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Dr. Charles Kwong
School of Arts and Social Sciences The Open University of Hong Kong
Macroeconomics Series (3):
Economic Growth and Development
y Define clearly the concept of economic growth and development (Economic growth can simply be defined as a rise in GDP or GDP per capital. Economic development is a broad concept encompassing economic growth and other developmental dimensions. It can be defined as “a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structure, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of
Teaching Tips:
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z Tell student why we concern economic growth and development (about 3 billion of population is in a state of underdevelopment. The world population is about 6.8 billion in 2009).
z Use empirical data and cases as far as possible to illustrate your discussion.
Teaching Tips:
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z Change in real GDP
z Change in real GDP per capita
Real GDP per capita: A measure of living standard
Real GDP per worker: A measure of productivity
z Human Development Index: A comprehensive measure of socioeconomic development
Human Development Index (HDI) is developed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to analyze systematically and comprehensively the comparative status of socioeconomic development in different countries.
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The HDI attempts to rank all countries on a scale of 0 (lowest human development) to 1 (highest human development) based on three goals or end products of development:
1. longevity as measured by life expectancy at birth;
2. knowledge as measured by a weighted average of adult literacy (two‐
thirds) and mean years of schooling (one‐third), and
3. standard of living as measured by real per capita gross domestic product adjusted for the differing purchasing power parity (PPP) of each country’s currency to reflect cost of living and for the assumption of diminishing marginal utility of income (well‐‐being increases with income but at a decreasing rate).
Using these three measures of development and
applying a formula to data for 177 countries, the HDI
ranks countries into three groups: low human
de‐velopment (0.0 to 0.499), medium human
development (0.50 to 0.799), and high human
development (0.80 to 1.0).
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Income Index
adjusted income is found by simply taking the natural log of current income. Then, to find the income index, one subtracts the natural log of 100 from the natural log of current income.
Real per capita income could not possibly have been less than
$100 PPP. The difference gives the amount by which the country has exceeded this “lower goalpost.”
Income Index
To put this achievement in perspective, consider it in relation to the maximum that a country could reasonably aspire to over the coming generation. The UNDP takes this at $40,000 PPP. So we then divide by the difference between the log of $40,000 and the log of $100 to find the country’s relative income achievement. This gives each country an index number that ranges between 0 and 1. For example, for the case of Bangladesh, whose 2004 PPP GDP per capita was $1,870, the income index is calculated as follows:
Income index = [log (1,870) ‐log(100)]
= 0.49
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Income Index
With a value of the income index about midway through the maximum and minimum points (0.49 is close to 0.5), for the case of Bangladesh, it indicates that income of $1,870, which is already enough to reach nearly halfway to the maximum value that the index can take.
Life expectancy Index
To find the life expectancy (health proxy) index, the UNDP starts with a country’s current life expectancy at birth and subtracts 25 years. The latter is the lower goalpost, the lowest that life expectancy could have been in any country over the last generation.
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Life expectancy Index
Then the UNDP divides the result by 85 years minus 25 years, or 60 years, which represents the range of life expectancies expected over the previous and next generations. That is, it is anticipated that 85 years is a maximum reasonable life expectancy for a country to try to achieve over the coming gener‐ation. For example, for the case of Bangladesh, whose population life expectancy in 2004 was 63.3 years, the life expectancy index is calculated as, follows:
Life expectancy Index = 63.3 ‐ 25
= 0.64 85 ‐ 25
(4.2)
Adult Literacy Index
The education index is made up of two parts, with two‐thirds weight on literacy and one‐third weight on school enrollment.
Because gross school enrollments can exceed 100% (because of older students going back to school), this index is also capped at 100%. For the case of Bangladesh, adult lit‐eracy is estimated (rather uncertainly) at 41 %, so
Adult Literacy Index = 41.0 ‐ 0
= 0.41 100 ‐ 0
(4.3)
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Adult Literacy Index
For the gross enrollment index, Bangladesh estimates that 57%
of its primary, secondary, and tertiary age population are enrolled in school, so the country receives the following value:
Gross enrollment index = 57 ‐ 0 = 0.57 100 ‐ 0
(4.4)
Adult Literacy Index
Then, to get the overall education index, the adult literacy index is multiplied by two‐thirds and the gross enrollment index is multiplied by one‐third. This choice reflects the view that literacy is the fundamental characteristic of an educated per‐son. In the case of Bangladesh, this gives us
(4.5) Education
index = 2 (adult literacy index) + 1 (gross enrollment index)
3 3
= 2 (0.41) + 1 (0.57) = 0.46
3 3
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Final Index
In the final index, each of the three components receives equal, or one‐third, weight. Thus
HDI = 1 (income index) +
1 (life expectancy index) +
1 (education index)
3 3 3
HDI = 1
(0.49) + 1
(0.64) + 1
(0.46) = 0.53
3 3 3
For the case of Bangladesh,
(4.6)
(4.7)
Advantages of HDI
One major advantage of the HDI is that it does reveal that a country can do much better than might be expected at a low level of income and that substantial income gains can still accomplish relatively little in human development.
Further, the HDI points out clearly that disparities in income are greater than disparities in other indicators of development, at least health and education measures. Moreover, the HDI reminds us that by development we clearly mean broad human development, not just higher income. Many countries, such as some of the higher‐income oil producers, have been said to have experienced “growth without development.”
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Advantages of HDI
Health and education are inputs into the national production function in their role as components of human capital, meaning productive investments embodied in persons. Improvements in health and education are also important development goals in their own right.
We cannot easily argue that a nation of high‐income individuals who are not well educated and suffer from significant health problems that lead to their living much shorter lives than others around the globe has achieved a higher level of development than a low‐income country with high life expectancy and wide‐spread literacy. A better indicator of development disparities and rankings might be found by including health and education variables in a weighted welfare measure rather than by simply looking at income levels, and the HDI offers one very useful way to get at this.
Criticisms of the HDI
One is that gross enrollment in many cases overstates the amount of schooling because in many countries a student who begins primary school is counted as enrolled without considering whether the student drops out at some stage.
Equal (one‐third) weight is given to each of the three components, which clearly has some value judgment behind it, but it is difficult to determine what this is. Note that because the variables are measured in very different types of units, it is difficult even to say precisely what equal weights mean.
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Criticisms of the HDI
Finally, there is no attention to the role of quality. For example, there is a big difference between an extra year of life as a healthy, well‐functioning individual and an extra year with a sharply limited range of capabilities (such as being confined to bed). Moreover, the quality of schooling counts, not just the number of years of enrollment. Finally, it should be noted that while one could imagine better proxies for health and education, measures for these variables were chosen partly on the criterion that sufficient data must be available to include as many countries as possible.
Some further remarks
Table 2.4 shows the Human Development Index 2004 data for a sample of 25 developed and developing nations ranked from low to high human development (column 3) along with their respective real GDP per capita (column 4) and a measure of the differential between the GDP per capita rank and the HDI rank (column 5).
Clearly, this is one of the critical issues for the HDI. If country rankings did not vary much when the HDI is used instead of GDP per capita, the latter would serve as a reliable proxy for socioeconomic development, and there would be no need to worry about such things as health and education indicators.
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Some further remarks
We see from Table 2.4 that the country with the lowest HDI (0.311) in 2004 was Niger, and the one with the highest (0.965) was Norway.
It should be stressed that in the big picture, the HDI has a strong tendency to rise with per capita income,as wealthier countries can invest more in health and education, and this added human capital raises productivity. But what is so striking is that despite this expected pattern, there is still such great variation between income and broader measures of well‐being. For example, Guinea and Nigeria have essentially the same average HDI despite the fact that real income is 89% higher in Guinea.
Some further remarks
Many countries have an HDI significantly different from that predicted by their income. South Africa is a dramatic case: with an HDI of 0.653, it ranks just number 121. The GDP ranking of South Africa is 55 (i.e. 55‐121 = ‐66). Despite a somewhat lower income than South Africa, Chile ranks number 38 with an HDI of 0.859, well above that predicted on the basis of its income.
Chile’s GDP ranking is 56 (i.e. 56‐38 = 18).
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Some further remarks
South Africa 121 0.653 11,192 -66
Chile 38 0.859 10,874 +18
Human Development Index for 23 Selected Countries (2004 Data)
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2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
A. Why Productivity Is So Important 1. Example: Robinson Crusoe
a. Because he is stranded alone, he must catch his own fish, grow his own vegetables, and make his own clothes.
b. His standard of living depends on his ability to produce goods and services.
2. Definition of productivity: the amount of goods and services produced for each hour of a worker’s time.
3. A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services.
2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
B. How Productivity Is Determined 1. Physical Capital
a. Definition of physical capital: the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.
b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has more fishing poles.
2. Human Capital
a. Definition of human capital: the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.
b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has been trained in
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2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
B. How Productivity Is Determined 3. Natural Resources
a. Definition of natural resources: the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits.
b. Example: Crusoe will have better luck catching fish if there is a plentiful supply around his island.
c. Are Natural Resources a Limit to Growth? Empirical evidence points out that as the population has grown over time, we have discovered ways to lower our use of natural resources. Thus, some economists are not so worried about shortages of natural resources.
2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
B. How Productivity Is Determined 4. Technological Knowledge
a. Definition of technological knowledge: society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.
b. Example: Crusoe will catch more fish if he has invented a better fishing lure.
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2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
C. For Teachers Only: The Production Function 1. A production function describes the relationship
between the quantity of inputs used in production and the quantity of output from production.
2. The production function generally is written like this:
where Y output, L quantity of labor, K quantity of physical capital, H quantity of human capital, N quantity of natural resources, Areflects the available production technology, and F is a function that shows how inputs are combined to produce output.
Y = A F(L, K, H, N)
2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
C. For Teachers Only: The Production Function 3. Many production functions have a property called
constant returns to scale.
a. This property implies that as all inputs are doubled, output exactly double.
b. This implies twill hat the following must be true:
where x 2 if inputs are doubled.
xY = A F(xL, xK, xH, xN)
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2.1 Productivity: Its Role and Determinants
C. For Teachers Only: The Production Function
c. This also means that if we want to examine output per worker we could set x 1/L and we would get the following:
This shows that output per worker depends on the amount of physical capital per worker K/L , the amount of human capital per worker H/L , and the amount of natural resources per worker N/L .
Y/L = A F(1, K/L, H/L, N/L)
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
A. The Importance of Saving and Investment
1. Because capital is a produced factor of production, a society can change the amount of capital that it has.
2. However, there is an opportunity cost of doing so; if resources are used to produce capital goods, fewer goods and services are produced for current consumption.
Figure 1
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
A. The Importance of Saving and Investment 3. Figure 1 shows economic growth rates and
investment amounts of 15 countries for 1960 to 1991.
a. Countries that devote a large share of GDP to investment tend to have high growth rates.
b. However, from the data given it is difficult to determine cause and effect.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
B. Diminishing Returns and the Catch‐Up Effect
1. Definition of diminishing returns: the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.
a. As the capital stock rises, the extra output produced from an additional unit of capital will fall.
b. Thus, if workers already have a large amount of capital to work with, giving them an additional unit of capital will not increase their productivity by much.
c. In the long run, a higher saving rate leads to a higher level of productivity and income, but not to higher growth rates in
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
B. Diminishing Returns and the Catch‐Up Effect
2. An important implication of diminishing returns is the Catch‐Up Effect.
a. Definition of catch‐up effect: the property whereby countries that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich.
b. When workers have very little capital to begin with, an additional unit of capital will increase their productivity by a great deal.
c. This helps explain why referring to Figure 1 South Korea had a growth rate more than three times larger than the United States even though both countries devoted a similar share of GDP to investment.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
C. Investment from Abroad
1. Saving by domestic residents is not the only way for a country to invest in new capital.
2. Investment in the country by foreigners can also occur e.g. China .
a. Foreign direct investment occurs when a capital investment is owned and operated by a foreign entity.
b. Foreign portfolio investment occurs when a capital
investment is financed with foreign money but operated by domestic residents.
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
C. Investment from Abroad
3. Some of the benefits of foreign investment flow back to foreign owners. But the economy still experiences an increase in the capital stock, which leads to higher productivity and higher wages.
4. The World Bank is an organization that tries to encourage the flow of investment to poor countries.
a. The World Bank obtains funds from developed countries such as the United States and makes loans to less‐developed countries so that they can invest in roads, sewer systems, schools, and other types of capital.
b. The World Bank also offers these countries advice on how best to use these funds.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
D. Education
1. Investment in human capital also has an opportunity cost.
a. When students are in class, they cannot be producing goods and services for consumption.
b. In less‐developed countries, this opportunity cost is considered to be high; as a result, children often drop out of school at a young age.
2. Because there are positive externalities in education, the effect of lower education on the economic growth rate of a country can be large.
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
D. Education
4. In the News: Promoting Human Capital
a.Many young children in less‐developed countries work because their families need the income.
b.Gary Becker has proposed that the governments of these countries pay families to send their children to school rather than to work. The government should provide financial support to the parents who allow their children to attend school regularly.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
E. Property Rights and Political Stability
1. Protection of property rights and promotion of political stability are two other important ways that policymakers can improve economic growth.
2. There is little incentive to produce products if there is no guarantee that they cannot be taken. Contracts must also be enforced.
3. Countries with questionable enforcement of property rights or an unstable political climate will also have difficulty in attracting foreign or even domestic
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
F. Free Trade
1. Some countries have tried to achieve faster economic growth by avoiding transacting with the rest of the world.
2. However, we know that trade allows a country to specialize in what it does best and thus consume beyond its production possibilities.
3. When a country trades wheat for steel, it is as well off as it would be if it had developed a new technology for turning wheat into steel.
4. The amount a nation trades is determined not only by government policy but also by geography.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
G. Research and Development
1. The primary reason why living standards have improved over time has been due to large increases in
technological knowledge.
2. Knowledge can be considered to be a public good.
3. Most governments in developed countries promotes the creation of new technological information by providing research grants and providing tax incentives for firms engaged in research.
4. The patent system also encourages research by granting
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
G. Research and Development
5. Case Study: The Productivity Slowdown and Speedup a. From 1959 to 1973, output per hour worked grew at a rate of
3.2 percent per year. From 1973 to 1995, productivity grew by only 1.5 percent per year. Productivity accelerated again in 1995, growing by 2.6 percent per year over the next six years.
b. The causes of the changes in productivity growth are elusive.
c. It does not appear that this slowdown can be blamed on decreases in physical capital or human capital.
d. Many economists believe that these changes have occurred as a result of changes in the amount of technological innovation.
e. Figure 2 shows the average growth of real GDP per person in the developed world since 1870.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
G. Research and Development
Figure 2
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
H. Population Growth
1. Stretching Natural Resources
a.Thomas Malthus an English minister and early economic thinker argued that an ever‐increasing population meant that the world was doomed to live in poverty forever.
b.However, he failed to understand that new ideas would be developed to increase the production of food and other goods, including pesticides, fertilizers, mechanized equipment, and new crop varieties.
2. Diluting the Capital Stock
a.High population growth reduces GDP per worker because rapid growth in the number of workers forces the capital stock to be spread more thinly.
b.Countries with a high population growth have large numbers of school‐age children, placing a burden on the education system.
2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
H. Population Growth
3. Some countries have already instituted measures to reduce population growth rates.
4. Policies that foster equal treatment for women should raise economic opportunities for women leading to lower rates of population.
5. Promoting Technological Progress
a. Some economists have suggested that population growth has driven technological progress and economic
prosperity.
b. In a 1993 journal article, economist Michael Kremer
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2.2 Economic Growth and Public Policy
I. The Sachs Solution to the African Problem
1. This is an article that economist Jeffrey Sachs wrote for The Economist 29 June 1996 .
2. Sachs points out that four factors can account for Africa’s low growth rates:
a. Trade barriers b. Excessive tax rates c. Low savings rates
d. Adverse geographic and resource structural conditions especially the high incidence of inaccessibility to the sea
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3.1 Trade-off between current and future consumption 3.2 Income distribution
• Consider two cases: Country A has 100 people and each of them earns annual incomes of $50,000 and the GDP of Country A is $5 million.
Country B also has 100 people and 10 of them earn annual income of
$500,000 and 90 suffer from possessing nothing. Which country have is better off?
• A choice between equity and efficiency
3.3 Resources exhaustion, pollution and sustainable development
• Sustainability refers to the balance economic growth and environment preservation. In economic terms, it is a balance between current and future economic growth.
• Sustainability emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the needs of current generation without compromising the needs of future generation.
• Another embedded meaning of sustainability is that the stock of overall assets should remain constant or rises over time.
3.4 GDP and economic well-being: shortcomings of the GDP?
• GDP measures both an economy’s total income and its total expenditure on goods and services.
• GDP per person tells us the income and expenditure level of the average person in the economy.
• GDP, however, may not be a very good measure of the economic well-being of an individual.
1. GDP omits important factors in the quality of life including leisure, the quality of the environment, and the value of goods produced but not sold in formal markets.
2. GDP also says nothing about the distribution of income.
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3.5 Case Study: International differences in GDP and the quality of life
1. Table 3 shows real GDP per person, life expectancy, adult literacy rates, and Internet usage for 12 countries.
2. In rich countries, life expectancy is higher and adult literacy and Internet usage rates are also high.
3. In poor countries, people typically live only into their 50s, only about half of the adult population is literate, and Internet usage is very rare.
GDP and the Quality of Life
The table shows GDP per person and three other measures of the quality of life for twelve major countries
Source: Human Development Report 2004, United Nations
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4.1 Catching up or not?
z Some newly industrializing countries (NICs), such as Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, recorded spectacular growth.
z The following table records the growth from 1973 to 1996, the year preceding the Asian financial crisis that started in 1997. In this table, you can see the average annual growth rate of the East Asian NICs was much higher than that of the industrialized countries in the West. Let me list the figures of some selected countries to illustrate the point.
4.1 Catching up or not?
Table 4.1 Annual growth rates for selected countries
Economy Annual growth (average) (percent)
Singapore 6.1
Hong Kong 5.1
China 5.4
S Korea 6.8
Indonesia 3.6
Thailand 5.6
Malaysia 4.0
Japan 2.5
USA 1.6
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4.1 Catching up or not?
z In the above table, Taiwan was not listed. From 1980 to 1990, the average annual GDP growth rate of Taiwan was 7.9%, so Taiwan’s growth rate was at least on a par with, if not greater than, the other East Asian NICs. You should note that the growth rate used for Taiwan was in GDP, not GNP. Although these measures are slightly different, we’ll treat them as roughly equivalent for our purposes here. Also, the period used for Taiwan was from 1980 to 1990, not 1973 to 1996, but it is still indicative of Taiwan’s overall economic growth.
Japan’s lower growth rate was due to its economic problems that started in 1990 and in fact still continue.
4.1 Catching up or not?
z South Korea and Singapore had about the same real GDP per capita as Sri Lanka and Bangladesh in 1960, but South Korea and Singapore surged ahead with higher growth rate over the next 30 years and Sri Lanka and Bangladesh lag far behind.
z However, for most of the developing countries, no clear evidence shows that low-income countries fall in the tendency of catching up.
z Then, why do some countries can achieve more rapid growth?
¾ The figure plots real GDP per capita in 1960 against growth in real GDP from 1960 to 2000 for several advanced countries.
¾ It is noted that richer countries, such as the US, grew slower than less rich countries such as Japan, Ireland, and Spain.
• 4.1 Catching up or not?
• Catch up in more advanced countries
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• 4.1 Catching up or not?
• Catch up in more advanced countries
Evidence of Catch-up in More Advanced Countries, 1960-2000
For the advanced countries shown in the diagram, GDP per capita growth has been more rapid for those that started from a lower level of GDP per capita. Thus, there has been catching up, as shown by the catch-up line drawn through the points.
• 4.1 Catching up or not?
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• Catch‐up in the Whole World
¾ Figure 4 includes both DCs and LCDs.
¾ Very low income countries, such as Bangladesh and Ethiopia, demonstrate very slow growth rate. Some high income region/countries such as Hong Kong and South Korea are also countries of high growth rates.
• 4.1 Catching up or not?
• Catch‐up in the Whole World
Lack of Catch-up for Developing Countires, 1960-2000
Unlike the states in the United States or the advanced countries, there has been little tendency for poor countries to grow more rapidly than rich countries. The gap between rich and poor has not closed.
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4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs
1.Import-substituting industrialization (ISI)
The theoretical foundation of import substitution as a measure of industrialization may have first come from the ‘development economists’ in the 1940s and 1950s. Raul Prebisch of the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) under the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations is one of its representatives. These development economists felt that the LDCs were lagging far behind and there was no way for them to compete with the developed countries in trade unless international organizations and major industrial countries took extraordinary measures to help them. The only other way for developing countries was to hide behind a protective tariff and develop their own industry (Gilpin 2001, 308).
4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs 2.Export-oriented industrialization
The adoption of export-oriented industrial policy by the East Asian countries in the 1960s coincided with an explosion of world trade at that time. The GATT, which was established in 1948 to promote free trade, began bearing fruit. So the timing of the shift to EOI by these countries was just right. There are other reasons for these countries adopting the EOI policy. With the exception of South Korea, the other East Asian Dragons, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore, do not have large domestic markets. They have to export. Furthermore, there was great influence from the
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4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs 3. Foreign exchange rates
The manipulation of foreign exchange rates alluded to above is also an important policy some governments use to promote economic development. Developing countries are typically short of foreign currencies earned via exchange. They have to use it prudently. It is not uncommon for such countries to have two rates for foreign exchange. One is the official rate set by the government. The other is largely determined by market forces. The Central Bank of Taiwan, to take an example, introduced above, set two rates: one for imports and another for exports. For imports (usually raw materials, equipment, machines needed for productive enterprises), the rate was set higher, so that less foreign exchange would be spent. For exports, it was set lower. This was intended to make Taiwanese products more competitive in the world market.
4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs
4. Foreign direct investment (FDI) and technology transfers Developing countries lack both capital and technology, and
developed countries can provide both.
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4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs 5. Export processing zones
In this approach, a government identifies — after considering geography, marketing, transportation, power supply, labour supply and a host of other factors — and constructs export processing zones. All three words in the term ‘export processing zone’ are significant. First, it indicates an identifiable zone with definite boundaries. This zone is not considered to fall within the tariff territory of the national jurisdiction. What the industries do in the zone is to process either raw materials or components into finished or semi-finished products. After this processing is done, the manufacturers must export these products, i.e., not sell them within the tariff territory of the host country.
4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs
6. Research and development (R & D)
The R & D capability of enterprises is extremely important for the quality of their products and for future product development.
7. Industrial parks
Since R & D is so important, the NICs have emulated the developed countries in setting up industrial parks. As with export
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4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs 8. Developmental State Theory
1 prioritizes economic growth and production, as opposed to consumption and distribution, as the fundamental goals of state action
2 recruits a highly talented, cohesive, and disciplined economic bureaucracy on the basis of merit
3 concentrates bureaucratic talent in a guiding agency (for example Japan’s MITI) charged with the task of industrial transformation
4.2 The East Asia Miracle
Development Strategy of NICs 8. Developmental State
4 institutionalizes close links between bureaucratic and business elites in order to exchange information and promote cooperation on key decisions as a basis for effective policy- making (for example, targeting industrial growth areas)
5 insulates policy networks from day-to-day special interest pressures and growth-compromising demands
6 implements developmental policies by virtue of a mixture of institutionalized government-industry networks and public
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Gilpin, R. (2001) Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Human Development Index: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index
United Nations Development Program ‐ Human Development Report:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/
Mankiw, N G (2006), Principles of Economics, 4thedition, Thomson, South‐Western. Chapter 23, 25
Schiller, Bradley R. (2002), Essentials of Economics, 4thedition, McGraw Hill. Chapter 15 Stiglitz, Joseph E (1997), Principles of Microeconomics, 2ndedition, Norton. Chapter 21 Stiglitz, J. E. and Yusuf, S. (eds) (2001) Rethinking the East Asian Miracle, Oxford: Oxford University Press and the World Bank
Taylor, John B (2004), Principles of Macroeconomics, 4thedition, Houghton Mifflin. Chapter 5, 7, 12, 16
Taylor, J. B. and Weerapana, A. (2010) Principles of Economics: Global Financial Crisis Edition, Cengage Learning, pp. 770‐787.
Todaro, M. P. and Smith, S.C. (2009) Economic Development, Harlow: Addison Wesley, pp. 49‐56 and 485‐6.
