Topic V Fossil Fuels and Carbon Compounds

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CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT GUIDE (SECONDARY 4–6) (FIRST IMPLEMENTED IN THE 2018/19 SCHOOL YEAR FOR SECONDARY 4 STUDENTS)

NOTES FOR TEACHERS

INTRODUCTION ... 1 PART I–UPDATES FOR THE CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM ... I-1 COMPULSORY PART ... I-1 ELECTIVE PART ... I-51 PART II–EXPLANATORY NOTES FOR THE CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM ... II-1 GENERAL NOTES ... II-1 TOPIC SPECIFIC NOTES ... II-3 ANNEX ... II-10

INTRODUCTION

The Curriculum Development Council (CDC), the Education Bureau (EDB) and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) have jointly reviewed the Chemistry curriculum and assessment, after the first cycle of implementation of the revised Chemistry Curriculum commenced in the 2013/14 school year. Recommendations have been put forward based on the views and suggestions collected from frontline teachers and other stakeholders.

This document consists of two parts. Part I aims to illustrate the recommendations for the curriculum contents with the changes on the overviews, learning objectives (students should learn), learning outcomes (students should be able to), suggested learning and teaching activities, values and attitudes, and science-technology-society-environment connections of the curriculum topics. These recommendations are to be implemented in the 2018/19 school year for Secondary 4 students who will sit the 2021 HKDSE Examination. Teachers should also make reference to the captioned Guide (or the Guide) published in 2007 (with updates in 2018) by the CDC and the HKEAA when planning the curriculum. The revised curriculum in Part I of this document refers to sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 of the Guide.

Part II aims to highlight some key aspects of the Guide, and to interpret the depth and breadth of some topics of the Curriculum for the reference of teachers. The explanatory notes listed in this part are by no means exhaustive nor intended to dictate the scope of learning and teaching at the classrooms. Instead, the notes serve as a reference for teachers to plan how to implement the curriculum in consideration of their students’ interests and abilities, and availability of teaching time and resources.

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PART I–UPDATES FOR THE CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM

(FIRST IMPLEMENTED IN THE 2018/19 SCHOOL YEAR FOR SECONDARY 4 STUDENTS)

Compulsory Part Topic I Planet Earth

Overview

The natural world is made up of chemicals which can be obtained from the earth’s crust, the sea and the atmosphere. The purpose of this topic is to provide opportunities for students to appreciate that we are living in a world of chemicals and that chemistry is a highly relevant and important area of learning. Another purpose of this topic is to enable students to recognise that the study of chemistry includes the investigation of possible methods to isolate useful materials in our environment and to analyse them. Students who have completed this topic are expected to have a better understanding of scientific investigation and chemistry concepts learned in the junior science curriculum.

Students should know the terms “element”, “compound” and “mixture”, “physical change” and

“chemical change”, “physical property” and “chemical property”, “solvent”, “solute” and

“saturated solution”. They should also be able to use word equations to represent chemical changes, to suggest appropriate methods for the separation of mixtures, and to undertake tests for chemical species.

Students should learn Students should be able to a. The atmosphere

 composition of air

 separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by fractional distillation

 test for oxygen

 describe the processes involved in fractional distillation of liquid air, and understand the concepts and procedures involved

 demonstrate how to carry out a test for oxygen

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Students should learn Students should be able to b. The ocean

 composition of sea water

 extraction of common salt and isolation of pure water from sea water

 tests to show the presence of sodium and chloride in a sample of common salt

 test for the presence of water in a sample

 electrolysis of sea water and uses of the products

 describe various kinds of minerals in the sea

 demonstrate how to extract common salt and isolate pure water from sea water

 describe the processes involved in evaporation, distillation, crystallisation and filtration as

different kinds of physical separation methods and understand the concepts and procedures involved

 evaluate the appropriateness of using evaporation, distillation, crystallisation and filtration for different physical separation situations

 demonstrate how to carry out the flame test, test for chloride and test for water

c. Rocks and minerals

 rocks as a source of minerals

 isolation of useful materials from minerals as exemplified by the extraction of metals from their ores

 limestone, chalk and marble as different forms of calcium carbonate

 erosion processes as exemplified by the action of heat, water and acids on calcium carbonate

 thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate and test for carbon dioxide

 tests to show the presence of calcium and carbonate in a sample of limestone/chalk/marble

 describe the methods for the extraction of metals from their ores, such as the physical method, heating alone and heating with carbon

 describe different forms of calcium carbonate in nature

 understand that chemicals may change through the action of heat, water and acids

 use word equations to describe chemical changes

 demonstrate how to carry out tests for carbon dioxide and calcium

Suggested Learning and Teaching Activities

Students are expected to develop the learning outcomes using a variety of learning experiences.

Some related examples are:

 searching for information on issues related to the atmosphere, such as air pollution and the applications of the products obtained from fractional distillation of liquid air.

 using an appropriate method to test for oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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evaporation, distillation, crystallisation and filtration.

 using appropriate apparatus and techniques to carry out the flame test and test for chloride.

 performing a test to show the presence of water in a given sample.

 doing problem-solving exercises on separating mixtures (e.g. a mixture of salt, sugar and sand, and a mixture of sand, water and oil).

 extracting silver from silver oxide.

 investigating the actions of heat, water and acids on calcium carbonate.

 designing and performing chemical tests for calcium carbonate.

 participating in decision-making exercises or discussions on issues related to conservation of natural resources.

 describing chemical changes using word equations.

Values and Attitudes

Students are expected to develop, in particular, the following values and attitudes:

 to value the need for the safe handling and disposal of chemicals.

 to appreciate that the earth is the source of a variety of materials useful to human beings.

 to show concern over the limited reserve of natural resources.

 to show an interest in chemistry and curiosity about it.

 to appreciate the contribution of chemists to the separation and identification of chemical species.

STSE Connections

Students are encouraged to appreciate and comprehend issues which reflect the interconnections of science, technology, society and the environment. Related examples are:

 Oxygen extracted from air can be used for medicinal purposes.

 Methods involving chemical reactions are used to purify drinking water for travellers to districts without a clean and safe water supply.

 Desalination is an alternative means of providing fresh water to the Hong Kong people rather than importing water from the Guangdong province.

 Mining and extraction of chemicals from the earth should be regulated to conserve the environment.

 Products obtained by the electrolysis of sea water are beneficial to our society.

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Topic II Microscopic World I

Overview

The study of chemistry involves the linkage between phenomena in the macroscopic world and the interaction of atoms, molecules and ions in the microscopic world. Through studying the structures of atoms, molecules and ions, and the bonding in elements and compounds, students will acquire knowledge of some basic chemical principles. These can serve to further illustrate the macroscopic level of chemistry, such as patterns of change, observations in various chemical reactions, the rates of reactions and chemical equilibria. In addition, students should be able to perform calculations related to chemical formulae, which are the basis of mole calculations to be studied in later topics.

Students should also be able to appreciate the interrelation between bonding, structures and properties of substances by learning the properties of metals, giant ionic substances, simple molecular substances and giant covalent substances. With the knowledge of various structures, students should be able to differentiate the properties of substances with different structures, and to appreciate that knowing the structure of a substance can help us decide its applications. While materials chemistry is becoming more important in applied chemistry, this topic provides the basic knowledge for further study of the development of new materials in modern society.

Through activities such as gathering and analysing information about atomic structure and the Periodic Table, students should appreciate the impact of the discoveries of atomic structure and the development of the Periodic Table on modern chemistry. Students should also be able to appreciate that symbols and chemical formulae constitute part of the common language used by scientists to communicate chemical concepts.

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Students should learn Students should be able to a. Atomic structure

 elements, atoms and symbols

 classification of elements into metals, non-metals and metalloids

 electrons, neutrons and protons as subatomic particles

 simple model of atom

 atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)

 isotopes

 isotopic masses and relative atomic masses based on ¹²C=12.00

 electronic arrangement of atoms (up to Z=20)

 stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements

 state the relationship between element and atom

 use symbols to represent elements

 classify elements as metals or non-metals on the basis of their properties

 be aware that some elements possess

characteristics of both metals and non-metals

 state and compare the relative charges and the relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an electron

 describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons

 interpret and use symbols such as ²³₁₁Na

 deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions with given atomic numbers and mass numbers

 identify isotopes among elements with relevant information

 perform calculations related to isotopic masses and relative atomic masses

 understand and deduce the electronic arrangements of atoms

 represent the electronic arrangements of atoms using electron diagrams

 relate the stability of noble gases to the octet rule

b. The Periodic Table

 the position of the elements in the Periodic Table related to their electronic arrangements

 similarities in chemical properties among elements in Groups I, II, VII and 0

 understand that elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of ascending atomic number

 appreciate the Periodic Table as a systematic way to arrange elements

 define the group number and period number of an element in the Periodic Table

 relate the position of an element in the Periodic Table to its electronic structure and vice versa

 relate the electronic arrangements to the chemical properties of the Group I, II, VII and 0 elements

 describe differences in reactivity of Group I, II and VII elements

 predict chemical properties of unfamiliar elements in a group of the Periodic Table

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Students should learn Students should be able to

c. Metallic bonding  describe the simple model of metallic bond

d. Structures and properties of metals  describe the general properties of metals

 relate the properties of metals to their giant metallic structures

e. Ionic and covalent bond

 transfer of electrons in the formation of ionic bond

 cations and anions

 electron diagrams of simple ionic compounds

 names and formulae of ionic compounds

 ionic structure as illustrated by sodium chloride

 sharing of electrons in the formation of covalent bond

 single, double and triple bonds

 electron diagrams of simple covalent molecules

 names and formulae of covalent compounds

 formula masses and relative molecular masses

 describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of ions and ionic bonds

 draw the electron diagrams of cations and anions

 predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals by using information in the Periodic Table

 identify polyatomic ions

 name some common cations and anions according to the chemical formulae of ions

 name ionic compounds based on the component ions

 describe the colours of some common ions in aqueous solutions

 interpret chemical formulae of ionic compounds in terms of the ions present and their ratios

 construct formulae of ionic compounds based on their names or component ions

 describe the structure of an ionic crystal

 describe the formation of a covalent bond

 describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of single, double and triple bonds

 describe the formation of the dative covalent bond by means of electron diagram using H3O⁺ and NH4+ as examples

 interpret chemical formulae of covalent

compounds in terms of the elements present and the ratios of their atoms

 write the names and formulae of covalent compounds based on their component atoms

 communicate scientific ideas with appropriate use of chemical symbols and formulae

 define and distinguish the terms: formula mass and relative molecular mass

 perform calculations related to formula masses

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Students should learn Students should be able to f. Structures and properties of giant ionic

substances

 describe giant ionic structures of substances such as sodium chloride and caesium chloride

 state and explain the properties of ionic compounds in terms of their structures and bonding

g. Structures and properties of simple molecular substances

 describe simple molecular structures of substances such as carbon dioxide and iodine

 recognise that van der Waals’ forces exist between molecules

 state and explain the properties of simple molecular substances in terms of their structures and bonding

h. Structures and properties of giant covalent substances

 describe giant covalent structures of substances such as diamond, graphite and quartz

 state and explain the properties of giant covalent substances in terms of their structures and bonding

i. Comparison of structures and properties of important types of substances

 compare the structures and properties of

substances with giant ionic, giant covalent, simple molecular and giant metallic structures

 deduce the properties of substances from their structures and bonding, and vice versa

 explain applications of substances according to their structures

 searching for and presenting information on the discoveries related to the structure of an atom.

 searching for and presenting information on elements and the development of the Periodic Table.

 performing calculations related to relative atomic masses, formula masses and relative molecular masses.

 drawing electron diagrams to represent atoms, ions and molecules.

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 investigating chemical similarities of elements in the same group of the Periodic Table (e.g.

reactions of group I elements with water, group II elements with dilute hydrochloric acid, and group VII elements with sodium sulphite solution).

 predicting chemical properties of unfamiliar elements in a group of the Periodic Table.

 writing chemical formulae for ionic and covalent compounds.

 naming ionic and covalent compounds.

 exploring relationship of colour and composition of some gem stones.

 predicting colours of ions from a group of aqueous solutions (e.g. predicting colour of K⁺(aq), Cr2O72(aq) and Cl^(aq) from aqueous solutions of potassium chloride and potassium dichromate).

 investigating the migration of ions of aqueous solutions, e.g. copper(II) dichromate and potassium permanganate, towards oppositely charged electrodes.

 building models of three-dimensional ionic crystals and covalent molecules.

 using computer programs to study three-dimensional images of ionic crystals, simple molecular substances and giant covalent substances.

 building models of diamond, graphite, quartz and iodine.

 predicting the structures of substances from their properties, and vice versa.

 justifying some particular applications of substances in terms of their structures.

 reading articles or writing essays on the applications of materials such as graphite and aluminium in relation to their structures.

 to appreciate that scientific evidence is the foundation for generalisations and explanations about matter.

 to appreciate the usefulness of models and theories in helping to explain the structures and behaviours of matter.

 to appreciate the perseverance of scientists in developing the Periodic Table and hence to envisage that scientific knowledge changes and accumulates over time.

 to appreciate the restrictive nature of evidence when interpreting observed phenomena.

 to appreciate the usefulness of the concepts of bonding and structures in understanding phenomena in the macroscopic world, such as the physical properties of substances.

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 Using the universal conventions of chemical symbols and formulae facilitates communication among people in different parts of the world.

 Common names of substances can be related to their systematic names (e.g. table salt and sodium chloride; baking soda and sodium hydrogencarbonate).

 Some specialised new materials have been created on the basis of the findings of research on the structure, chemical bonding, and other properties of matter (e.g. bullet-proof fabric, superconductors and superglue).

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Topic III Metals

Overview

Metals have a wide range of uses in daily life. Therefore, the extraction of metals from their ores has been an important activity of human beings since prehistoric times. This topic provides opportunities for students to develop an understanding of how metals are extracted from their ores and how they react with other substances. Students are expected to establish a reactivity series of metals based on experimental evidence.

The corrosion of metals poses a socioeconomic problem to human beings. It is therefore necessary to develop methods to preserve the limited reserve of metals. An investigation of factors leading to corrosion and of methods to prevent metals from corroding is a valuable problem-solving exercise and can help students develop a positive attitude towards the use of resources on our planet.

A chemical equation is a concise and universally adopted way to represent a chemical reaction.

Students should be able to transcribe word equations into chemical equations and appreciate that a chemical equation shows a quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a reaction. Students should also be able to perform calculations involving the mole and chemical equations. The mole concepts acquired from this topic prepare students for performing further calculations involving concentration of solutions, molar volume of gases and equilibrium constant of reaction in other topics of the curriculum.

Students should learn Students should be able to a. Occurrence and extraction of metals

 occurrence of metals in nature in free state and in combined forms

 obtaining metals by heating metal oxides or by heating metal oxides with carbon

 extraction of metals by electrolysis

 relation of the discovery of metals with the ease of extraction of metals and the availability of raw materials

 limited reserves of metals and their conservations

 state the sources of metals and their occurrence in nature

 explain why extraction of metals is needed

 understand that the extraction of metals involves reduction of their ores

 describe and explain the major methods of extraction of metals from their ores

 relate the ease of obtaining metals from their ores to the reactivity of the metals

 deduce the order of discovery of some metals from their relative ease of extraction

 write word equations for the extraction of metals

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 describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals

 evaluate the recycling of metals from social, economic and environmental perspectives

b. Reactivity of metals

 reactions of some common metals (sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, lead, copper, etc.) with oxygen/air, water, dilute

hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid

 metal reactivity series and the tendency of metals to form positive ions

 displacement reactions and their interpretations based on the reactivity series

 prediction of the occurrence of reactions involving metals using the reactivity series

 relation between the extraction method of a metal and its position in the metal reactivity series

 describe and compare the reactions of some common metals with oxygen/air, water and dilute acids

 write the word equations for the reactions of metals with oxygen/air, water and dilute acids

 construct a metal reactivity series with reference to their reactions, if any, with oxygen/air, water and dilute acids

 write balanced chemical equations to describe various reactions

 use the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq) to write chemical equations

 relate the reactivity of metals to the tendency of metals to form positive ions

 describe and explain the displacement reactions involving various metals and metal compounds in aqueous solutions

 deduce the order of reactivity of metals from given information

 write balanced ionic equations

 predict the feasibility of metal reactions based on the metal reactivity series

 relate the extraction method of a metal to its position in the metal reactivity series

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Students should learn Students should be able to c. Reacting masses

 quantitative relationship of the reactants and the products in a reaction as revealed by a chemical equation

 the mole, Avogadro’s constant and molar mass

 percentage by mass of an element in a compound

 empirical formulae and molecular formulae derived from

experimental data

 reacting masses from chemical equations

 understand and use the quantitative information provided by a balanced chemical equation

 perform calculations related to moles, Avogadro’s constant and molar masses

 calculate the percentage by mass of an element in a compound using appropriate information

 determine empirical formulae and molecular formulae from compositions by mass and molar masses

 calculate masses of reactants and products in a reaction from the relevant equation and state the interrelationship between them

 solve problems involving limiting reagents

d. Corrosion of metals and their protection

 factors that influence the rusting of iron

 methods used to prevent rusting of iron

 socioeconomic implications of rusting of iron

 corrosion resistance of aluminium

 anodisation as a method to enhance corrosion resistance of aluminium

 describe the nature of iron rust

 describe the essential conditions for the rusting of iron

 describe and explain factors that influence the speed of rusting of iron

 describe the observations when a rust indicator (a mixture of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) and phenolphthalein) is used in an experiment that investigates rusting of iron

 describe and explain the methods of rusting prevention as exemplified by

i. coating with paint, oil or plastic ii. galvanising

iii. tin-plating iv. electroplating v. cathodic protection vi. sacrificial protection vii. alloying

 be aware of the socio-economic impact of rusting

 understand why aluminium is less reactive and more corrosion-resistant than expected

 describe how the corrosion resistance of aluminium can be enhanced by anodisation

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 searching for and presenting information about the occurrence of metals and their uses in daily life.

 analysing information to relate the reactivity of metals to the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the modern era.

 designing and performing experiments to extract metals from metal oxides (e.g. silver oxide, copper(II) oxide, lead(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide).

 deciding on appropriate methods for the extraction of metals from their ores.

 transcribing word equations into chemical equations.

 writing balanced chemical equations with the aid of computer simulations.

 performing experiments to investigate reactions of metals with oxygen/air, water and dilute acids.

 constructing a metal reactivity series based on experimental evidence.

 performing experiments to investigate the displacement reactions of metals with aqueous metal ions.

 interpreting the observations from a chemical demonstration of the displacement reaction between zinc and copper(II) oxide solid.

 writing ionic equations.

 performing an experiments to determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide or copper(II) oxide.

 performing calculations related to moles and reacting masses.

 performing an experiment to study the thermal decomposition of baking soda / sodium hydrogencarbonate and solving the related stoichiometric problems.

 designing and performing experiments to investigate factors that influence rusting.

 performing experiments to study methods that can be used to prevent rusting.

 deciding on appropriate methods to prevent metal corrosion based on social, economic and technological considerations.

 searching for and presenting information about the metal-recycling industry of Hong Kong and the measures for conserving metal resources in the world.

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 to appreciate the contribution of science and technology in providing us with useful materials.

 to appreciate the importance of making fair comparisons in scientific investigations.

 to value the need for adopting safety measures when performing experiments involving potentially dangerous chemicals and violent reactions.

 to show concern for the limited reserve of metals and realise the need for conserving and using these resources wisely.

 to appreciate the importance of the mole concept in the study of quantitative chemistry.

 to appreciate the contribution of chemistry in developing methods of rust prevention and hence its socio-economic benefit.

Students are encouraged to appreciate and to comprehend issues which reflect the interconnections of science, technology, society and the environment. Related examples are:

 Although the steel industry has been one of the major profit-making industries in mainland China, there are many constraints on its growth, e.g. the shortage of raw materials in China.

 New technologies are being implemented to increase the efficiency of the metal extraction process and at the same time to limit its impact on the environment.

 Conservation of metal resources should be promoted to arouse concern for environmental protection.

 The development of new alloys to replace pure metals is needed in order to enhance the performance of some products, such as vehicles, aircrafts, window frames and spectacles frames.

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Topic IV Acids and Bases

Overview

Acids and bases/alkalis are involved in numerous chemical processes that occur around us, from industrial processes to biological ones, and from reactions in the laboratory to those in our environment. Students have encountered acids and alkalis in their junior science courses.

In this topic, they will further study the properties and reactions of acids and bases/alkalis, and the concept of molarity. Students should also be able to develop an awareness of the potential hazards associated with the handling of acids and alkalis.

Students will learn to use an instrumental method of pH measurement, to prepare salts by different methods, and to perform volumetric analysis involving acids and alkalis. Through these experimental practices students should be able to demonstrate essential experimental techniques, to analyse data and to interpret experimental results. On completion of this topic, students are expected to have acquired skills that are essential for conducting the investigative study required in the curriculum, as well as some basic knowledge for further study in Analytical Chemistry and carrying out more complicated quantitative analysis in chemistry.

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Students should learn Students should be able to a. Introduction to acids and alkalis

 common acids and alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory

 characteristics and chemical reactions of acids as illustrated by dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid

 acidic properties and hydrogen ions (H⁺(aq))

 role of water in exhibiting properties of acid

 basicity of acid

 characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis as illustrated by sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia

 alkaline properties and hydroxide ions (OH^(aq))

 corrosive nature of concentrated acids and concentrated alkalis

 recognise that some household substances are acidic

 state the common acids found in laboratory

 describe the characteristics of acids and their typical reactions

 write chemical and ionic equations for the reactions of acids

 relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions (H⁺(aq))

 describe the role of water for acids to exhibit their properties

 state the basicity of different acids such as HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH

 define bases and alkalis in terms of their reactions with acids

 recognise that some household substances are alkaline

 state the common alkalis found in the laboratory

 describe the characteristics of alkalis and their typical reactions

 write chemical and ionic equations for the reactions of alkalis

 relate alkaline properties to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH^(aq))

 describe the corrosive nature of acids and alkalis and the safety precautions in handling them

b. Indicators and pH

 acid-base indicators as exemplified by litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein

 pH scale as a measure of acidity and alkalinity

pH = log[H⁺(aq)]

 use of universal indicator and an appropriate instrument to measure the pH of solutions

 state the colours produced by litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein in acidic solutions and alkaline solutions

 describe how to test for acidity and alkalinity using suitable indicators

 relate the pH scale to the acidity or alkalinity of substances

 perform calculations related to the concentration of H⁺(aq) and the pH value of a strong acid solution

 suggest and demonstrate appropriate ways to determine pH values of substances

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Students should learn Students should be able to c. Strength of acids and alkalis

 meaning of strong and weak acids as well as strong and weak alkalis in terms of their extent of

dissociation in aqueous solutions

 methods to compare the strength of acids/alkalis

 describe the dissociation of acids and alkalis

 relate the strength of acids and alkalis to their extent of dissociation

 describe acids and alkalis with the appropriate terms: strong and weak, concentrated and dilute

 suggest and perform experiments to compare the strength of acids or alkalis

d. Salts and neutralisation

 bases as chemical opposites of acids

 neutralisation as the reaction between acid and base/alkali to form water and salt only

 exothermic nature of neutralisation

 preparation of soluble and insoluble salts

 naming of common salts

 applications of neutralisation

 write chemical and ionic equations for neutralisation

 state the general rules of solubility for common salts in water

 describe the techniques used in the preparation, separation and purification of soluble and insoluble salts

 suggest a method for preparing a particular salt

 name the common salts formed from the reaction of acids and alkalis

 explain some applications of neutralisation

e. Concentration of solutions

 concentration of solutions in mol dm^3 (molarity)

 convert the molar concentration of solutions to g dm^3

 perform calculations related to the concentration of solutions

f. Volumetric analysis involving acids and alkalis

 standard solutions

 acid-alkali titrations

 describe and demonstrate how to prepare solutions of a required concentration by dissolving a solid or diluting a concentrated solution

 calculate the concentration of the solutions prepared

 describe and demonstrate the techniques of performing acid-alkali titration

 apply the concepts of concentration of solution and use the results of acid-alkali titrations to solve stoichiometric problems

 communicate the procedures and results of a volumetric analysis experiment by writing a laboratory report

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 searching for examples of naturally occurring acids and bases, and their chemical composition.

 investigating the actions of dilute acids on metals, carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, metal oxides and metal hydroxides.

 designing and performing experiments to study the role of water in exhibiting properties of acids.

 searching for information about the hazardous nature of acids/alkalis.

 investigating the action of dilute alkalis on aqueous metal ions to form metal hydroxide precipitates.

 investigating the action of dilute alkalis on ammonium compounds to give ammonia gas.

 performing experiments to investigate the corrosive nature of concentrated acids/alkalis.

 searching for information about the nature of common acid-base indicators.

 performing experiments to find out the pH values of some domestic substances.

 measuring pH values of substances by using data-logger or pH meter.

 designing and performing experiments to compare the strengths of acids/alkalis.

 performing an experiment for distinguishing a strong acid and a weak acid having the same pH value.

 investigating the temperature change in a neutralisation process.

 preparing and isolating soluble and insoluble salts.

 searching for and presenting information on applications of neutralisation.

 preparing a standard solution for volumetric analysis.

 performing calculations involving molarity.

 performing acid-alkali titrations using suitable indicators/pH meter/data-logger.

 using a titration experiment to determine the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar or the concentration of sodium hydroxide in drain cleaner.

 performing calculations on titrations.

 writing a detailed report for an experiment involving volumetric analysis.

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 to develop a positive attitude towards the safe handling, storage and disposal of chemicals, and hence adopt safe practices.

 to appreciate the importance of proper laboratory techniques and precise calculations for obtaining accurate results.

 to appreciate that volumetric analysis is a vital technique in analytical chemistry.

 to appreciate the importance of controlling experimental variables in making comparisons.

 to appreciate the use of instruments in enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of scientific investigation.

 Measures involving neutralisation have been implemented to control the emission of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide from vehicles, factories and power stations.

 Caustic soda is manufactured by the chloroalkali industry which is a traditional chemical raw materials industry.

 Volumetric analysis, as an essential technique in analytical chemistry, is applied in testing laboratories and forensic science.

 Antacid is a common drug which contains base(s) for neutralising stomach acid and therefore relieving stomach ache.

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Topic V Fossil Fuels and Carbon Compounds

Overview

Carbon compounds play an important role in industry and in daily life. Coal and petroleum are two major sources of carbon compounds. In this topic, the main focus is placed on the use of petroleum fractions as fuel and as a source of hydrocarbons. Students should appreciate that the use of fossil fuels has brought us benefits and convenience, such as providing us with domestic fuels and raw materials for making synthetic polymers like plastics and synthetic fibers, alongside environmental problems such as air pollution, acid rain, and the global warming. Eventually, they should realise that human activities can have a significant impact on our environment.

This topic also introduces some basic concepts of organic chemistry such as homologous series, functional group, general formula and structural formula. Students should be able to give systematic names of alkanes, alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids with carbon chains not more than eight carbon atoms. In addition, they are expected to learn the chemical reactions of alkanes and alkenes. By illustrating the formation of monosubstituted halomethane with electron diagrams, students should realise that chemical reactions often take place in more than one step and involve reactive species like free radicals.

Polymers can be synthesised by reacting small organic molecules (monomer) together in a chemical reaction. This process is called polymerisation. Students should understand the formation of addition polymers. Also, they should realise that the uses of some common addition polymers can be related to their physical properties which are, in turn, related to their structures. The formation of condensation polymers and a more in-depth treatment of the properties of polymers are included in Topic XI “Chemistry of Carbon Compounds” and Topic XIV “Materials Chemistry” respectively.

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Students should learn Students should be able to a. Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

 coal, petroleum and natural gas as sources of fossil fuels and carbon compounds

 composition of petroleum and its separation

 gradation in properties of the various fractions of petroleum

 heat change during combustion of hydrocarbons

 major uses of distilled fractions of petroleum

 consequences of using fossil fuels

 describe the origin of fossil fuels

 describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its industrial separation into useful fractions by fractional distillation

 recognise the economic importance of petroleum as a source of aliphatic and aromatic

hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene)

 relate the gradation in properties (e.g. colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics) with the number of carbon atoms in the molecules of the various fractions

 explain the demand for the various distilled fractions of petroleum

 recognise combustion of hydrocarbons as an exothermic chemical reaction

 recognise the pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels

 evaluate the impact of using fossil fuels on our quality of life and the environment

 suggest measures for reducing the emission of air pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels

b. Homologous series, structural formulae and naming of carbon compounds

 unique nature of carbon

 homologous series as illustrated by alkanes, alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids

 structural formulae and systematic naming of alkanes, alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids

 explain the large number and diversity of carbon compounds with reference to carbon’s unique combination power and ability to form different bonds

 explain the meaning of a homologous series

 understand that members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical properties and similarity in chemical properties

 write structural formulae of alkanes

 give systematic names of alkanes

 extend the knowledge of naming carbon compounds and writing structural formulae to alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids

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Students should learn Students should be able to c. Alkanes and alkenes

 petroleum as a source of alkanes

 alkanes

 cracking and its industrial importance

 alkenes

 distinguish saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons from the structural formulae

 describe the following reactions of alkanes:

i. combustion

ii. substitution reactions with chlorine and bromine, as exemplified by the reaction of methane and chlorine (or bromine)

 describe the steps involved in the

monosubstitution of methane with chlorine using electron diagrams suitable diagrams or equations

 recognise that cracking is a means to obtain smaller molecules including alkanes and alkenes

 describe how to carry out laboratory cracking of a petroleum fraction

 explain the importance of cracking in the petroleum industry

 describe the reactions of alkenes with the following reagents:

i. bromine

ii. potassium permanganate solution

 demonstrate how to carry out chemical tests for unsaturated hydrocarbons

d. Addition polymers

 monomers, polymers and repeating units

 addition polymerisation

 structures, properties and uses of addition polymers as illustrated by polyethene, polypropene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and Perspex

 recognise that synthetic polymers are built up from small molecules called monomers

 recognise that alkenes, unsaturated compounds obtainable from cracking of petroleum fractions, can undergo addition reactions

 understand that alkenes and unsaturated

compounds can undergo addition polymerisation

 describe addition polymerisation using chemical equations

 deduce the repeating unit of an addition polymer obtained from a given monomer

 deduce the monomer from a given section of a formula of an addition polymer

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 searching for and presenting information about the locations of deposits of coal, petroleum and natural gases in China and other countries.

 investigating colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics of petroleum fractions.

 searching for and presenting information about petroleum fractions regarding their major uses and the relation between their uses and properties.

 discussing the relationship between global warming and the use of fossil fuels.

 drawing structural formulae and writing systematic names for alkanes, alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids.

 building molecular models of simple alkanes, alkenes, alkanols and alkanoic acids.

 performing experiments to investigate the typical reactions of alkanes and alkenes.

 studying the nature of the substitution reaction of methane and halogen with the aid of relevant video or computer animation.

 performing an experiment on cracking of a petroleum fraction and testing the products.

 searching for information and presenting arguments on the risks and benefits of using fossil fuels to the society and the environment.

 discussing the pros and cons of using alternative sources of energy in Hong Kong.

 searching for information or reading articles about the discovery of polyethene and the development of addition polymers.

 investigating properties such as the strength and the ease of softening upon heating of different addition polymers.

 writing chemical equations for the formation of addition polymers based on given information.

 building physical or computer models of addition polymers.

 performing an experiment to prepare an addition polymer, e.g. polystyrene, Perspex.

 deducing the monomer from the structure of a given addition polymer.

 to appreciate the importance of organising scientific information in a systematic way.

 to recognise the benefits and impacts of the application of science and technology.

 to value the need for the conservation of the Earth’s resources.

 to appreciate the need for alternative sources of energy for sustainable development of our society.

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 to value the need for the safe use and storage of fuels.

 to appreciate the versatility of synthetic materials and the limitations of their use.

 to show concern for the environment and develop a sense of shared responsibility for sustainable development of our society.

 The petroleum industry provides us with many useful products that have improved our standard of living. However, there are risks associated with the production, transportation, storage and usage of fossil fuels.

 Emissions produced from the burning of fossil fuels are polluting the environment and are contributing to long-term and perhaps irreversible changes in the climate.

 There are many examples of damages uncovered after using the applications of science and technology for a long period, e.g. the pollution problem arising from using leaded petrol and diesel; and the disposal problem for plastics. Therefore, it is essential to carefully assess the risks and benefits to society and the environment before actually using applications of science and technology in daily life.

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Topic VI Microscopic World II

Overview

This topic builds on Topic II and aims at broadening students’ knowledge and concepts of bonding and structures of substances. By learning the concept of electronegativity difference between atoms in covalent bonds, students should be able to identify the polar molecules bonds and their partial charges. With reference to polarity of bonds and molecular shape, students should be able to explain the polarity of a molecule. The knowledge of bond polarity of molecules will in turn assist students in understanding the different natures of intermolecular forces. Students should also be able to understand the origin, nature and strength of hydrogen bonding, and differentiate van der Waals’ forces in non-polar and polar covalent substances.

With the knowledge of various intermolecular forces, they will be able to explain the properties of some molecular crystals such as ice and C60 in terms of their its structures. In addition, students will learn more about molecular substances such as the shapes and the non-octet structures of some covalent molecules.

a. Polarity of bond and molecule  define the electronegativity of an atom

 describe the general trends in the

electronegativities of the main group elements down a group and across a period in the Periodic Table

 explain how the unequal sharing of electrons in covalent bonds leads to non-polar and polar bonds

 identify explain the partial charges of polar nature of molecules (such as HF, H2O, NH3 and CHCl3) and the non-polar nature of molecules (such as CH4

and BF3) with reference to electronegativity, polarity of bonds and molecular shape

 explain the non-polar nature of CH4 and BF3

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Students should learn Students should be able to b. Intermolecular forces

 van der Waals’ forces

 hydrogen bonding

 explain the existence of van der Waals’ forces in non-polar and polar covalent substances

 state the factors affecting the strength of van der Waals’ forces between molecules

 compare the strength of van der Waals’ forces with that of covalent bonds

 describe the formation of hydrogen bonding as exemplified by HF, H2O and NH3

 compare the strength of van der Waals’ forces with that of hydrogen bonding

 understand the effect of hydrogen bonding on properties of substances such as water and ethanol

c. Structures and properties of molecular crystals ice

 describe the structures of ice and C60

 state and explain the properties of ice and C60 in terms of their its structures and bonding

d. Simple molecular substances with non-octet structures

 recognise the existence of covalent molecules with non-octet structures

 draw the electron diagrams of some non-octet molecules such as BF3, PCl5 and SF6

e. Shapes of simple molecules  Predict and draw three-dimensional diagrams to represent shapes of (i) molecules with central atoms obeying octet rule; and (ii) molecules with central atoms not obeying octet rule and with no lone pair of electrons (such as BF3, PCl5 and SF6)

 investigating the effect of a non-uniform electrostatic field on a jet of polar and non-polar liquid.

 investigating the effect of hydrogen bonding on liquid flow (e.g. comparing the viscosity of alcohols possessing different numbers of hydroxyl groups).

 determining the strength of the hydrogen bonding formed between ethanol molecules.

 comparing the boiling points of propane, methoxymethane and ethanol in terms of van der

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 investigating the evaporation rates of substances with different intermolecular forces.

 investigating the surface tension and viscosity of water.

 searching for and presenting information on the important role of hydrogen bonding in macromolecules such as DNA and proteins.

 building models of ice and C60.

 manipulating three-dimensional images of crystal structures using a computer programme.

 investigating the properties of graphite and C60.

 reading articles on how Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory can be used to predict the shapes of molecules and its limitations.

 investigating the shapes of some selected molecules with the aid of computer simulations.

 to appreciate the contribution of science and technology in providing us with useful materials.

 to appreciate the usefulness of models in helping us to visualise the structure of substances.

 to show curiosity about the latest development of chemical applications and their contributions to our society and technological advancement.

 to appreciate that knowledge about bonding may advance and have to be revised as new evidence arises, e.g. the discovery of the structure of Buckminsterfullerenes one atom thick two-dimensional crystal graphene.

 Carbon nanotube composites (a member of fullerene structural family) are being developed for use in aerospace and other high-performance applications such as body armour, sports equipment, and in the auto industry.

 Mass production of fullerenes has to be made commercially viable before implementing it in the fields of electronic devices, semiconductors and pharmaceuticals.

 Graphenes are being studied for use in high-performance applications such as gas-free water filtration system, graphene-enhanced sports equipment and graphene super capacitors.