to school

- what people do during traditional different Chinese festivals (History) - the apparatus in the laboratory and explain the usage (I.S.)

- the problems created because of land use conflict (Geography)

7. Making a questionnaire

e.g. Making questionnaires for the following surveys:

- the favourite snacks of the class

- the schoolmates’ views on the how to solve urban problems (Geography)

- the number of classmates that have changed their places of residence in the past three years and the reasons for such change (EPA)

8. Writing descriptions, directions, procedures and labels e.g. a recipe (Home Economics)

the safety rules in the laboratory (I.S.)

the instructions for using the spell-check on the computer (Computer)

9. Writing reports

e.g. an experiment report (I.S.)

a brief report based on statistical presentation (Maths) a survey report (EPA)

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C. To ensure that writing in L2 is a productive experience, students need 1. guidance to help them manage a writing task

2. exposure to different types of writing

3. exposure to writing activities of various topics and tasks

4. opportunities to write and to explore topics of personal interest 5. confidence to feel that they can do what the teacher asks them to

D. Ways teachers can help students in writing

z Before writing, teachers have to prepare students for writing and arouse the awareness that writing is a means of communication.

z Suggestions to help students develop writing skills and positive attitude to writing:

1. To provide students with reasons for writing

Research findings suggest that the learning of writing seems to be more successful when students themselves want to communicate real messages to real audience.

2. To extend students’ writing opportunities outside classroom e.g. - writing e-mail to the teacher / other students

- writing a dialogue journal:

z the teacher collects the journal periodically

z the teacher responds to the students’ ideas, but does not evaluate their writing

z the teacher allows students to write on topics of their own interest

3. To find out student interest

Students may not know the range of writing activities and topics. The teacher can brainstorm with the whole class or in groups to explore the tasks and topics that interest students. This does not mean that students have the freedom to choose whatever they like to write, but implies a balancing of curriculum needs with student involvement.

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4. To furnish students with language support e.g. - writing frames

- sentence starters - signal words / phrases - word list

- model sentences / text

5. To equip students with writing techniques

- introducing mind maps / planning grids/ story planner / storyboard to facilitate brainstorming

- promoting discussion before writing to equip students with more ideas and vocabulary to use in their writing and to enable students to learn how to work in discussion groups and to support each other

- introducing the steps involved in composing and checking a piece of writing (see P.32)

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Writing and Checking a Composition

A. Steps to writing a composition 1. Think about the composition topic.

2. Write down your ideas in note form.

3. Put the notes into logical order.

4. Write the first draft.

5. Read the first draft and make changes and corrections.

6. Write the second draft.

7. Check your composition again

B. Steps to checking a composition 1. Check if the paragraphs make sense.

2. Check that all the sentences are complete sentences.

3. Check the verb tenses.

4. Check the spelling and punctuation.

5. Check that you have written everything and have not left anything out.

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Unit 8 Reading

A. Ways teachers can help students in reading 1. equip students with strategies for reading

2. provide students with different kinds of reading activities to arouse their interest in reading

3. provide students with different kinds of reading materials e.g. newspaper articles, promotion leaflets and magazines etc.

B. Strategies for reading 1. Reading with a purpose

2. Making use of background knowledge 3. Predicting

4. Skimming to get the main ideas 5. Summarising the main ideas 6. Note-taking

7. Inferring / understanding implied meaning 8. Understanding the author’s intention

9. Guessing meaning from the context (see P.35 – P.36) 10. Making use of typographic clues (see P.37 )

11. Making use of patterns of knowledge (see P.38 – P.40) 12. Making use of graphics (see P.41 – P.42)

13. Making use of headings and sub-headings (see P.43) 14. Making use of information transfer activities (see P.44) 15. SQR3 (see P.45 – P.47)

C. Suggested reading activities

z Answering comprehension questions

z Multiple-choice questions

z Jigsaw reading

z Cloze passage

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z Using information from the text to label a diagram

z Thinking of the title / heading

z Guessing meaning of unfamiliar words from the context

z Underlining the words / phrases signaling syntactic and semantic clues

z Drawing a picture based on the description provided

z Matching headings with paragraphs

z Underlining specific information within a given time limit

z Transferring information from text to chart, table etc.

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Guessing Meaning of Word from the Context

This helps students develop higher order thinking skills.

Steps to guessing the meaning of word from the context

1. Look at the unknown word and work out its part of speech. If possible, break it down into parts: prefix, root and suffix.

2. Look at the clause or sentence containing the unknown word and ask these question:

- If the unknown word is a verb, what nouns does it go with? Is there any adverb modifying it?

- If the unknown word is a noun, what adjective(s) describes it?

- If the unknown verb is an adjective, what noun is it modifying?

- If the unknown word is an adverb, what verb is it modifying?

3. Look at the relationship between the clause or sentences containing the unknown word and other sentences or paragraphs. Can you find any hints? Can you follow the line of argument? What is the theme of the paragraph?

4. Use the information you have gained from steps 1 to 3 to guess the meaning of the word.

5. Check that your guess is correct by looking it up in a dictionary.

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Eaxmple

Support for vocabulary: Helping students guess meanings of unknown words EPA / Geography S1

Population Growth of Hong Kong

Read this passage about the population growth of Hong Kong during 1900-2000.

The word ‘indenparsely’ may be too difficult for you but you can try to guess its meaning. We’re talking about growth here, something growing, something that gets bigger and bigger, more and more. We’re talking about population growth, the number of people in Hong Kong that is growing, getting more and more. The word ‘indenparsely’ ends with –ly. What part of speech do you think this word is?

Is it a verb, noun, an adjective or an adverb? Right, it’s an adverb. So it must be describing how the population has grown in Hong Kong. Has it grown quickly or slowly or what? Read the other sentences. What do they suggest? Now, can you guess the meaning of the word ‘indenparsely’?

The population of Hong Kong has grown * indenparsely toward the second half of this century. At the beginning of the century, the population was only 200,000.

Between 1900 and 1949, the population remained level at about 500,000. In 1949, there was an explosion. The population rose rapidly until it reached 5 million in 1970. Since 1970, the growth has continued but the population has risen relatively slowly. The latest figures show that it has reached 6.5 million and is continuing to grow steadily.

(The word ‘indenparsely’ is purposely made up to show how the meaning of an unknown word (in the case, a nonsense word) can be guessed. You must have been able to get the meaning of it by now. The original word was ‘immernsely’.)

Taken from Evans M., Hoare P., Kong S., O'Halloran S. & Walker E. (2001). Effective Strategies for English Medium Classrooms: A Handbook for Teachers.

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Making Use of Typographic Clues

To help students in reading, teachers can draw students’ attention to the following typographic clues and explain that they are used to emphasize important terms and definition:

1. Italics

e.g. The degree of polynominal is the degree of the term with the highest degree.

(Maths)

2. boldfaced print

e.g. Ancient Egyptians used a water reed called papyrus to make paper.

(History)

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Making Use of Patterns of Knowledge

Patterns of knowledge, i.e. patterns through which knowledge is organised, are found in all subject content areas. Draw students’ attention to the specific language features related to each of these patterns which appear at the sentence level. This helps students in understanding and development of concepts.

Patterns of knowledge Explanation Examples of language features

Description To provide information about facts, events, concepts, ideas, features, characteristics, objects and people.

…has…

…is situated at…

…is…

…looks like…

…contains…

…is made up of …

…is made of…

…is used for/to…

Sequence To put facts, events or

concepts into a sequence.

Now Before After When First Second Then Next Finally

Comparison and contrast To show likeness (comparison) and or differences (contrast) among facts, events,

However But

…as well as…

On the other hand

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concepts and people. Either…or While Although Unless Similarly Instead

Cause and effect To show how facts, events or effects happen because of other facts, events or causes.

…because…

…because of … Since

Therefore As a result

…so that…

…is due to…

…is a result of …

Definition To define a concept or a term.

….is…..

…is/are called…

…means…

…is known/defined as…

Classification To classify objects,

people etc. in groups.

…is classified as…

…is classified into…

There are … types of…:

…is a type/kind of …

Hypothesis To put forward ideas or suggestions as a starting-point for reasoning or explanation.

If…, then…

…unless…

It is likely/unlikely/

possible/impossible that…

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Exemplification To give examples. For example For instance

…such as…

…is an example of…

In other words

Evaluation To decide the value of

something.

…is

good/bad/right/wrong/

satisfactory

…like/dislike/approve/

disapprove…

…enough/too…

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Making Use of Graphics

Graphics are used to organise and present information. Graphics which complement the written language can help to show the ideas in a text visually. Students who are able to make use of graphics can read more effectively.

Examples of graphics

1. Tables

They are used to classify information so that comparison between and among data can be made.

2. Bar graphs

They are used to make comparisons between amounts or quantities.

3. Line graphs

They are used to show the relationship between the variables.

4. Pie charts

They are used to show the relationships of parts to the whole.

5. Flowcharts

They are used to show a process or procedure.

6. Diagrams

They are used to present information in a visual way.

7. Pictograms

They are used to show specified amounts in an interesting way.

8. Maps

They are used to show location and direction.

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9. Photographs

They are used to enhance interest in reading.

10. Cartoons

They are used to lighten the text.

11. Time-lines

They are used to show the sequence of events.

12. Venn diagrams

They are used to show the relationships between two sets of information.

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Making Use of Headings and Sub-headings

Headings suggest the major topics of a chapter while sub-headings often suggest the specific focus toward a particular topic. So they are important clues to reading.

Steps:

1. Teachers draw the students’ attention to the heading(s). This helps to activate students’ existing knowledge.

2. Ask students to change the subheadings into questions. This helps them predict what they are going to read.

3. Ask students to find the answers to the questions formulated. This provides them with a purpose for reading.

Example

I want you to read page X of your textbook at home before our next lesson.

Now, let’s turn to page X and see what it’s about.

Look at the heading. What is it?

From the heading, we know that it's about ______________________

Now look at the sub-headings. They are printed in ______ (e.g. blue). What do they tell you about ‘_____’ (the heading)?

Now let’s turn each sub-heading into a question.

(Ask students the questions they have formulated.)

Very good questions. Do you want to find the answers to your questions?

Read this page at home and you’ll find the answers to your questions.

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Making Use of Information Transfer Activities

Information transfer activities require students to transfer the information given in a text to a graphic or vice versa. Text -> graphic activities are reading activities while graphic -> text activities are writing activities.

Benefits of text -> graphic activities:

1. help students visualise the organisation and relationships of ideas spatially

2. to complete the graphic, students need to read and understand the information in the text before they can re-present it in a graphic

Taken from Evans M., Hoare P., Kong S., O'Halloran S. & Walker E. (2001). Effective Strategies for English Medium Classrooms: A Handbook for Teachers

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SQR3

Each step of SQR3 facilitates the processing of information

SQR3 helps students acquire higher order thinking skills

A. Introduction

- SQR3 is a study technique that helps students comprehend and retain the materials they are going to read.

- To read actively and effectively and to assist comprehension, readers complete some tasks before reading, while reading and after reading. These tasks include:

S = Survey Q = Question

R = Read R = Recite R = Review

z Survey:

Good readers preview the materials to anticipate content by looking at the titles, headings, subheadings, terms or words in bold or italics, pictures, maps, diagrams and other visual material.

♦ Steps:

1. Read the title. Change it into a question.

2. Read the introduction, summary and questions, if there’s any. What is the main point of the text?

3. Read the terms and words in bold or italics. Why are these terms and words highlighted?

4. Study the visual materials. What do they tell you about the text?

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z Question:

Good readers ask questions that they think they will find answers to in the text e.g.

they turn each subheading into a question and formulate additional questions to read to answer.

z Read:

Good readers think about the questions that they have asked and search for ideas and information that will answer their questions.

z Recite:

After reading, good readers attempt to answer their questions by saying aloud what they have learned and / or by writing responses to their questions.

z Review:

Good readers review and reflect a text by going back and skimming the text, placing a check to parts of the text that they are sure they understand and a question mark to those parts that are still unclear to them and that they need to further study.

B. Point to note

Do not teach SQR3 as a formula: memorize the steps, practise the strategies and use it for life. To make this system effective, students have to learn to control it through selective and flexible use.

C. Examples of applying SQR3 in different subjects 1. To read a chapter in a Geography textbook

- students survey the chapter

- they turn the subheadings into questions - they read to answer the questions

- they try to remember the main ideas and specific details - they summarise / write a brief outline of the chapter

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2. To solve a word problem in Maths

- students skim the problem to form a general impression of it - they decide: i. the question in the problem

ii. the facts required to solve it iii. the steps required to solve it

- they read to understand the question and decide the steps required to solve the problem

- they decide the facts on which the answer depends

- they estimate the answer and check it after the problem has been solved

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Unit 9 Pronunciation

A. Points to note

1. There is no shortcut to the teaching and learning of pronunciation.

2. Do not assume that students can make use of the phonetic symbols / phonics after they have been exposed to it for three to four lessons. It is through constant practice that students can make use of the phonetic symbols / phonics.

3. For many students, the classroom is the only place where they are exposed to spoken English. In the class, students listen to the pronunciation of teachers and classrooms while teachers and classmates are speaking. Therefore, the pronunciation of teachers is an important source of learning. In addition, students learn when teachers correct the pronunciation mistakes of the other classmates.

B. Ways to help students with pronunciation 1. A whole-school approach

To maximise the chance for students to recycle and consolidate what has been taught in the English lessons, teachers of all EMI subjects adopt the same strategy of teaching pronunciation.

Examples:

i. After the English teachers have familiarised students with the phonetic symbols, teachers of all EMI subjects make use of the phonetic symbols whenever they introduce the pronunciation of new vocabulary items.

ii. After the English teachers have familiarised students with the phonics, teachers of all EMI subjects make use of the phonics whenever they introduce the pronunciation of new vocabulary items.

2. Policy among the panels of content subjects

All panels of EMI subjects agree upon a policy of teaching pronunciation e.g.

separate a word into chunks, separate a word into syllables.

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3. Policy within in the English panel

Contextualise the learning of the phonetic symbols / phonics by integrating the teaching of the phonetic symbols / phonics into existing learning materials e.g.

textbooks, readers.

4. Teachers as important models of pronunciation A list of dos and don’ts for teachers:

Do

i. Be aware of : long & short vowels, consonant clusters, word stress and the endings of words

ii. Ask English teachers / NETs for help iii. Consult the dictionary

Don’t

i. Provide wrong models ii. Make up the pronunciation

iii. Provide Cantonese sounds for easy reference

5. Empowering students to generate materials

To enhance students’ interest and motivation in learning, empower students to generate materials for learning. For example, ask students to design and make board games which help learn the IPA. Refer to Longman Express Book 1B P.74 – P.75 for instructions of making board games.

6. Encouraging independent learning

To foster learner autonomy and enable students to learn outside the classroom, suggest students to log on to the following websites which provide lots of exercises / games:

i. http://www.justtalk.com.tw/default.asp?pg=n2&pt=level&gid=2 ii. http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~soemarmo/msgames

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C. Resources for English teachers

1. http://www.eslcafe.com/ideas/sefer.cgi?Pronunciation

z this website provides teachers with ideas and games of teaching pronunciation 2. Mark Hancock (1995). Pronunciation Games Cambridge University Press

D. Websites on aspects of English pronunciation

1. http://esl.about.com/library/courses/blcourses_lower_intermediate_pronunciation.htm Basic pronunciation guides including work on the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) and using minimal pairs to improve recognition skills.

2. http://esl.about.com/library/courses/blcourses_intermediate_pronunciation.htm

Basic guides plus IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) work and using stress and intonation to improve pronunciation skills. Also including minimal pair work.

3. http://esl.about.com/library/courses/blcourses_upper_intermediate_pronunciation.htm For students with at least three years of English. This is a good starting point for students who have a strong understanding of the language and want to improve their English pronunciation. Includes challenging exercises.

4. http://esl.about.com/library/courses/blcourses_advanced_pronunciation.htm

Continued refinement of English pronunciation skills including challenging IPA transcription and other exercises.

5. http://esl.about.com/library/listening/blIPAconsonants.htm

This simple chart and RealAudio listening file provides a guide to basic English consonant sounds.

6. http://esl.about.com/library/listening/blIPAvowels.htm

This simple chart and RealAudio listening file provide a guide to basic English vowel and diphthong sounds.

7. http://esl.about.com/library/howto/htpronounce.htm

This "how to" focuses on improving your pronunciation through the recognition of the

"time-stressed" character of English.

8. http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aa110997.htm

This feature takes a look at how intonation and stress influence the way English is spoken.

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9. http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aa040998.htm

An introduction and reference guide to the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).

10. http://esl.about.com/library/special/bl_phonemes_explained2.htm

This is a glossary giving descriptions and explanations of terminology used in this field of study. It is quite technical and goes well beyond the requirements of most teachers, but is a useful reference.

11. http://esl.about.com/library/special/bl_phonemes_explained1.htm

This guide provides the terminology used for describing the various English phonemes.

12. http://www.americanaccent.com/

This site offers an extensive overview of American pronunciation and offers a six month training course, books and other materials as well as a teacher training courses.

13. http://www.colorphonics.com/

This is a commercial package. Color Phonics® fills pronunciation and recognition learning gaps by testing and training your student in the 43 foundational phonemes. It includes special pronunciation and auditory discrimination help. This page gives you some information on what the package contains.

14. http://www.faceweb.okanagan.bc.ca/pron/

This site has extensive pronunciation lessons added on a regular basis. It requires Shockwave and QuickTime plugins. Provided by the Okanagan University College.

15. http://www.humbird.com

Commercial pronunciation package by Hummingbird teaches American English pronunciation using mouth position icons, captions, and musical accompaniment.

Examples included from the package.

16. http://www.arts.gls.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html

The association responsible for the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which is the standard alphabet for help with English and other language pronunciation. Contains information concerning the association.

17. http://www.sil.org/computing/fonts/encore-ipa.html

Free downloadable IPA font for creating pronunciation documents on your computer.

Provided by the Summer Institute of Linguistics.

18. http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff/HIGDOX/STEPHEN/phono/phonolg.htm

Stirling University's on-line phonology course. Designed as a self-access course for all those interested in learning the script and identifying the sounds of the phonology of

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R.P.(Received Pronunciation, or British Standard).

19. http://www.soundsofenglish.org/

Introduction to the sounds of English. It has pictures and photographs to help you pronounce sounds, as well as examples of those sounds. This site concentrates on American pronunciation.

20. http://faculty.washington.edu/dillon/PhonResources/vowels.html

A rather technical chart comparison of the difference in vowel production between American and British English. Very interesting if you are familiar with the IPA. Provided by the University of Washington.

21. http://www.fonetiks.org/

Language pronunciation website with sound clips.

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Unit 10 Grammar

A. Ways English teachers help grammar learning in other subjects

1. After teaching a grammatical item, ask students to find examples from textbooks of other subjects. For example, after students have learnt the use and structure of ‘Simple Past Tense’, the teacher asks them to find five sentences from the textbooks of other subjects, each of which contains a verb in the Simple Past Tense.

2. Be informed of the language objectives of other content subjects and see if some topics can be taught early in the English lessons. For details, refer to the example on the next page.

3. Select reading passages and grammar exercises which help make cross-curricular link to the topics of content subjects. For example, each unit of Grammar in Use Workbook 1 published by Learners Publishing Pte Ltd, Singapore is built around

a particular topic, which can be linked to that of another content subject.

Examples:

Unit Grammar focus Cross-curricular links

1 Tree planting Simple present tense of verb ‘Be’ Geography Social Studies 2 No-car areas Questions and Answers with the verb

‘Be’

Geography Social Studies

3 Saving water Yes/No questions Geography

Social Studies 4 Help for captured

animals

Negative statements in the Simple Present Tense

General Science

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Example: Language Objectives (November)

English Geography E.P.A.

1. Simple past tense e.g. I called Peter three

hours ago but he was not at home.

2. The use of ‘There is/There are’

e.g. There is a big supermarket.

There are lots of places to visit.

1. Preposition

e.g. The school is at 137708.

2. The use of ‘There is/There are’

e.g. There are seven

continents in the world:

Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Antarctica and Australisia.

*Suggestions for English Teachers:

Tie in with the use of the phrase ‘There is / There are’

e.g.There is a big supermarket.

1. Simple past tense e.g. In 1950s, Hong Kong

became an industrial city.

*Suggestions for English Teachers:

Tie in with Simple Past Tense

e.g.I called Peter three hours ago but he was not at home.

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B. Resources for teachers

z A list of photocopiable resource books:

1. Peter Watkyn-Jones, Grammar games and Activities for Teachers. Penguin 2. Mark Hancock, Singing Grammar. Cambridge University Press

3. Bob Obee, The Grammar Activity Book. Cambridge University Press

4. Maria Lucia Zaorob, Elizabeth Chin, Games for Grammar practice. Cambridge University Press

5. Penny Ur, Grammar Practice Activities, Cambridge University Press

z Websites providing teachers with ideas and games to teach grammar:

1. http://www.eslcafe.com/ideas/sofer.cgi?Grammar

2. http://www.eslpartyland.com/teachers/nov/grammar.htm#

z Websites providing students with practice in grammar:

1. http://www/aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/quizzes/grammar.html 2. http://www/aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/quizzes/grammarp.html

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Unit 11 Vocabulary

A. The difference between receptive / passive and productive / active vocabulary For a receptive / active vocabulary item, one is able to:

i. recognise and recall the meaning of a word when one meets it ii. make various associations with other related words

For a productive / passive vocabulary item, one is able to:

i. recognise and recall the meaning of a word when one meets it ii. make various associations with other related words

iii. pronounce it iv. spell it

v. use it in correct grammatical structure along with words it usually collocates with

B. Ways to help students move from receptive use to productive use of vocabulary 1. Repetition

The transition of an item from a student’s receptive vocabulary to his / her productive one is very often a gradual process. Such transition usually takes place when a student reads or hears an item repeatedly over a period of time. For this reason, it is essential to recycle the vocabulary items taught from time to time.

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2. Teach the vocabulary items in depth

To teach a vocabulary item in depth, it is essential to incorporate the following in the teaching:

i. Meaning(s) ii. Pronunciation iii. Related forms

e.g. triangle [noun], triangular [adjective] (Maths) iv. Related concepts

e.g. law and order (EPA)

C. Strategies for teaching vocabulary

Strategies marked with an asterisk ‘*’ help students learn words in depth.

Strategies marked with two asterisks ‘**’ help students develop higher order thinking skills.

1. Pronunciation and spelling

Separate a word into chunks to enable students to see the relationship between spelling and sound e.g. solution – so/lu/tion (Maths, I.S.)

2. Visuals (diagrams, pictures, maps, drawings, photos and realia) These are best for concrete objects e.g. a microscope (I.S.)

3. Gesture, facial expression and mime

e.g. These are best for action verbs e.g. press

4. Scales - these are useful to show degrees and gradings e.g. always, often, sometimes, rarely, never

5. *Related concepts

e.g. law and order (EPA), bread and butter (Home economics)

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6. *Related forms

e.g. govern, government (EPA), develop, development (History)

7. *Words with multiple meanings e.g. solution (Maths, I.S.)

8. *Word formation (see P.59 - 63)

9. **Semantic map (see P.64)

10. **Semantic features analysis (see P.65)

11. **Guided discovery (see P.66)

12. **Listing (see P.67)

13. **Guessing meaning of word from the context (see P.68 - 69)

14. Glossaries (see P.70)

15. Creating a vocabulary log (see P.71 - 72)

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Word-formation

A. The benefits of teaching ways of word-formation to students

1. To help students make informed guess about the meaning of unknown words 2. To enable students to express themselves with a wider range of vocabulary

B. Ways of word-formation 1. Affixation

This means adding prefixes and suffixes to a word to change its meaning or function.

i. prefixes – added to the beginning of a word Examples of common prefixes:

Prefix Possible meanings Examples

un- not, opposite of unimportant, uncertain, unreal, uncomfortable

non- not nonsense, nonstick, nonstop,

non-conductor

im- not impossible, impolite,

immeasurable, immature

il- not illegal, illegible

ir- not irresponsible, irresistible, irregular, irrelevant

dis- not, opposite disagree, disobey, disorder, dislike disadvantage

mis- not, wrong misunderstand, misfortune, misrule, miscount

re- again rebuild, replay, refill

over- too much overload, overcrowded

tele- long distance telescope, telephone, television en make, made of endanger, enrich

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ii. suffixes – added to the end of a word Examples of common suffixes:

Suffix Examples

-dom kingdom, freedom

-ion election, collection, action -ment government, movement -ness happiness, kindness -ist socialist, economist

-able washable, suitable, valuable -less helpless, careless

-ive constructive, additive -en lengthen, frighten -ly quickly, interestingly -ism feudalism, metabolism -er caller, buyer

-or actor, director -(i)fy classify, beautify -ful useful, helpful, careful -y snowy, windy, rainy

2. Compounding

This means combining two or more separate words which can stand independently to form a word.

i. adjective compounds

e.g. labour-intensive, capital-intensive (EPA), large-scale (Geography)

ii. verb compounds e.g. sightsee (EPA)

iii. noun compounds

e.g. table-tennis (P.E.), raw materials, labour disputes (EPA),

world map, landmark (Geography), tongue roller, backbone (I.S.)

Language-across-the-Curriculum (LAC) Approach

CONTENTS

Unit 1

Introduction to a