CHAPTER 6 Discussion and Conclusion
6.5 Conclusion
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these differences would be valuable to gain deeper insight into the reasons behind women’s demographic behavior and life course choices.
Second, both the quantitative and qualitative analyses of this thesis suggest income is an important factor in determining household formation in Taiwan. The
“pattern-of-disadvantage” is an alternative hypothesis to Second Demographic Transition theory that attributes the increase in cohabitation and decrease in marriage rates to a rise in poverty rather than value change (Lesthaeghe, 2014, p. 18114). The findings of this research suggest further investigation is necessary to determine if this hypothesis describes some of Taiwan’s demographic changes and if so, to what degree income accounts for increases in divorce, singlehood, and childlessness.
6.5 Conclusion
Three main conclusions can be drawn from the results of this study. First, despite evidence of value shift over time, evidence does not support that Taiwanese society as a whole is undergoing the Second Demographic Transition. In multinomial logistic regression models, value orientation was not found to be a significant predictor of household type when controlling for age, gender, education level, and income. Second, though the entirety of Taiwanese society is not undergoing the SDT, certain sectors of the population may be. In the in the interview sample of women, some women clearly demonstrated values and behaviors predicted by SDT theory while other women demonstrated values and behavior predicted by theories of rigid family values. Further research is needed to investigate these differences. Third, despite improvements in women’s status since the end of martial law in Taiwan, women are still not completely free to choose their own life courses. A major constraint on women’s choice is the unequal distribution of domestic labor, especially childrearing. As predicted by theories of rigid family values, some women in Taiwan are avoiding marriage and children due to the disproportionate burden they place on women. Other women are postponing
marriage and children to focus on their careers and women who do marry and have children often must make career sacrifices. Overall, most of the women interviewed agreed that it is very difficult in Taiwanese society for a woman to have both a career and
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family. If conditions were more conducive to balancing work and personal life, it is likely that some of the women now postponing marriage would choose to start a family sooner. Other important constraints on women’s freedom of choice were unequal work opportunities and economic factors.
These constraints women face have important policy implications for Taiwan. As Ochiai predicted, it will take more than government incentives to have more children to reverse lowest-low fertility trends and postponement or avoidance of marriage. As previously mentioned, Ochiai predicts that “in the near future, when other societies are as aged as Japan is today, the social reproduction of East Asia will become an even harder challenge without radical and dynamic policy changes” (2011, p. 235). Ochiai’s
conclusions are supported by recent research. Myrskyla, Kohler, & Billari (2009) found that current assumptions that subreplacement fertility trends are “irreversible” are inaccurate. Instead, they found that increased development had a negative effect on fertility in countries at low and medium levels of the Human Development Index (HDI), but at high levels of HDI the trend reversed. Specifically, they found that:
On average an HDI increase of 0.1 results in a reduction of the TFR by 0.159 as long as countries are at development levels with HDI below 0.86;
in contrast, an HDI increase of 0.05 results in an increase of the TFR by 0.204 (= 0.05*4.07) once countries attain an advanced development stage with HDI ≥ 0.86 (Myrskyla, Kohler, & Billari, 2009, p. 742).
Myrskyla, Kohler, & Billari’s conclusions have positive implications for Taiwan’s population concerns. According to Taiwan’s Statistical Bureau, Taiwan’s HDI passed the 0.86 threshold in 2009 and in 2015 was 0.885 (DGBAS, 2017b). As might be expected from Taiwan’s HDI, the crude birth rate hit a low of 7.21 in 2010 and then reversed direction, reaching 9.10 in 2015 (DGBAS, 2016).
Myrskyla, Kohler, & Billari’s calculations account for postponement of
childbearing. However, they also conclude that further research is needed to identify the exact mechanism that results in a reversal of fertility decline, especially considering that Canada, Japan, and South Korea are exceptions to the trend. They hypothesize that governments in countries with high levels of development “might explicitly address
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fertility decline by implementing policies that improve gender equality or the
compatibility between economic success, including labour force participation, and family life,” and failure to do so might account for the exceptions (Myrskyla, Kohler, & Billari, 2009, p. 742).
Prospects for the future look promising if Taiwan’s government is successful in addressing these issues. At the 2017 Ten Outstanding Young Women Awards ceremony, the current government expressed a commitment to progress in this area:
President Tsai Ing-wen…vowed to eliminate gender bias and create gender-friendly workplaces…[and] stressed that the government is working to strengthen family support systems so as to help relieve the burdens faced by many women. She said that women in Taiwan must be able to choose the roles they want to play in society (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2017).
If the current and future administrations remain dedicated to this goal, future generations of Taiwanese women may no longer have to choose between a career and family.
In conclusion, women’s responses in interviews demonstrate that gender
inequality and the ability to balance work and family are key areas in which Taiwan still requires progress, both for the sake of reducing future problems associated with an aging population and for the sake of women’s freedom of choice. Women should have the ability to seek meaning and satisfaction through work, family, or both simultaneously.
Improving conditions allowing women to pursue a career while having a family will increase women’s freedom to pursue their desired life courses. Currently, women who value self-development and career satisfaction must delay or reject starting a family. In the past, women were forced to conform to a traditional life course that comprised of marriage, children, and a lifetime role of caretaker. Today, the goal of a family is out of women’s reach unless they are willing to compromise their careers. Women should have the right and the ability to choose the life course that is appropriate for them; no specific life course choice should be compulsory or unobtainable. In the year 2017, no women should need to compromise her aspirations because of her gender.
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APPENDIX A Taiwan Social Change Survey Modules, Topics, and Sample Size
Year Round-Year
Questionnaire Module Topics Age Range
N
1984-1985
1-1 II General Leisure, Religion, Family, Mental Health
20-75 4,199
2015 7-1 I General Globalization ,Work, Family, Mental Health, Religion, Mass
Communication, Political
Participation, Leisure
19-94 2,034
2011 6-2 I Family Inter-generational
Relationships, Gender Roles and Household Work Arrangement, Family Values,
Attitude Toward Marriage, Family Care and
Responsibility, Family Conflict
19-96 2,135
Questionnaires available at: http://www.ios.sinica.edu.tw/sc/en/scDownload2.php Data files available at: http://www.ios.sinica.edu.tw/sc/en/scDownload3.php
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APPENDIX B General Surveys: Taiwan Social Change Survey Questions
Taiwan Social Change Survey 1984/1985-2015, Rounds 1 & 7, Year 1, General Survey Questionnaire II (1984/5), Questionnaire I (2015)
Topic Questions Round and
Question Number(s) Religion [To what extent] do you agree with the following
statements?
After a person passes away, his/her spirit and soul still exist
It is better for one to have descendants to offer ancestral worship to you after his/her death
Education What is the most important purpose of education for an individual?
To find a good job
To uplift one’s social status
To better one’s disposition
To intensify self-development and realization
To acquire knowledge and learn skills
To improve one’s capacity to deliberate
To learn the principles of being a decent person and of associating with people
To make life more fun and interesting (Round 1 only)
To find the ideal partner
Other
In your opinion, what is the lowest level of education a boy should have?
Elementary school
Junior high school
High school (vocational)
Junior college
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In your opinion, what is the lowest level of education a girl should have?
Elementary school
Junior high school
High school (vocational)
Junior college
College
Graduate school
Other
Round 7: 56b
Family To what extent do you think the following behaviors are wrong?
A daughter-in-law arguing with her mother-in-law because of different opinions
Sending one’s parents to a nursing home instead of taking care of them
Getting a divorce because the husband and wife can’t get along
Round 1: 50(2), 50(3), 50(9)
Round 7: 65, 66, 67
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APPENDIX C Family Module: Taiwan Social Change Survey Questions
Taiwan Social Change Survey, 2011: Round 6, Year 2, Questionnaire I: Family
Topic Questions Question Number
Gender roles
To what extent do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about gender?
A husband’s job is to earn money; a wife’s is to look after the home and family
It’s not good for a pre-school child if the mother is working
Family life will always be affected if the wife has a full-time job
During an economic recession, it is alright for women to be laid-off before men
D1(a), D1(b), D1(c), D1(d)
Family values
To what extent are the following things important to you?
Give up your aspirations to meet your parents’ expectations
Live with your parents (in-law) after getting married
Support your parents’ livelihood to makes their lives more comfortable
Have at least one son for the succession of
To what extent do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about marriage?
It is not necessary to have children in marriage
It is alright for a couple to live together without intending to get married
People who want to divorce must wait until children are grown up
It is better to have a bad marriage than no marriage at all
F1(b), F1(e), F1(g), F(i)
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APPENDIX D Coding of Value Questions for General Surveys
General Survey Coding: Round 1 (1984/1985) and Round 7 (2015) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Questionnaire Scale: Missing/R efuse 3 3 3 Other answers: Round 1- No comment; Round 7- Can’t choose, Don’t understand the question, Don’t want to answer, Don’t know; *Round 1 Only
Other Answers 3 3 3
Strongly Disagree 5 5 1
Somewhat Disagree* 4 4 2
Somewhat Agree* 2 2 4
Agree 2 2 4
Strongly Agree 1 1 5
Value Category: Religion Question After a person passes away his/her spirit and soul still exist It is better for one to have descendants to offer ancestral worship after death If you work hard, you do not necessarily have to rely on the gods
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General Survey Coding: Round 1 (1984/1985) and Round 7 (2015) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Coding 1 2 3 4 4 5 3 3 3 3 *Round 1 Only
Options -Elementary School -Junior High School -High School (General/vocational) -Junior College -University -Graduate School -As high as possible* -Other -Missing (Round 1) -Don’t Know (Round 7)
Question In your opinion, what is the lowest level of education a girl should have?
Coding 1 2 4 4 4 5 3 3 3 3
Options -Elementary School -Junior High School -High School (General/vocational) -Junior College -University -Graduate School -As high as possible* -Other -Missing (Round 1) -Don’t know (Round 7)
Value Category: Education Question In your opinion, what is the lowest level of education a boy should have?
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Round 1 (1984/1985) General Survey Coding Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Coding 1 1 2 5 3 4 2 4 3 3 3 *Round 1 Only
Questionnaire Options -To find a good job -To uplift social status -To better disposition -To intensify self-development and realization -To acquire knowledge and learn skills -To improve capacity to deliberate -To learn the principles of being a decent person and of associating with people -To make life more fun and interesting* -To find the ideal partner -Other -Missing/refuse -Don’t know (Round 7)
Value Category: Education Question What is the most important purpose of education for an individual?
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General Survey Coding: Round 1 (1984/1985) and Round 7 (2015) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Questionnaire Scale: Missing/R efuse 3 3 3 Other answers: Round 1- No opinion; Round 7- No comment, Don’t know
Do not want to answer 3 3 3
Other Answers 3 3 3
Not wrong at all 5 5 5
Yes, somewhat wrong 4 4 4
Yes, very wrong 2 2 2
Yes, grievously wrong 1 1 1
Value Category: Family (Moral Concepts in questionnaire) Question: To what extent are the following behaviors wrong? A daughter-in-law arguing with her mother-in-law because of differing opinions Sending one’s parents to a nursing home instead of taking care of them Getting a divorce because the husband and wife cannot get along
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APPENDIX E Coding of Value Questions for Family Survey
Family Survey Coding: Round 6 (2011) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Questionnaire Scale: Refuse 3 3 3 3
Don’t Know 3 3 3 3
Strongly Disagree 5 5 5 5
Disagree 4 4 4 4
Neither Agree nor Disagree 3 3 3 3
Agree 2 2 2 2
Strongly Agree 1 1 1 1
Value Category: Gender Roles and Household Work Arrangement Question A husband’s job is to earn money; a wife’s job is to look after the home and family It’s not good for a pre-school child if the mother is working Family life will always be affected if the wife has a full- time job During an economic recession, it is alright for women to be laid-off before men
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Family Survey Coding: Round 6 (2011) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Questionnaire Scale: Refuse 3 3 3 3
Don’t know 3 3 3 3
No Comment 3 3 3 3
4 Absolutely Important 5 5 5 5
3 4 4 4 4
2 3 3 3 3
1 4 4 4 4
0 Not Important 5 5 5 5
Value Category: Family Values (referred to as Family Role in analysis) Question Give up your aspirations to meet your parent’s expectations Live with your parents (in- law) after getting married Support your parents’ livelihood to make their lives more comfortable Have at least one son for the succession of the family name
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Family Survey Coding: Round 6 (2011) Coding: 1 Conformist, 2 Moderately Conformist, 3 Neutral, 4 Moderately Nonconformist, 5 Nonconformist Questionnaire Scale: Don’t know/ Refuse 3 3 3 3
Strongly Disagree 1 1 5 5
Fairly Disagree 2 2 4 4
Somewhat Disagree 2 2 4 4
Neither Agree nor Disagree 3 3 3 3
Somewhat Agree 4 4 2 2
Fairly Agree 4 4 2 2
Strongly Agree 5 5 1 1
Value Category: Attitude Toward Marriage Question It is not necessary to have children in marriage It is alright for a couple to live together without intending to get married People who want a divorce must wait until children are grown up It is better to have a bad marriage than no marriage at all
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APPENDIX F Stage Two Interview Questions
Interviewee Number: _________
A) Demographic Information:
Age Religion Education Level Work (currently/or in
past if no)
Average Monthly Income
Marital/Relationship Status
Children (if no, future?)
People living in the same household
B) Value Orientation (short answer)
1. Which is more important in life, earning money or self-development?
1. Which is more important in life, earning money or self-development?