酵母菌雙鍵結構的變化,在我們將巨噬細胞可能產生的活性氧化物 (氫氧自由基、次氯
可以被廣泛的應用在白血球活性的量測,更可以進一步推廣至活體細胞及免疫疾病的檢 驗。
附錄
I 光譜儀校正步驟
為了使每天量測到的光譜在訊號強度及譜線位置維持固定,所以在每次實驗開始之 前,皆會對系統做基本的檢測及校正。
首先,我們必須確定每天光譜儀在波長位置上的表現是一樣的,這樣才不會造成每 次雖然量測相同物質,但是譜線位置卻不相同的情形。所以,我們利用一個已經明確知 道所有譜線位置的 Hg – Ar 光源,來校正我們光譜儀的位置。
步驟 1: 打開光譜儀控制程式 (Andor iDus),並等待光譜儀後方之 CCD 降溫至負六 十度。
↓
步驟 2: 打開 Hg –Ar 光源,並連接至光譜儀收光用的光纖。
↓
步驟 3: 量取一張 Hg –Ar 光源的光譜,並和標準光譜做對照。
↓
步驟 4: 如兩者之間有位移,則打開光譜儀的校正程式 (Calibrate -> Manual X calibration)
↓
步驟 5: 將游標指向有位移的譜線上,並按下 capture 以抓取該譜線的位置,接著輸 入正確的譜線數值,最後按下 calibrate 完成校正。
540 560 580 600 620 640 660
In te n s ity
Wavelength / nm
Hg - Ar light
圖 I – 1 Hg – Ar 光源之光譜。
II 最佳化拉曼光譜系統之步驟
為了了解當天系統是否有重大變化而造成光譜量測效率變差,我們必須使用一個標 準的樣品來檢測系統效率。而在這邊我們利用的是聚苯乙烯微粒的光譜訊號,根據其特 徵譜線 (1001 cm-1,Breathing vibration of benzene ring) 當天量測到的強度,判斷系統有 無重大問題。
接著,由之前拉曼系統架設可知,在光進入光纖之前,架設了一組共焦光圈,由於 此共焦光圈的位置非常重要,稍微有點偏差,樣品的光譜訊號受到周圍培養液及細胞影 響會相當明顯。因此,在使用系統開始當天實驗前,也會測試當天共焦光圈位置是否正 確。使用的方法是量測在水溶液中的單顆聚苯乙烯微粒,如果在共焦光圈位置不對時,
將量到水在 3100 cm-1 ~ 3600 cm-1 很寬的譜線,及 1700 cm-1 之前不太平整的訊號,表 示此時共焦光圈選擇到的位置有部分在水溶液裡;相反的,如果共焦光圈選擇的位置正 確,即使在水溶液中,水的訊號亦不會有明顯的貢獻。這樣的比較可由圖 II - 2 理解,
在裝置了共焦光圈之後,雖然因為些許光 (非來自樣品焦點裡的訊號) 被其阻擋住,造 成最後訊號強度稍微降低,但是來自樣品之外 (例如水) 的訊號將有效的被消除。
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
In ten s ity
Raman shift / cm
-1PS
圖 II – 1 聚苯乙烯微粒之拉曼散射光譜。
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Raman shift / cm-1Without pinhole
In ten s ity
with pinhole
圖 II – 2 共焦光圈位置檢測。
III 排除雷射對所觀測酵母菌拉曼光譜強度變化之影響
不管在細胞內抑或是細胞外之光譜實驗,光譜量取過程我們會短暫施與雷射在酵母 菌上。我們必須確定所有量測到的酵母菌光譜變化,皆不是源自於雷射對酵母菌產生的 破壞。所以我們利用和兩種實驗情況 (細胞內及細胞外模擬) 下一樣的量取方式,在細 胞外正常培養環境,觀察單一酵母菌於此雷射照射下隨時間的變化情形。圖 III – 1 為 模擬細胞內實驗之對照組,在此條件之下,單一酵母菌於兩個小時的觀察時間之內,光 譜並無明顯變化。圖 III – 1 (B) 為拉曼光譜譜線 1651 cm-1 / 1441 cm-1 比例隨時間的統 計資料,從統計結果可以看到,在 2 小時內 1651 cm-1 比例只下降至 98.0% (標準差 5.0%,n = 10),第 0 小時和第 2 小時相比並無明顯差異 (P = 0.24)。表示在此量測條 件下,酵母菌無明顯雙鍵受到破壞情形,所以可以確認在細胞內光譜變化之可信度,並 搭配之前做過的同位素取代及光譜貢獻分析,我們可以證明酵母菌光譜上的變化的確來 自於巨噬細胞對其之影響。而圖 III – 2 為模擬在細胞外添加活性氧化物時,酵母菌受 雷射影響的情形,同樣,從動態光譜我們沒有看到明顯改變。再從拉曼光譜譜線的強度 比例 (1651 cm-1 / 1441 cm-1) 變化 (圖 III – 2 (B)),可以得知在經過 30 分鐘後,1651 cm-1 只些微的下降至 97.4% (標準差 5.6%,n = 7),第 0 分鐘和第 30 分鐘比較無明 顯變化 (P > 0.05 )。此結果顯示在添加活性氧化物的實驗條件下,雷射並無對酵母菌造 可破壞的情形,因此,同樣確認了光譜上的變化反映至活性氧化物對酵母菌的影響。
1 2 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 8 0 0 -significantly different from control, P > 0.05)。
1 2 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 8 0 0 -significantly different from control, P > 0.05)。
VI 脂質過氧化機制之簡介
由之前白血球吞噬酵母菌後,酵母菌光譜訊號隨時間變化的趨勢,我們歸納出此免 疫反應過程,促使酵母菌脂質組成中的雙鍵部份受到破壞,但是跟單鍵相關的訊號卻無 太大變化,因此,我們推論這個過程應該是屬於脂質過氧化 (lipid per-oxidation) 反應。
以下將對脂質過氧化機制做基本介紹,並探討此機制跟實驗結果的相關性。
以公式 VI – 1 ~ VI – 4 為例,這是一個多元不飽和脂肪酸 (PUFA,polyunsaturated fatty acid) 脂質過氧化反應的過程。如果多元不飽和脂肪酸受到自由基 (radical,R‧) 的 攻擊,其 C=C 旁的氫有可能會被自由基抓走,形成脂質自由基 (lipid radical,PUFA‧)。
並且原本處於 cis C=C 的脂肪酸長碳鏈,會折疊成 trans C=C 的形式,並和氧反應,
進一步形成脂質過氧化自由基 (lipid peroxyl radical,PUFAO2‧)。再來可能會有兩種主 要的反應途徑,第一種是脂質過氧化自由基從其他脂質上取得一個氫原子,形成脂質過 氧化物 (lipid peroxide,PUFAO2H),而脂質過氧化物如果在過渡金屬 (如 Fe2+) 存在的 環境之下,會被轉變成脂質自由基,如此一來又可回到反應初期再被利用。另一個路徑 則是脂質過氧化自由基會經過一連串的環化 (cyclization),形成內生環過氧化物(cyclic endoperoxide),最後被水解 (hydrolysis) 生成丙二醛 (malondialdehyde,MDA)、
4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) 和各式各樣的烷類、醛類。其中丙二醛及 4-HNE 也是一般 生化檢測中,常被用來觀察脂質過氧反應程度的根據。
(VI – 2) (VI – 3) (VI – 4) (VI – 1)
另外,從 VI – 1 的圖解也能幫助我們更進一步從化學結構來了解脂質過氧化的過 程。並且,從圖中我們可以總結出,在一連串的脂質過氧化反應之後,原本帶有數個雙 鍵的不飽和脂肪酸,在 C=C 的位置會被氧化形成 C=O,導致 C=C 的數量減少,但是 單鍵的部分卻不會受到自由基攻擊,因此,並不會產生任何變化。這樣的結果和之前拉 曼光譜所得到的結論十分吻合,因為之前得到的光譜資訊告訴我們,在白血球吞噬酵母 菌之後,酵母菌脂質訊號中的 1265 cm-1 及 1651 cm-1 會有隨時間明顯下降的傾向,但 是 1300 cm-1 及 1441 cm-1 卻沒有明顯的變化趨勢。而經由更前面章節對酵母菌光譜訊 號的分析,1265 cm-1 和 1651 cm-1 分別代表 =CH bending vibration 及 cis C=C stretching vibration,皆和雙鍵有關。而 1300 cm-1 及 1441 cm-1 則是 –CH2 twisting vibration 和 –CH2 bending vibration,是和單鍵相關的訊號。機制和實驗結果皆表示,在 脂質過氧化傷害後,脂質雙鍵會受到破壞,而單鍵不會受到影響。
圖 VI – 1 脂質過氧化過程示意圖
參 考 文 獻
1. El-Benna, J.; Dang, P. M. C.; Gougerot-Pocidalo, M. A.; Elbim, C., Phagocyte NADPH oxidase: a multicomponent enzyme essential for host defenses. Archivum Immunologiae Et Therapiae Experimentalis 2005, 53, (3), 199-206.
2. Roos, D.; Winterbourn, C. C., Immunology - Lethal weapons. Science 2002, 296, (5568), 669-671.
3. Hampton, M. B.; Kettle, A. J.; Winterbourn, C. C., Inside the neutrophil phagosome:
Oxidants, myeloperoxidase, and bacterial killing. Blood 1998, 92, (9), 3007-3017.
4. DeLeo, F. R.; Quinn, M. T., Assembly of the phagocyte NADPH oxidase: Molecular interaction of oxidase proteins. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 1996, 60, (6), 677-691.
5. Fujii, H.; Hashida, S. In Binding of fad to cytochrome B-558 is facilitated during activation of NADPH oxidase in phagocytes, 11th Annual Meeting of the
Society-for-Free-Radical-Biology-and-Medicine, St Thomas, VI, Nov 17-21, 2004; St Thomas, VI, 2004; pp S64-S64.
6. Saran, M.; Beck-Speier, I.; Fellerhoff, B.; Bauer, G., Phagocytic killing of
microorganisms by radical processes: Consequences of the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with chloride yielding chlorine atoms. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 1999, 26, (3-4),
482-490.
7. Painter, R. G.; Wang, G. S., Direct measurement of free chloride concentrations in the phagolysosomes of human neutrophils. Analytical Chemistry 2006, 78, (9), 3133-3137.
8. DeLeo, F. R.; Allen, L. A. H.; Apicella, M.; Nauseef, W. M., NADPH oxidase activation and assembly during phagocytosis. Journal of Immunology 1999, 163, (12), 6732-6740.
9. Zipfel, W. R.; Williams, R. M.; Christie, R.; Nikitin, A. Y.; Hyman, B. T.; Webb, W. W., Live tissue intrinsic emission microscopy using multiphoton-excited native fluorescence and second harmonic generation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2003, 100, (12), 7075-7080.
10. Monici, M.; Pratesi, R.; Bernabei, P. A.; Caporale, R.; Ferrini, P. R.; Croce, A. C.;
Balzarini, P.; Bottiroli, G., Natural fluorescence of white blood-cells -spectroscopic and imaging study. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B-Biology 1995, 30, (1), 29-37.
11. Zonios, G. I.; Cothren, R. M.; Arendt, J. T.; Wu, J.; VanDam, J.; Crawford, J. M.;
Manoharan, R.; Feld, M. S., Morphological model of human colon tissue fluorescence. Ieee Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 1996, 43, (2), 113-122.
12. Betz, C. S.; Mehlmann, M.; Rick, K.; Stepp, H.; Grevers, G.; Baumgartner, R.; Leunig, A., Autofluorescence imaging and spectroscopy of normal and malignant mucosa in patients with head and neck cancer. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine 1999, 25, (4), 323-334.
13. Brancaleon, L.; Durkin, A. J.; Tu, J. H.; Menaker, G.; Fallon, J. D.; Kollias, N., In vivo fluorescence spectroscopy of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2001, 73, (2), 178-183.
14. Bennett, B. D.; Jetton, T. L.; Ying, G. T.; Magnuson, M. A.; Piston, D. W., Quantitative subcellular imaging of glucose metabolism within intact pancreatic islets. Journal of
Biological Chemistry 1996, 271, (7), 3647-3651.
15. Patterson, G. H.; Knobel, S. M.; Arkhammar, P.; Thastrup, O.; Piston, D. W., Separation of the glucose-stimulated cytoplasmic mitochondrial NAD(P)H responses in pancreatic islet beta cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2000, 97, (10), 5203-5207.
16. Rocheleau, J. V.; Head, W. S.; Piston, D. W., Quantitative NAD(P)H/flavoprotein
autofluorescence imaging reveals metabolic mechanisms of pancreatic islet pyruvate response.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 2004, 279, (30), 31780-31787.
17. Huang, S. H.; Heikal, A. A.; Webb, W. W., Two-photon fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy of NAD(P)H and flavoprotein. Biophysical Journal 2002, 82, (5), 2811-2825.
18. Skala, M. C.; Riching, K. M.; Gendron-Fitzpatrick, A.; Eickhoff, J.; Eliceiri, K. W.;
White, J. G.; Ramanujam, N., In vivo multiphoton microscopy of NADH and FAD redox states, fluorescence lifetimes, and cellular morphology in precancerous epithelia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2007, 104, (49),
19494-19499.
19. Miura, T.; Hori-i, A.; Mototani, H.; Takeuchi, H., Raman spectroscopic study on the
copper(II) binding mode of prion octapeptide and its pH dependence. Biochemistry 1999, 38, (35), 11560-11569.
20. Cao, Y. W. C.; Jin, R. C.; Mirkin, C. A., Nanoparticles with Raman spectroscopic fingerprints for DNA and RNA detection. Science 2002, 297, (5586), 1536-1540.
21. Xie, C. G.; Dinno, M. A.; Li, Y. Q., Near-infrared Raman spectroscopy of single optically trapped biological cells. Optics Letters 2002, 27, (4), 249-251.
22. Xie, C. G.; Li, Y. Q.; Tang, W.; Newton, R. J., Study of dynamical process of heat
denaturation in optically trapped single microorganisms by near-infrared Raman spectroscopy.
Journal of Applied Physics 2003, 94, (9), 6138-6142.
23. Deng, J. L.; Wei, Q.; Zhang, M. H.; Wang, Y. Z.; Li, Y. Q., Study of the effect of alcohol on single human red blood cells using near-infrared laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy.
Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 2005, 36, (3), 257-261.
24. Xie, C.; Mace, J.; Dinno, M. A.; Li, Y. Q.; Tang, W.; Newton, R. J.; Gemperline, P. J., Identification of single bacterial cells in aqueous solution using conflocal laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy. Analytical Chemistry 2005, 77, (14), 4390-4397.
25. Xie, C. G.; Chen, D.; Li, Y. Q., Raman sorting and identification of single living micro-organisms with optical tweezers. Optics Letters 2005, 30, (14), 1800-1802.
26. Huang, Y. S.; Karashima, T.; Yamamoto, M.; Hamaguchii, H., Molecular-level pursuit of yeast mitosis by time- and space-resolved Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Raman
Spectroscopy 2003, 34, (1), 1-3.
27. Huang, Y. S.; Karashima, T.; Yamamoto, M.; Hamaguchi, H., Molecular-level investigation of the structure, transformation, and bioactivity of single living fission yeast cells by time- and space-resolved Raman spectroscopy. Biochemistry 2005, 44, (30), 10009-10019.
28. Huang, Y. S.; Karashima, T.; Yamamoto, M.; Ogura, T.; Hamaguchi, H., Raman
spectroscopic signature of life in a living yeast cell. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 2004, 35, (7), 525-+.
29. Huang, Y. S.; Nakatsuka, T.; Hamaguchi, H. O., Behaviors of the "Raman Spectroscopic Signature of Life" in single living fission yeast cells under different nutrient, stress, and
atmospheric conditions. Applied Spectroscopy 2007, 61, (12), 1290-1294.
30. Huang, Z. W.; McWilliams, A.; Lui, H.; McLean, D. I.; Lam, S.; Zeng, H. S.,
Near-infrared Raman spectroscopy for optical diagnosis of lung cancer. International Journal of Cancer 2003, 107, (6), 1047-1052.
31. Hanlon, E. B.; Manoharan, R.; Koo, T. W.; Shafer, K. E.; Motz, J. T.; Fitzmaurice, M.;
Kramer, J. R.; Itzkan, I.; Dasari, R. R.; Feld, M. S., Prospects for in vivo Raman spectroscopy.
Physics in Medicine and Biology 2000, 45, (2), R1-R59.
32. Jhan, J. W.; Chang, W. T.; Chen, H. C.; Lee, Y. T.; Wu, M. F.; Chen, C. H.; Liau, I., Integrated multiple multi-photon imaging and Raman spectroscopy for characterizing structure-constituent correlation of tissues. Optics Express 2008, 16, (21), 16431-16441.
33. Wu, Y. M.; Chen, H. C.; Chang, W. T.; Jhan, J. W.; Lin, H. L.; Liau, I., Quantitative Assessment of Hepatic Fat of Intact Liver Tissues with Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy. Analytical Chemistry 2009, 81, (4), 1496-1504.
34. van Manen, H. J.; Uzunbajakava, N.; van Bruggen, R.; Roos, D.; Otto, C., Resonance Raman imaging of the NADPH oxidase subunit cytochrome b(558) in single neutrophilic granulocytes. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2003, 125, (40), 12112-12113.
35. Uchida, T.; Kitagawa, T., Mechanism for transduction of the ligand-binding signal in heme-based gas sensory proteins revealed by resonance Raman spectroscopy. Accounts of Chemical Research 2005, 38, (8), 662-670.
36. Xu, H. X.; Bjerneld, E. J.; Kall, M.; Borjesson, L., Spectroscopy of single hemoglobin molecules by surface enhanced Raman scattering. Physical Review Letters 1999, 83, (21), 4357-4360.
37. Alexander, T. A.; Pellegrino, P. M.; Gillespie, J. B., Near-infrared
surface-enhanced-Raman-scattering-mediated detection of single optically trapped bacterial spores. Applied Spectroscopy 2003, 57, (11), 1340-1345.
38. Fu, Y.; Huff, T. B.; Wang, H. W.; Wang, H. F.; Cheng, J. X., Ex vivo and in vivo imaging of myelin fibers in mouse brain by coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy. Optics Express 2008, 16, (24), 19396-19409.
39. Murugkar, S.; Evans, C. L.; Xie, X. S.; Anis, H., Chemically specific imaging of
cryptosporidium oocysts using coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy.
Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 2009, 233, (2), 244-250.
40. Singh, G. P.; Volpe, G.; Creely, C. M.; Grotsch, H.; Geli, I. M.; Petrov, D., The lag phase and G(1) phase of a single yeast cell monitored by Raman microspectroscopy. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 2006, 37, (8), 858-864.
41. Chen, K.; Qin, Y. J.; Zheng, F.; Sun, M. H.; Shi, D. R., Diagnosis of colorectal cancer using Raman spectroscopy of laser-trapped single living epithelial cells. Optics Letters 2006, 31, (13), 2015-2017.
42. Chen, D.; Huang, S. S.; Li, Y. Q., Real-time detection of kinetic germination and heterogeneity of single Bacillus spores by laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy. Analytical Chemistry 2006, 78, (19), 6936-6941.
43. Ajito, K.; Torimitsu, K., Single nanoparticle trapping using a Raman tweezers microscope. Applied Spectroscopy 2002, 56, (4), 541-544.
44. Ajito, K., Combined near-infrared Raman microprobe and laser trapping system:
Application to the analysis of a single organic microdroplet in water. Applied Spectroscopy 1998, 52, (3), 339-342.
45. Ajito, K.; Torimitsu, K., Near-infrared Raman spectroscopy of single particles.
Trac-Trends in Analytical Chemistry 2001, 20, (5), 255-262.
46. Houlne, M. P.; Sjostrom, C. M.; Uibel, R. H.; Kleimeyer, J. A.; Harris, J. M., Confocal Raman microscopy for monitoring chemical reactions on single optically trapped, solid-phase support particles. Analytical Chemistry 2002, 74, (17), 4311-4319.
47. Matthaeus, C.; Kale, A.; Chernenko, T.; Torchilin, V.; Diem, M., New ways of imaging uptake and intracellular fate of liposomal drug carrier systems inside individual cells, based on Raman microscopy. Molecular Pharmaceutics 2008, 5, (2), 287-293.
48. van Manen, H. J.; Kraan, Y. M.; Roos, D.; Otto, C., Single-cell Raman and fluorescence microscopy reveal the association of lipid bodies with phagosomes in leukocytes. Proceedings
48. van Manen, H. J.; Kraan, Y. M.; Roos, D.; Otto, C., Single-cell Raman and fluorescence microscopy reveal the association of lipid bodies with phagosomes in leukocytes. Proceedings