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Forum of Educational Administration June 2011, Volume 3 Number 1, pp. 1-30

Managerial Spirit of Confucius

Ching-Dar Lin Yu-Hsing Liu

Abstract

The Confucian belief forms the quintessence of Chinese culture for the last two thousand years and the Confucius is the most representative personage and characterization. The fundamental thought of Confucius focuses on the philosophy of self-management and disciplined governance. Based on the methodology of literature reviews, this study utilizes a cross-culture comparison to analyze the managerial spirit of Confucius. After the combination of eastern and western managerial comprehension, this study generalizes the most important principles of efficient management, including administrative ethics, systematic guidance, responsible authority, divisible specialization, personnel superintendence, authentic leadership, fitting humanization, introspective feedback, healthy relationship, career planning, beneficial competition, and customer orientation, in order to further recognize the Confucianism from the various angles and viewpoints.

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於政策的執行,就不會因人而異,造成令出多門,讓部屬無所適從。Jones(2005) 亦認為,這些制度與規範並不是牢不可破的,企業領導者也應該隨時準備接受 改變的制度與規範,減少凡事但求穩定的價值觀,因為制度的建立與執行對組 織發展至為重要。

三、權責相符原則

企業經營亦需要團隊合作與學習,越有規模、經營越成功的企業幾乎沒有 是可以個人獨力完成。權威是和責任相對的。權利是主管的命令權和要求部屬 服從指揮權,各階層主管有多少權威就要負多少責任。也就是說企業賦予一個 人多少權力,就要求個人負擔多少義務,這也是中國傳統的特色(葉蓬,1999; 劉長林,1997;Fayol, 1949)。在孔子的管理觀念之中,權力和義務是相對等。 孔子對於權力的分配,也就是在授權與分權方面,他認為要做到「勞心者役人, 勞力者役餘人」《論語、為政篇》,要讓有智慧、有能力的人專心從事設計與規 劃重要方案,然後才讓部屬負責去執行;至於基層較無特殊專業知能之人,則 須誠心接受管理,這是一種具有現代管理分工與分權之表現,如果一個組織能 夠做到分工,人人各司其責,那麼單位主管便可以專心投入規劃與決策工作。 「為君譬如北辰,眾星拱之」《論語、為政篇》,倘若一個企業的領導者,其道 德、能力和操守都能為部屬所肯定,他的領導方式和處事原則亦都能為部屬所 認同,即會使這位主管在組織內的地位像北極星一般,是部屬所景仰,也是部 屬爭著學習的對象。 從企業的角度而言,職權是企業賴以建立之法治與文化基礎的合法權力, 也是企業正常運作最基本的權力來源(Weber, 1947)。而主管權力的大小端視 企業的屬性與董事會要求,賦權給部屬有助於鼓勵部屬承擔更大之責任,更能 為企業創造價值(Conger & Kanungo, 1988)。一般而言,分權給部屬並不會損 及主管之權力,因為部屬所做任何決策之結果,主管都必須要全權負責與概括 承受(Jones, 2005)。

四、專業與分工原則

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是做事方面可能並不腳踏實地。 企業有時基於業務需要,除口試外還會要求應徵者參與現場實務操作,藉 此可以「視其所以,觀其所由,察其所安,人焉廋哉!人焉廋哉!」《論語、 為政篇》,任何一個來應考的人在短時間面試與實務操作的過程中,其所表現 的言行舉止、態度、與氣象,在有經驗的面試委員面前常可好壞立判,將可增 加用人的可信度。 經過嚴格遴選而錄用的新進人員,進入組織之後,一定要實施職前訓練, 一方面可以增進其專業知能,並可就近觀察其是否「言忠信,行篤敬」《論語. 衛靈公篇》,是否做事認真、守信用又具備實踐能力。對於這樣有能力又有操 守的人員,一定要加以重用,以讓人能盡其才。縱使是自己的親戚,或是外人, 都須給予同樣之機會,不必刻意迴避,此乃所謂的「內舉不避其親,外舉不避 嫌」。又如果能夠將有能力之部屬安排在最適當的位置必能發揮其所長,必能 為組織創造最大之利益。企業之內各種人才都有,不要「因人廢言,因言而廢 人」,因為「故天之生物,必因其材而篤焉」。爰此,人才之栽培訓練對組織發 展是非常重要,只要加以訓練,人人都能夠成為該領域的專才。以上幾點和 Taylor(1903)的四項科學管理原則以及 Fayol(1949)的十四項管理原則之 論點極其相似,他們兩人皆認同為了增加企業的產能與效率,必須要做到專業 分工、員工訓練,並將最適當的人放在最適當的位置,以發揮其所長,增進企 業之效能。

六、領導原則

領導即是領導者要如何讓其部屬動起來,而且能夠有效率地完成單位目 標。當然要完成組織目標是一件複雜的團體動力互動合作之結果,亦是一個複 雜的統合歷程。領導的結果也常和人的因素、時空環境有所不同。不同的主管, 不同的組織份子、不同的環境、不同的時、空間因素、不同領導者的性格、不 同的領導風格,其結果亦必然是不一樣(Brungardt, 1996; Brungardt, Moore, & Potts, 1997; Scharmer, 2009; Taylor, 1903)。主管在一個單位做得相當成功之 後,也不能保證在往後的歲月裡皆能繼續成功下去(Bass & Bass, 2008; Bennis,

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(Jones, 2005)。然而,最簡單的意義即是,要如何讓你的部屬樂意幫你做事, 並有效率地把事情做好的一個歷程(Young, 2009; Yukl, 2006)。

領導是企業經營的五大機能之一,自五○年代起,有關領導的研究漸多 (Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill & Coons, 1957)。五十年來,有關領導的研究仍相當 鼎盛(Burns, 2004; Daloz Parks, 2005; Doh, 2003; Hollander, 1981; McGregor, 1966; Mintzberg, 1973; Carter, 2004; Rost & Baker, 2000; Scharmer, 2009)。簡言 之,「領導」二字分開詮釋,其中「領」即是在知能方面要能領先你的部屬;「導」 即是要能因勢利導、引導你的部屬進行組織之運作(Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005)。

在領導內涵的解釋上,不同的單位,不同的主管,不同的部屬對領導的行 為有著不同的解讀,但是其本意與目的就是主管要影響部屬,達到單位目標為 目的(Goethals, Sorenson, & Burns, 2004)。同一個單位,不同的領導者,其領 導的結果是不一樣的,為什麼有的領導者在任內輕鬆愉快、政通人和;而換了 一個新的主管之後,整個組織氣氛大變,政不通人不和,而遭到撤換的地步, 根究其原因,當然和主管的領導有密切的關係。可見企業決定成功的關鍵因素 之一就是領導(Carter, 2004; Rost & Baker, 2000)。

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