師大
analysis
Tsung-Ming Huang
Department of Mathematics National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
August 28, 2011
1 / 37
師大
Outline
1 Round-off errors and computer arithmetic IEEE standard floating-point format
Absolute and Relative Errors Machine Epsilon
Loss of Significance
2 Algorithms and Convergence Algorithm
Stability
Rate of convergence
師大
Example 1
What is the binary representation of 23?
Solution: To determine the binary representation for 23, we write 2
3 = (0.a1a2a3. . .)2. Multiply by 2to obtain
4
3 = (a1.a2a3. . .)2.
Therefore, we get a1 = 1by taking the integer part of both sides.
3 / 37
師大
Subtracting 1, we have 1
3 = (0.a2a3a4. . .)2. Repeating the previous step, we arrive at
2
3 = (0.101010 . . .)2.
師大
In the computational world, each representable number has only afixedandfinitenumber of digits.
For any real number x, let
x = ±1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · × 2m,
denote the normalized scientific binary representation of x.
In 1985, the IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers) published a report called Binary Floating Point Arithmetic Standard 754-1985. In this report, formats were specified for single, double, and extended precisions, and these standards are generally followed by microcomputer manufactures using floating-point hardware.
5 / 37
師大
Single precision
The single precision IEEE standard floating-point format allocates 32 bits for the normalized floating-point number
±q × 2m as shown in the following figure.
23 bits sign of mantissa
normalized mantissa exponent
8 bits
0 1 8 9 31
Thefirst bitis asignindicator, denoted s. This is followed by an8-bit exponent cand a23-bit mantissa f.
The base for the exponent and mantissa is 2, and the actualexponent isc − 127. The value of c is restricted by the inequality 0 ≤ c ≤ 255.
師大
The actual exponent of the number is restricted by the inequality−127 ≤ c − 127 ≤ 128.
A normalization is imposed that requires that the leading digit in fraction be 1, and this digit is not stored as part of the 23-bit mantissa.
Using this system gives a floating-point number of the form (−1)s2c−127(1 + f ).
7 / 37
師大
Example 2
What is the decimal number of the machine number 01000000101000000000000000000000?
1 The leftmost bit is zero, which indicates that the number is positive.
2 The next 8 bits, 10000001, are equivalent to c = 1 · 27+ 0 · 26+ · · · + 0 · 21+ 1 · 20= 129.
The exponential part of the number is 2129−127= 22.
3 The final 23 bits specify that the mantissa is
f = 0 · (2)−1+ 1 · (2)−2+ 0 · (2)−3+ · · · + 0 · (2)−23= 0.25.
4 Consequently, this machine number precisely represents the decimal number
(−1)s2c−127(1 + f ) = 22· (1 + 0.25) = 5.
師大
Example 3
What is the decimal number of the machine number 01000000100111111111111111111111?
1 The final 23 bits specify that the mantissa is
f = 0 · (2)−1+ 0 · (2)−2+ 1 · (2)−3+ · · · + 1 · (2)−23
= 0.2499998807907105.
2 Consequently, this machine number precisely represents the decimal number
(−1)s2c−127(1 + f ) = 22· (1 + 0.2499998807907105)
= 4.999999523162842.
9 / 37
師大
Example 4
What is the decimal number of the machine number 01000000101000000000000000000001?
1 The final 23 bits specify that the mantissa is
f = 0 · 2−1+ 1 · 2−2+ 0 · 2−3+ · · · + 0 · 2−22+ 1 · 2−23
= 0.2500001192092896.
2 Consequently, this machine number precisely represents the decimal number
(−1)s2c−127(1 + f ) = 22· (1 + 0.2500001192092896)
= 5.000000476837158.
師大
Summary
Above three examples
01000000100111111111111111111111 ⇒ 4.999999523162842 01000000101000000000000000000000 ⇒ 5
01000000101000000000000000000001 ⇒ 5.000000476837158 Only a relativelysmall subsetof the real number system is used for the representation of all the real numbers.
This subset, which are called thefloating-point numbers, contains only rational numbers, both positive and negative.
When a number can not be represented exactly with the fixed finite number of digits in a computer, anear-by floating-point number is chosen for approximate representation.
11 / 37
師大
The smallest positive number
Let s = 0, c = 1 and f = 0 which is equivalent to 2−126· (1 + 0) ≈ 1.175 × 10−38 The largest number
Let s = 0, c = 254 and f = 1 − 2−23which is equivalent to 2127· (2 − 2−23) ≈ 3.403 × 1038
Definition 5
If a number x with |x| < 2−126· (1 + 0), then we say that an underflowhas occurred and is generally set to zero.
If |x| > 2127· (2 − 2−23), then we say that anoverflowhas occurred.
師大
Double precision
A floating point number in double precision IEEE standard format uses two words (64 bits) to store the number as shown in the following figure.
1 sign of mantissa
normalized mantissa exponent
52-bit mantissa 0 1
11-bit
11 12
63
Thefirstbit is a sign indicator, denoted s. This is followed by an11-bitexponent c and a52-bitmantissa f .
The actual exponent isc − 1023.
13 / 37
師大
Format of floating-point number
(−1)s× (1 + f ) × 2c−1023 The smallest positive number
Let s = 0, c = 1 and f = 0 which is equivalent to 2−1022· (1 + 0) ≈ 2.225 × 10−308. The largest number
Let s = 0, c = 2046 and f = 1 − 2−52which is equivalent to 21023· (2 − 2−52) ≈ 1.798 × 10308.
師大
Chopping and rounding
For any real number x, let
x = ±1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · × 2m,
denote the normalized scientific binary representation of x.
1 chopping: simply discard the excess bits at+1, at+2, . . .to obtain
f l(x) = ±1.a1a2· · · at× 2m.
2 rounding: add 2−(t+1)× 2m to x and then chop the excess bits to obtain a number of the form
f l(x) = ±1.δ1δ2· · · δt× 2m.
In this method, if at+1= 1, we add 1 to atto obtain f l(x), and if at+1 = 0, we merely chop off all but the first t digits.
15 / 37
師大
Definition 6 (Roundoff error)
The error results from replacing a number with its floating-point form is calledroundoff errororrounding error.
Definition 7 (Absolute Error and Relative Error)
If x is an approximation to the exact value x?, theabsolute error is|x?− x|and therelative erroris |x|x?−x|?| , provided that x? 6= 0.
Example 8
(a) If x = 0.3000 × 10−3and x∗ = 0.3100 × 10−3, then the absolute error is 0.1 × 10−4and the relative error is 0.3333 × 10−1.
(b) If x = 0.3000 × 104and x∗= 0.3100 × 104, then the absolute error is 0.1 × 103 and the relative error is 0.3333 × 10−1.
師大
Remark 1
As a measure of accuracy, the absolute error may be misleading and the relative error more meaningful.
Definition 9
The number x∗ is said to approximate x to tsignificant digitsif t is the largest nonnegative integer for which
|x − x∗|
|x| ≤ 5 × 10−t.
17 / 37
師大
If the floating-point representation f l(x) for the number x is obtained by using t digits and chopping procedure, then the relative error is
|x − f l(x)|
|x| = |0.00 · · · 0at+1at+2· · · × 2m|
|1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · × 2m|
= |0.at+1at+2· · · |
|1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · | × 2−t. The minimal value of the denominator is 1. The numerator is bounded above by 1. As a consequence
x − f l(x) x
≤ 2−t.
師大
If t-digit rounding arithmetic is used and
at+1= 0, then f l(x) = ±1.a1a2· · · at× 2m. A bound for the relative error is
|x − f l(x)|
|x| = |0.at+1at+2· · · |
|1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · | × 2−t≤ 2−(t+1), since the numerator is bounded above by 12 due to at+1= 0.
at+1= 1, then f l(x) = ±(1.a1a2· · · at+ 2−t) × 2m. The upper bound for relative error becomes
|x − f l(x)|
|x| = |1 − 0.at+1at+2· · · |
|1.a1a2· · · atat+1at+2· · · | × 2−t≤ 2−(t+1), since the numerator is bounded by 12due to at+1= 1.
Therefore the relative error for rounding arithmetic is
x − f l(x) x
≤ 2−(t+1)= 1 2× 2−t.
19 / 37
師大
Definition 10 (Machine epsilon)
The floating-point representation, f l(x), of x can be expressed as
f l(x) = x(1 + δ), |δ| ≤ εM, (1) whereεM ≡ 2−t is referred to as theunit roundoff erroror machine epsilon.
Single precision IEEE standard floating-point format The mantissa f corresponds to 23 binary digits (i.e., t = 23), the machine epsilon is
εM = 2−23≈ 1.192 × 10−7.
This approximately corresponds to6accurate decimal digits
師大
Double precision IEEE standard floating-point format The mantissa f corresponds to 52 binary digits (i.e., t = 52), the machine epsilon is
εM = 2−52≈ 2.220 × 10−16.
which provides between15and16decimal digits of accuracy.
Summary of IEEE standard floating-point format
single precision double precision
εM 1.192 × 10−7 2.220 × 10−16
smallest positive number 1.175 × 10−38 2.225 × 10−308 largest number 3.403 × 1038 1.798 × 10308
decimal precision 6 15
21 / 37
師大
Let stand for any one of the four basic arithmetic operators +, −, ?, ÷.
Whenever twomachine numbersxand y are to be combined arithmetically, the computer will produce f l(x y)instead of x y.
Under (1), the relative error of f l(x y) satisfies
f l(x y) = (x y)(1 + δ), δ ≤ εM, (2)
where εM is the unit roundoff.
But if x, y arenotmachine numbers, then they must first rounded to floating-point format before the arithmetic operation and the resulting relative error becomes
f l(f l(x) f l(y)) = (x(1 + δ1) y(1 + δ2))(1 + δ3),
where δi ≤ εM, i = 1, 2, 3.
師大
Example
Let x = 0.54617 and y = 0.54601. Using rounding and four-digit arithmetic, then
x∗= f l(x) = 0.5462is accurate tofoursignificant digits since
|x − x∗|
|x| = 0.00003
0.54617 = 5.5 × 10−5 ≤ 5 × 10−4. y∗ = f l(y) = 0.5460is accurate tofivesignificant digits since
|y − y∗|
|y| = 0.00001
0.54601 = 1.8 × 10−5≤ 5 × 10−5.
23 / 37
師大
The exact value of subtraction is r = x − y = 0.00016.
But
r∗≡ x y = f l(f l(x) − f l(y)) = 0.0002.
Since
|r − r∗|
|r| = 0.25 ≤ 5 × 10−1 the result has onlyonesignificant digit.
Loss of accuracy
師大
Loss of Significance
One of the most common error-producing calculations involves the cancellation of significant digits due to the subtraction of nearly equal numbersor theaddition of one very large number and one very small number.
Sometimes, loss of significance can be avoided by rewriting the mathematical formula.
Example 11
The quadratic formulas for computing the roots of ax2+ bx + c = 0, when a 6= 0, are
x1= −b +√
b2− 4ac
2a and x2= −b −√
b2− 4ac
2a .
Consider the quadratic equationx2+ 62.10x + 1 = 0and discuss the numerical results.
25 / 37
師大
Solution
Using the quadratic formula and 8-digit rounding arithmetic, one can obtain
x1 = −0.01610723 and x2 = −62.08390.
Now we perform the calculations with 4-digit rounding arithmetic. First we have
pb2− 4ac =p
62.102− 4.000 =√
3856 − 4.000 = 62.06, and
f l(x1) = −62.10 + 62.06
2.000 = −0.04000
2.000 = −0.02000.
|f l(x1) − x1|
|x1| = | − 0.02000 + 0.01610723|
| − 0.01610723| ≈ 0.2417 ≤ 5×10−1.
師大
In calculating x2,
f l(x2) = −62.10 − 62.06
2.000 = −124.2
2.000 = −62.10,
|f l(x2) − x2|
|x2| = | − 62.10 + 62.08390|
| − 62.08390| ≈ 0.259×10−3 ≤ 5×10−4. In this equation, b2 = 62.102is much larger than 4ac = 4.
Hence b and√
b2− 4ac become two nearly equal numbers.
The calculation of x1 involves the subtraction of two nearly equal numbers.
To obtain a more accurate 4-digit rounding approximation for x1, we change the formulation by rationalizing the numerator, that is,
x1 = −2c b +√
b2− 4ac.
27 / 37
師大
Then
f l(x1) = −2.000
62.10 + 62.06 = −2.000
124.2 = −0.01610.
The relative error in computing x1 is now reduced to 6.2 × 10−4
Example 12 Let
p(x) = x3− 3x2+ 3x − 1, q(x) = ((x − 3)x + 3)x − 1.
Compare the function values at x = 2.19 with using three-digit arithmetic.
師大
Solution
Use 3-digit and rounding for p(2.19) and q(2.19).
ˆ
p(2.19) = ((2.193− 3 × 2.192) + 3 × 2.19) − 1
= ((10.5 − 14.4) + 3 × 2.19) − 1
= (−3.9 + 6.57) − 1
= 2.67 − 1 = 1.67 and
ˆ
q(2.19) = ((2.19 − 3) × 2.19 + 3) × 2.19 − 1
= (−0.81 × 2.19 + 3) × 2.19 − 1
= (−1.77 + 3) × 2.19 − 1
= 1.23 × 2.19 − 1
= 2.69 − 1 = 1.69.
29 / 37
師大
With more digits, one can have
p(2.19) = g(2.19) = 1.685159
|p(2.19) − ˆp(2.19)| = 0.015159 and
|q(2.19) − ˆq(2.19)| = 0.004841, respectively. q(x) is better than p(x).
師大
Definition 13 (Algorithm)
Analgorithmis a procedure that describes a finite sequence of steps to be performed in a specified order.
Example 14
Give an algorithm to computePn
i=1xi, where n and x1, x2, . . . , xnare given.
Algorithm
INPUT n, x1, x2, . . . , xn. OUTPUT SU M =Pn
i=1xi.
Step 1. Set SU M = 0. (Initialize accumulator.) Step 2. For i = 1, 2, . . . , n do
Set SU M = SU M + xi. (Add the next term.) Step 3. OUTPUT SU M ;
STOP
31 / 37
師大
Definition 15 (Stable)
An algorithm is called stable ifsmallchanges in the initial data of the algorithm produce correspondinglysmallchanges in the final results.
Definition 16 (Unstable)
An algorithm is unstable if small errors made at one stage of the algorithm are magnified and propagated in subsequent stages and seriously degrade the accuracy of the overall calculation.
Remark
Whether an algorithm is stable or unstable should be decided on the basis of relative error.
師大
Example 17
Consider the following recurrence algorithm
x0= 1, x1 = 13 xn+1= 133 xn−43xn−1
for computing the sequence of {xn= (13)n}. This algorithm is unstable.
A Matlab implementation of the recurrence algorithm gives the following result.
33 / 37
師大
n xn x∗n RelErr
8 4.57247371e-04 4.57247371e-04 4.4359e-10 10 5.08052602e-05 5.08052634e-05 6.3878e-08 12 5.64497734e-06 5.64502927e-06 9.1984e-06 14 6.26394672e-07 6.27225474e-07 1.3246e-03 15 2.05751947e-07 2.09075158e-07 1.5895e-02 16 5.63988754e-08 6.96917194e-08 1.9074e-01 17 -2.99408028e-08 2.32305731e-08 2.2889e+00 The error present in xnis multiplied by 133 in computing xn+1. For example, the error will be propagated with a factor of 13314
in computing x15. Additional roundoff errors in computing x2, x3, . . .may also be propagated and added to that of x15.
師大
Matlab program n = 30;
x = zeros(n,1);
x(1) = 1;
x(2) = 1/3;
for ii = 3:n
x(ii) = 13 / 3 * x(ii-1) - 4 / 3 * x(ii-2);
xn = (1/3)ˆ(ii-1);
RelErr = abs(xn-x(ii)) / xn;
fprintf(’x(%2.0f) = %20.8d, x ast(%2.0f) = %20.8d,’, ...
’RelErr(%2.0f) = %14.4d \n’, ii,x(ii),ii,xn,ii,RelErr);
end
35 / 37
師大
Definition 18
Suppose{βn} → 0and{xn} → x∗. If∃ c > 0and an integer N > 0such that
|xn− x∗| ≤ c|βn|, ∀ n ≥ N,
then we say{xn}convergestox∗ withrate of convergence O(βn), and writexn= x∗+ O(βn).
Example 19
Compare the convergence behavior of {xn} and {yn}, where xn= n + 1
n2 , and yn= n + 3 n3 .
師大
Solution:
Note that both
n→∞lim xn= 0 and lim
n→∞yn= 0.
Let αn= n1 and βn= n12. Then
|xn− 0| = n + 1
n2 ≤ n + n n2 = 2
n = 2αn,
|yn− 0| = n + 3
n3 ≤ n + 3n n3 = 4
n2 = 4βn. Hence
xn= 0 + O(1
n) and yn= 0 + O( 1 n2).
This shows that {yn} converges to 0 much faster than {xn}.
37 / 37
