真菌學

(1)

真菌學

黃尹則 Yin-Tse Huang 高雄醫學大學生物系

ythuangmyco@gmail.com

高中生物科學資優培育計畫

(2)

今日行程

❖ 上午三小時的課程、下午三小時的實習課（50分鐘上課、10分鐘休息）

❖ 作業一：實習課菇類特徵繪圖

❖ 作業二：孢子印製作

❖ 作業三：公園地衣調查

1. 三個作業請放在一個Word 檔，封面包含課程名稱、你的姓名、上課日期。

2. Word檔請以「學生姓名_真菌學」命名，如「黃尹則_真菌學.docx」

3. 請於2022年10月17日(星期一)晚間12點前寄到 ythuangmyco@gmail.com.

信件標題：中山高中資優課程_XXX作業。

(3)

Who are the following fungi?

A B C D E

https://www.shutterstock.com/

https://forms.gle/XNEAAifpMTBqE7yT6

(4)

Largest living thing on Earth

(5)

Largest living thing on Earth

9 km^2, >2400 years,

35,000 tons = 79 blue whales

Armillaria ostoyae

(6)

What are fungi?

(7)

1.

Eukaryotes: they have a nucleus and organelles

What are fungi?

(8)

1.

Eukaryotes: they have a nucleus and organelles

2.

Heterotrophic: They obtain nutrients from other

organisms. (unlike plants, which are autotrophic)

What are fungi?

(9)

3.

Absorptive nutrition: They secrete enzymes and digest food outside of their bodies.

What are fungi?

(10)

4. Chitin cell walls: All true

fungi have cell walls that contain chitin (but no cellulose); Chitin is also found in insect

exoskeletons.

What are fungi?

(11)

4. Chitin cell walls: All true fungi have cell walls that contain chitin (but no cellulose); Chitin is also found in insect

exoskeletons.

5. Indeterminate growth:

Theoretically, an “individual”

can live forever.

What are fungi?

(12)

"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution”

– Theodosius Dobzhansky

(13)

Fungi

(Eumycota)

Eukaryotes

(14)

Fungi

(Eumycota)

Eukaryotes

(15)

Fungi (Eumycota)

❖ (usually) multiple cells

❖ external nutrient absorption

(16)

Animals

❖ (usually) multiple cells

❖ internal nutrient absorption (ingestion)

(17)

Plants

❖ (usually) multiple cells

❖ Autotrophy (photosynthesis)

(18)

❖ Many are single-celled

❖ Diverse lifestyles and trophic modes

“others”

(19)

❖ There are A LOT of fungal species.

Hawksworth & Lücking (2017) suggested 2.2 – 3.8 M species is the most up-to-date

estimate , c.f. 8.7 M of animals and 391,000 of plants

❖ 144,000 known fungal species

❖ Describe 1200 species / year; > 1700 years to know all fungi on earth

Fungal Diversity

(20)

“chytrids” (1,000 species)

“zygomycetes” (1,000 species)

Glomeromycota (160 species)

Ascomycota (65,000 species)

Basidiomycota (60,000 species)

Sexual spores on basidia Sexual spores on asci

Arbuscular mycorrhizae formed with plants

Sexual spores on suspensors Spores usually have ﬂagella

• 144,000 known

fungal species

(21)

“chytrids” (1,000 species)

Now Neocallimastigomycota Hibbett et al. 2007

Chytridiomycota Hibbett et al. 2007

Blastocladiomycota T.Y.James et al. 2006

“zygomycetes” (1,000 species)

Now Mucoromycota Spatafora et al. 2016

Zoopagomycota Spatafora et al. 2016

Glomeromycota (160 species) (Now Glomeromycotina)

Spatafora et al. 2016

Ascomycota (65,000 species)

Basidiomycota (60,000 species)

Sexual spores on basidia Sexual spores on asci

Sexual spores on suspensors Spores usually have ﬂagella

Microsporidia (1300 species) Hibbett et al. 2007

Cryptomycota (706 species) Jones & Richards 2011

• 144,000 known fungal species

Arbuscular mycorrhizae formed with plants

(22)

What Fungi do?

• Pathogens - on plants but also animals, other fungi, etc. The most

economically important fungi are pathogens of key food crops.

• Saprophytes - many fungi are decay specialists. Fungi are particularly

good at decaying wood but some species can attack paint, bone, hair, and just about anything else.

• Symbionts - mutualistic relations with plants, animals, etc. (including:

mycorrhizas, endophytes, lichens, rumen fungi)

(23)

As pathogens

Coffee rust (Basidiomycota) Laurel wilt (Ascomycota) Candidiasis (Ascomycota)

Strawberry rot (zygomycetes) White rust (chytrids) Chytridiomycosis (chytrids)

(24)

As saprophytes

Brown rot White rot (Basidiomycota)

Bread mold (zygomycetes)

Morels (Ascomycota)

• Fungi are eﬃcient decomposers of organic material including cellulose and lignin

Chlorophyllum fairy ring (Basidiomycota)

(25)

As symbionts

• Some fungi share their enzymatic or physical services with other organisms

Lichen (mostly Ascomycota) Termite fungus growing Ambrosia symbiosis

(26)

Features of fungi (1)

❖ Many fungi are multicellular (a).

❖ Their bodies are made of microscopic ﬁlaments called hyphae (plural: hypha). Cells (in some) are divided by a wall called a septum (plural: septa).

Hyphae grow at their tips (apical growth). When many hyphae are massed together it is called a mycelium (plural: mycelia).

❖ Coenocytic fungi (b) lack septa and have a

continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei.

Cell wall

Por Septume Nuclei

(a) Septate hypha

Apical growth

Cell wall

Nuclei

(b) Coenocytic hypha

(27)

Apical growth of fungi

(28)

Features of fungi (2)

• Sometimes fungi are unicellular.

Unicellular fungi without ﬂagella are often called yeasts. Yeasts

reproduce by budding.

(29)

• Sometimes fungi are dimorphic. Dimorphic fungi can exist in a yeast phase and in a

hyphal phase. Most animal pathogens do

this (e.g. Candida).

• The switch between yeast and hyphae is triggered by changes in temperature, CO2, nutrients, and pH.

Features of fungi (3)

(30)

Features of fungi (4)

• Most are saprotroph 腐生營養

Derive nutrients from non-living organic matter

• Some are biotroph 活體營養

Derive nutrients from tissues of living host cells

• Some are hemibiotroph 半活體營養

An organism that has a biotrophic stage followed by a necrotrophic stage

• Some are necrotroph 死體營養

Derive nutrients by using enzyme and toxins to kill hosts cells

biotroph necrotroph saprotroph

hemibiotroph

(31)

• Most fungi reproduce by spores. Many fungi can produce two or more types. Spores can either be asexual (conidia) or sexual (e.g. ascospore, basidiospore, zygospore).

Orbilia - this cup fungus produces as sexual ascospores and asexual conidia. Either will germinate to trap nematodes.

Features of fungi (5)

(32)

Reproduction of fungi

• Fungi propagate themselves by producing vast numbers of spores, either sexually or asexually

Lycoperdon sp.

Boletus sp.

(33)

Reproduction of fungi

• Spores can be disseminated long distances, via carrying by wind, water,

animal, or actively discharging by itself; they will germinate if they land

in moist conditions with available food

Pilobolus sp.

Albugo sp.

(34)

Haploid (n)

Heterokaryotic (n+n) Diploid (2n)

Spore-producing structures Spores

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

GERMINATION

• Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles

(35)

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n) PLASMOGAMY

(fusion of cytoplasm) Heterokaryotic stage

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATION

Heterokaryotic (n+n)

(36)

Haploid (n)

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATION GERMINATION MEIOSIS

Spores (n)

(37)

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

GERMINATION

• Haploid: Most fungi live haploid, producing spores asexually.

10 µm

Parent cell

Bud

(38)

Haploid (n)

Spore-producing structures Spore

s

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Myceliu m

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATION

• Heterokaryotic (dikaryotic): Contain more than one genetically different nuclei in a cell. This stage is short-lived in most fungi, but live long in basidiomycetes.

(39)

Haploid (n)

(fusion of cytoplasm) Heterokaryoti c

stage Spore-producing

structures Spore

s

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Myceliu m

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

Spores (n)

• Diploid: Generate sexual spores, paired processes of

karyogamy and meiosis produce genetic variation.

(40)

Haploid (n)

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

Spores (n)

(41)

Kew, 2018

(42)

Kew, 2018

• Most basal lineage to Fungi.

• Taxonomic placement unresolved.

• Unicellular

• Biotrophic intracellular parasites.

(43)

Cryptomycota (隱真菌門) Rozella and other members of the unicellular Cryptomycota have ﬂagellated spores and lack chitin-rich cell walls. Rozella is an early diverging fungal lineage.

(Letcher et al. 2017) (Jones et al. 2011)

α-tubulin

nucleus chitin

(44)

Microsporidia (微孢子蟲) is recently classiﬁed as Fungi. Unicellular eukaryotes that are all obligate intracellular parasites. Around 1,500 species in 18 genera have been reported to infect a wide range of

eukaryotes, including protists, insects, crustaceans, humans. Especially on immunocompromised. Obtaining ATP directly from their hosts.

Polar tube Xenoma

(45)

Kew, 2018

(46)

Kew, 2018

• Most water-inhabiting

• Zoospores with ﬂagellum

• Saprophyte or parasitic on algae, oomycetes, and amphibians, etc.

• Diploid/haploid lifestyle (alternation)

chytrids (壺菌)

(47)

Diploid/haploid lifestyle of chytrids

multicellular haploid gametophyte

multicellular diploid sporophyte

(48)

chytrids (壺菌) form spores in several ways. The name comes

from “chytridion” meaning “little kettle.” Chytridiomycota may

have been the earliest fungi in terrestrial environments

(49)

(50)

Kew, 2018

(51)

Kew, 2018

• Production of zygotes.

• Mostly coenocytic hypha

• Typically asexual reproduction via sporangia.

• Loss of the ﬂagellum and the rise of the terrestrial, ﬁlamentous fungi.

zygomycetes (接合菌)

(52)

Haploid (n)

Heterokaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

PLASMOGAMY Mating

type (–)

Gametangia with haploid nuclei Mating

type (+)

Young

zygosporangium (heterokaryotic) New

mycelia SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

KARYOGAMY Diploid nuclei

Zygo- sporangium

100 µm

Rhizopus

growing on bread

Sporangia

Dispersal and germination of spores

ASEXUAL REPRO- DUCTION

Sporangium MEIOSIS

50 µm Mycelium

(53)

zygomycetes (接合菌) form their sexual spores by the fusion of two hyphae, (“zygo” = marriage). Representing an important group of fungi for ecological

studies of host association and diversiﬁcation of nutritional modes and cell biology

studies regarding the evolution of centrosomes, organelles associated with hyphal

growth and differentiation, and multicellularity.

(54)

glomeromycota (球囊菌) Now is Glomeromycotina in Mucoromycota

(‘zygomycetes’). Unclear whether they produce sexually or not. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) = obligate symbionts with plants. Associated with > 90%

terrestrial plants.

M

NM

(55)

Kew, 2018

(56)

Kew, 2018

• Ascomycota & Basidiomycota

• Accounting for 90% of known fungal species.

• Mostly septate hyphae.

• Dikaryotic nuclear phase in their life cycle.

Dikayra (雙核亞界)

(57)

Conidia; mating type (–)

Haploid (n)

Dikaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

PLASMOGAMY

Ascus (dikaryotic) Mycelia

(n)

Dikaryotic hyphae (n + n)

KARYOGAMY

Diploid nucleus (zygote; 2n) Dispersal

Germination ASEXUAL

REPRO- DUCTION

Hypha

Mating type (+)

Conidiophore

Mycelium

Germination Dispersal Ascocarp

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION Ascospores (n)

Asci Eight

ascospores Four haploid

nuclei (n) MEIOSIS

MITOSIS

Ascomycota (子囊菌)

(58)

Ascomycota (子囊菌) form their sexual spores in sacks

called asci (ascus). “Asco” = bag or sack

(59)

PLASMOGAMY Mating

type (–)

Mating type (+) Haploid

mycelia

Dikaryotic mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION Dispersal and

germination

Basidiospores (n) Basidium with four basidiospores

Basidium containing four haploid nuclei MEIOSIS

Gills lined with basidia

Basidiocarp (n + n)

Basidium

Basidia (n + n)

KARYOGAMY

Haploid (n)

Dikaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

1 µm Basidiospore Diploid nuclei

Basidiomycota (擔子菌)

MITOSIS

(60)

Basidiomycota (擔子菌) form their sexual spores on club-shaped

cells called basidia (basidium).

“Basidio” = pedestal

(61)

(62)

Two commonly found Fungi in yards

1. Mushroom macro-features 2. Lichen (Lichenized Fungi)

(63)

Mushrooms

(64)

Rusts (mostly)

Smuts (mostly)

Almost everything else

(most ﬂeshy basidios including jelly fungi, mushrooms, etc.)

Phylum: Basidiomycota

(65)

Main features of a mushroom

(66)

Cap Gill

Annulus/partial veil Stipe/stalk/stem

Volva

Amanita bisporigera

White

Inhibits the RNA polymerase II, which suppresses RNA production and protein

synthesis. This causes cellular necrosis, and ultimately, liver or kidney failure. Dies in 4 days.

α-amanitin

(67)

tubular (poroid)

gilled corals, clavarioid

gasteroid toothed, hydnoid polypores

Type of hymenium

(68)

basidia

basidiospores

(69)

Spore print

❖ Mushrooms have been classiﬁed according to the color of their spores in many ﬁeld guides.

❖ Assured of collecting mature fruiting body for

microscopic examination

(70)

depositphotos.com

Assignment 1: features of mushroom

1. Pleurotus ostreatus

2. Draw basidium & basidiospore

3. Scan and paste on Word as your ﬁrst assignment.

Menolli Junior et al. 2010. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol.

(71)

Assignment 2: spore print

1. Get FRESH mushroom from supermarket or parks 2. Cut the cap, and put it on a A4 sheet

3. Wait for 12 hr and pick up the cap

4. Scan and paste on Word as your second assignment.

(72)

LICHENS

(73)

fungus = mycobiont [‘obligate’ symbiont]

green algae/cyanobacteria

= photobiont

[‘facultative’ symbiont]

Lichen morphology: the thallus

(74)

The lichen symbiosis

Mycobiont

1 (or more) species of fungus–

Protection against dessication, UV radiation, herbivory, etcWaterMinerals

Photobiont 1 (or more) species of green

algae (one brown algae) and/or cyanobacteria – Sugars produced from

photosynthesis

+

‘Mutualistic’ symbiosis Latin name of the lichen

= name of the fungus

(75)

mycobiont photobiont

Mycobiont & photobiont can be grown separately

in culture but their morphology

is different than when they are

together

diﬃcult to grow them together

in culture!

Why consider lichens as an ‘organism’ ?

(76)

ﬁlamentous green algae [Trentepohlia, Pycopeltis]

unicellular green algae [Trebouxia, Coccomyxa, Myrmecia]

ﬁlamentous cyanobacteria [Nostoc, Calothrix,

Scytonema]

unicellular cyanobacteria [Gloecapsa, Hyella,

Synechocystis]

Photobionts

• Approx. 90% of lichens with green algae

• 75% belong to the genus Trebouxia

• Approx. 10% of lichens with cyanobacteria

• photosynthesis and Nitrogen ﬁxing

• 90% belong to the genus Nostoc

(77)

Photosymbiodeme:

One species of fungus associate with either

green algae (chloromorph) or cyanobacteria (cyanomorph)

(2 morphs)

Pseudocyphellaria rufovirescens Sticta aff. subscrobiculata

(78)

James et al. 2006. Nature 443.

• Highly successful: at least 20,000 species estimated

• Most species belong to the Ascomycota (a few are

Basidiomycota)

• Do not share a common ancestor

• Few ‘lichenization’ and many ‘delichenizations’

events

• Non-lichenized fungi [Aspergillus, Penicillium]

evolved from lichen ancestors

Ascomycota

Basidiomycota

Mycobiont

(79)

• Lichens are the dominant growth form on 8% of the Earth‘s surface

• Stress, drought, and cold-tolerant lichens establish in otherwise barren habitats

• Soil formation

• Nitrogen and Carbon ﬁxation

• Water retention

Ecological roles

(80)

Lichens are everywhere!

bark (corticolous) or wood (lignicolous)

soil (terricolous)

rocks

(saxicolous)

artiﬁcial substrates

other lichens (lichenicolous)

leaves (foliicolous)

(81)

Identiﬁcation: Growth forms

foliose (葉狀地衣) fruticose (莖狀地衣) crustose (殼狀地衣)

complex thallus /

squamulose (鱗狀地衣)

• Morphological groups but not evolutionary groups

• Convergent evolution of characters: very

common in lichens

(82)

The thallus is closely attached to the

substrate and cannot

be removed without

breaking the substrate

Crustose lichens

(83)

Foliose lichens

• The thallus looks “leaf-like”

• An upper and lower surface can be distinguished (corticate or not)

• The thallus is loosely attached to the substrate along the lower surface

(84)

• The thallus looks “shrub-like” and the branches can be erect or pendulous

• The thallus is more or less loosely attached to the substrate, on one or few attachment points

Fruticose lichens

(85)

Secondary thallus

= podetia holding

reproductive structures

(fungus) and/or vegetative

propagules (algae+fungus)

Squamulose lichens / complex thallus

Primary thallus made of

overlapping scales

(86)

Sexual reproduction [FUNGUS ALONE]

proper margin (no algae) = lecidein

no margin = biatorin

thallus margin (w. algae) = lecanorin

APOTHECIA

PERITHECIA

lirellate apothecia stalked apothecia

(87)

Soredia are small packets of fungal hyphae that ‘embrace’ some algae;

they emerge from cracks and are not surrounded by cortex. A ‘pack’

of soredia is called soralia

Isidia are small structures growing on the upper surface; they are

surrounded by cortex and leave a scar on the upper surface when they break off

Vegetative propagules [FUNGUS + ALGAE]

(88)

1.

Investigate at least ﬁve tree individuals, recording lichens on the trees

2.

Taking pictures of the representative lichens

3. Make a spreadsheet, chart and lichen pictures of your survey on a Word

參考網址

Assignment 3: lichens in a park

(89)

今日行程

❖ 上午三小時的課程、下午三小時的實習課（50分鐘上課、10分鐘休息）

❖ 作業一：實習課菇類特徵繪圖

❖ 作業二：孢子印製作

❖ 作業三：公園地衣調查

1. 三個作業請放在一個Word 檔，封面包含課程名稱、你的姓名、上課日期。

2. Word檔請以「學生姓名_真菌學」命名，如「黃尹則_真菌學.docx」

3. 請於2022年10月17日(星期一)晚間12點前寄到 ythuangmyco@gmail.com.

信件標題：中山高中資優課程_XXX作業。