Concepts of Religion

Many specialists in religious studies resist the idea that a definition is possible for the word

“religion” (Fontana, 2003. P.6). Ninian Smart in his book The World’s Religion (1989), shares a similar point of view. For fundamentalists, religion is a systematized and complex system that requires an authoritative base capable of subordinating to itself all other elements of human experience (Hood, Hill & Williamson, 2005, p.16). They think that the notion that something

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called religion can be isolated, analyzed or defined is primarily a western conceit stemming from the tendency of western culture to divide the secular from the sacred, and thus to regard nature as an autonomous domain with religion confined solely to spiritual concerns (Fontana, 2003, p.8).

The Oxford English Dictionary defines religion as the representation of the human recognition of superhuman controlling power, and especially of a personal God or gods entitled to obedience and worship. Leonid V. Tulpa (1935) broadly defines it as “a series of attitudes toward God and man”

(p.31). Attitude is a psychological term covering a wide range of mental and motor states or conditions, with which human beings respond habitually to given stimuli, as Tulpa described (p.32). According to Argyle and Beit-Hallami, religion is a system of beliefs in divine or supernatural power and practices of worship or other rituals directed toward such a power. Either way a definition does not seem complete for all religions are somewhat different from their perspectives or way to undertake things (methods).

The concept ‘religion’ is derived from the Latin word religio that originally refers to the human fear of God or other divine beings. It incorporates an intimate association with formal ceremonies and rites, such as sacrifice during the course of its development. Its precise Latin etymology is unclear; Cicero traces it to relege, which refers to gathering together, repeatedly passing over, or to read over again. Others look to the Latin term religare which means binding together. Both derivations suggest the social aspects of religio. There are not only many definitions of religion, but there are also different approaches to the subject that reflect occurrences in intellectual history at the time of particular scholars. These approaches include the following: theological, anthropological, sociological, historical, phenomenological, psychological, economical,

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hermeneutical, feminist, racial, cognitive science, and postmodern. Each different methodological approach to the subject of religion or some aspect of it shapes the scholarly definition of religion.

(Olson, 2011)

If we disregard the religions of the ancient world such as those of Europe, Greece, South America, and Rome, there are some 11 religions that have had a marked impact in various ways upon world history and the history of ideas. India has given us Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism;

China and Japan have given us Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto; and the Middle East has given us Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. There are also countless more transitory cults and beliefs that over centuries have attracted and inspired men and women to worship and revere (Fontana, 2003, p.vi). Based on popularity, geographic position (region) religions can be classified into large and small religions. They also can be classified into monotheism and polytheism.

Religion such as Christianism, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism are called monotheistic religions.

They are listed on this label because they share a common belief that there is one God, in contrast to the others which are considered as henotheistic (Max Müller) or polytheistic.

The organization of religions is extremely varied. According to The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1997), religions may be large-scale and coherently organized and hierarchical: an example is Roman Catholicism, which has a strong center of authority and control, the Vatican, and a clear hierarchy of Pope, cardinals, bishops, priests, male religious orders, female religious orders, laity, running in parallel with a spiritual hierarchy of apostles, saints, martyrs, confessors, doctors. In the same way, religions may be large-scale and loosely organized, with virtually no

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overall structure at all: Hinduism is under these categories; however, among Hindus there are extremely strong subsystems, based, for instance, on gurus or temples or holy places.

In addition, they may be small and local, extending perhaps only to the borders of a village. Often times these categories are organized in such ways that enable them to control aberrant beliefs or practices: between the extremes, there are many variations on the theme of protecting information and transmitting information, of allowing or denying access to the religious system, and sharing or restricting knowledge with the wider outside world. Thus, we can see religions in two lenses:

mystery religions and missionary religions. Mystery religions set and maintain conditions before access is allowed; in contrast missionary religions feel compelled to share what has been entrusted to them. Among religious specialists’ organization evokes are priests, witches, shamans, gurus, imams, rabbis, monks, nuns, bhiksus and so forth. (p. xix)

For Chris A. M. Hermans religion is contested concept with three rival conceptions such as experience/language/practice. Based on an historical overview of the concept religion, Hermans concluded that there are at least 3 different ways in which religion has been defined in Western (i.e. Christian) history. The following are Hermans’ ideas about the three ways religion has been used in Western cultural history:

1) As ritual practices performed in a community. A religious community is characterized by the use of certain symbols, rituals and religious objects. These practices reflect human communication with God or supreme powers. “No communication event is possible without an institutional context governing it” (Plavoet, 1999, p.262). A religious person is someone who observes the practice of a religious tradition.

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2) As belief based on knowledge of God. This knowledge is expressed in linguistic form (i.e.

words, texts, stories). Religious people are characterized by the use of this language and a concomitant reverence for God.

3) As a certain type of experience. Human beings have certain primary or basic experiences that can be called religious. These experiences are interpreted differently in different cultures and by different religious traditions. All religions (plural) have their origin in this one type of human experience. (Hermans, 2003 pp. 147-151)

Contemporary concept that describes different belief systems (or paradigm) in the world is

‘worldviews’. Dr. Kenneth Funk, an associate professor at Oregon State University, in his essays on worldviews, defines it as “A worldview is the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of reality that ground and influence all one’s perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing.” In other words, it is one’s philosophy of life. Belief systems have evolved throughout the centuries due to people’s quest for truth, especially the four fundamental questions of life: origin, meaning, morality, and destiny. These four fundamental questions are usually the principle issues debated in RE. Hence, the reasons to discuss them later in this literature review.

2.2.1.2 Concept of RE

RE concept connects with two critical concepts, ‘religion’ and ‘education’. Just like religion, education is a complex concept; it constitutes by a variety of concepts and discourses. Originally, the concept of RE has been used to refer to faith-nurturing activities of a communities of faith, especially those designed to initiate or induct children and young people into its central corpus of knowledge and beliefs, its traditions and practices, its perspectives on moral issues, how it sees its

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relationship to other religious traditions, and how it responds to civil and legal obligations that are a consequence of its being part a wider, secular society. (Chambliss, 1996, p. 543) The essential characteristics and purpose of this conception of RE, according to J.J. Chambliss, are rooted in its being seen as both an expression of faith and an initiation into faith. For example, the rationale for engaging in such an activity will be based upon religious or theological concepts which themselves are derived from core beliefs that a community holds to be revealed truth about human nature and its relationship to divine nature. (ibid, p. 543)

Two other concepts stem from RE: they are religious instruction and instruction about religions.

The concept religious instruction traditionally has meant teaching the doctrine of a given religion with the intention of persuading the learners. This type of teaching aims at converting learners both intellectually and emotionally to a set of convictions; it is considered by far the dominant form of RE in the world. For instances, the 19^th century Sunday school movement taught the working-class children in Britain to read and write by using the Bible as textbook; at the same time, Christian morality and virtues were inculcated into pupils; in turn these pupils often graduated to become Sunday school teachers (Timothy Larsen via 2016 Christianity Today). Whereas instruction about religions is a relatively recent developing concept: with the teacher describing various religions rather than seeking to convert learners to a particular faith. (Thomas, 1991, p.638) In 1975, Michael Grimmitt and Garth Read introduced the twin terms ‘learning about religion’ and

‘learning from religion’ with the intention of presenting Christianity as a world religion.

Many scholars in the RE field state some distinction between different meanings of the concept to avoid ambiguities. As it is the case in countries like Canada, England, and the United States, RE

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does not necessarily imply the teaching of a particular religion. Concepts like religious studies, worldviews are used instead of RE. It is important to note that many of the works in the bibliography have a Christian orientation. Christian education as a discipline is an inquiry into teaching and learning as means and modes of commitment to value. Thus, Christian education is RE guided by a particular set of assumptions as to truth and value. (Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p.5) However, the 1970s marks a shift for Christianity from being a confessional subject to an inclusive approach (e.g. humanism and world religion) in school RE.

Based on the various definitions of RE, it can be categorized into two standpoints: 1) the practitioner perspective and 2) the scholarly perspective. From the practitioner’s standpoint such categorization assists greatly in comprehending the vast array of ideas being generated in the literature about the intentions, methods, procedures, and outcomes of RE. From the scholarly perspective in the other hand, RE has a strong theoretical base characterized by a variety of paradigms. As the Rev. Dr. G. E. Gorman puts it, these theoretical or scholarly approaches to RE may be described in a number of ways, one of the most accessible being that proposed by Harold Burgess, who speaks of the traditional theological theoretical approach (exemplified by the works of Gaebelein and Jungmann), the social-cultural approach (Coe, Bower, and Chave), the contemporary theological approach (Crump, Miller, Sherrill, and Smart), the social science approach (the works of James Lee and others) (Burgess, 1975 in Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p. viii).

Therefore, two key features help to position RE: 1) as an academic enterprise and 2) as part of the religious life. According to an academic viewpoint, RE draws on a wide range of cognate disciplines, which gives its literature an unusual breadth. In addition, within itself RE manifests a

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complex network of theoretical frameworks that are not easily traced through the literature. In contrast, based on the practitioner viewpoint RE has one eye on the past and one on the present, drawing substantially on a particular heritage to inform and direct action in the present. This feature of the religious life focuses on people of all ages who are trying to live out a life of faith, and to maintain this focus religious educators utilize all appropriate means. (ibid) Michael Warren (1986) tries to provide some clarification about the differences between Catechesis and RE as the two concepts often use interchangeably and can be overlap and ambiguous, especially in the context of school RE. The following table summarizes Warren’s distinction of the two terms:

Table 2.2.1.2 a

Differences between Catechesis and RE

Focus Catechesis RE

Goal Growth & commitment Growth & understanding Reaches fulfilment Worship & action for justice Mastery in an intellectual sense

Presumes Conversion; that participants stand within the circle of faith

Some commitment to disciplined inquiry

Examines religious question from

A position of commitment A more objective position that taken in catechesis

Is part of Church pastoral ministry Education

Is a cousin of Celebration Study

Style A way of walking along with people A way of studying Choice Involves a conscious choice to meet

specifically for the enrichment of spirituality

The literature of RE has revealed its complexity. RE is complex because it is difficult to interpret and assess without taking several factors into consideration. Not to mention its emergence into an academic discipline; it is a derivative one, dependent on other academic disciplines and on the

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institutions it serves. The foundations of RE convey its complex nature; they are as follows:

‘Theological Foundations’, ‘Philosophy of Education’, ‘History of Education’, ‘Behavioral Studies of Religion’, ‘Behavioral Studies of Education’, and ‘Multidisciplinary Foundations’. The latter is a contemporary by-product of many scholars conducting research in religion and education who have found it valuable to address their questions to several disciplines at once. Each foundation discipline is treated with integrity. Differences in research results and differences in interpretation are recognized and honored. As religious educators seek to understand and use these disciplines, differences of opinion, of course, emerge among them. (Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p.

5-6)

Fortunately, many books and authorities provide guidance on terminologies of various faith traditions and/or worldviews. These documents are primarily beneficial to RE teachers and students of religious studies, and to reach to consensus of spellings. Among them we can cite:

‘Religious Education: Glossary of Terms by School Curriculum and Assessment Authority of London (1994);’ Religious Studies: The Key Concepts by Carl Olson (2011);’ ‘Continuum Glossary of Religious Terms by R. Geaves (Ed.), 2002).’ Students learn a great deal of new vocabulary in the subject of RE to prepare them in terms of knowledge, understanding, and interpretation of religious concepts, both inside and outside the classroom. Religious language in RE is important with the premise that it will enable students to come to grips with and appreciate the complexities of religion in a positive way (Wright & Brandom, 2000, p. 92). More recently, Carl Olson (2011) gives us a list of key concepts which he considers to be imperative in religious studies. They are presented in the above table.

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List of Key Concepts in Religious Studies

Afterlife Cursing Heaven Millenarianism Power Sin

Agency Dance Henotheism Modernity Prayer Society

Agnosticism Death Heresy Monasticism Priest Soul

Ancestor Demons Heterodoxy Monism Prophet Space: sacred

& profane Animism Doctrine Holiness Monotheism Psychology Speech acts Antinomianism Dreams Holy people Music Purgatory Spirits Apocalypse Drugs Homosexuality Mysticism Purification Suffering Architecture Earth Images Myth Rationality Sun Art Ecology Incarnation Narrative Reality Symbols Asceticism Economy Interpretation/

hermeneutics Nature Reductionism Taboo Atheism Emotion Judgment Oral tradition Relics Theatrical

performances Belief Eroticism Kindship Orthodoxy Revelation Theism

Blood Ethics Knowledge Other Rites of

passage Theology

Body Evil Language Pacifism Ritual Time

Celibacy Experience Last things Pain Sacraments Totemism

Chaos Faith Law Pantheism Sacred Truth

Church Festivals Liberation Perception Sacrifice Violence/non-violence Clothing Fire Liminality Performance Saint Visions

Comic Food Love Pilgrimage Salvation Women

Community Gender Madness Play Sanctification World

religions Comparative

religion Gifts Magic Pluralism Scripture Worldview

Conversion Goddesses Martyrdom Politics Sects Worship Note: Adapted from Religious Studies: The Key Concepts by Carl Olson (2011)

These and other concepts enable pupils/students to understand various religions or make sense of religion in a broadly manner. The various concepts that pupils learn in RE fell into three categories.

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The first category is concepts from religious traditions; the second category is concepts derived from our shared human experience; and the third category is concepts derived from the study of religion (p. 25). Basis of RE includes religious instruction, religious studies, interreligious dialogue and so forth. Meaning that, RE can refer to different things in different community of faith, schools, and countries. Whatever the form, RE is taught for specific reasons in school. Let’s turn now to the teaching of RE in Schools.