Pedagogical Strategies

Educators/Teachers use many different theoretical approaches and instructional resources to facilitate learning. The approaches are based on the different modern principles and practices of western education. In their book Approaches to Learning (2008) Anne Jordan, Orison Carlile and Annetta Stack discuss many of these theoretical approaches (into 17 chapters) as a guide to teachers:

Philosophy of education- it explains how educational theories arise. The first chapter traces the philosophical underpinnings of teaching strategies such as reflective questioning, problem-solving and critical thinking.

Behaviorism- behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of experience (p.21).

Cognitivism- cognitivists believe that learning results from organizing and processing information effectively. If educators understand how learners process information, they can design learning experiences that optimize this activity. For example, an awareness of how learners transfer short-term memories into meaningful knowledge is likely to be useful in the classroom. (p. 36)

Constructivism – teachers see learners as constructors of meaning. The chapter 4 discussed tree perspectives of constructivism: trivial constructivism and individual meaning-making; social

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constructivism, which emphasizes collaborative meaning-making; and critical constructivism, which considers the construction of meaning as empowerment. (p. 55)

Social learning- it goes with the assumption that learning usually occurs in a social setting. Social learning is examined from two perspectives: the sociological and psychological perspectives.

Cultural learning - it explores the ways in which culture influences learning. In chapter 6 the authors emphasize on theories related to the cultural determination and expression of meaning, and outline the educational implications of these theories.

Intelligence- chapter 7 outlines the concept of intelligence and presents a number of traditional and modern definitions and their justifications. This includes an examination of the use of intelligence testing for educational selection purposes, and concludes by drawing out other learning and teaching implications. (p. 3)

Life course development- it deals with changes and development over the live course. The authors present three distinct models. They examined a number of developmental theories which contrast holistic, psychosocial and moral theories with cognitive ones.

Adult learning- it provides an explanation of the terminology associated with adult education and learning. The theories that underpin recent developments in adult learning are those of andragogy, transformative learning and critical thinking.

Values- it explores the value of education as an instrument in achieving the goals of society and the individual.

Motivation- outlines how motivation theories affect learning.

The learning body- it presents individuals as embodied learners. The chapter 12 draws on a range of disciplines to argue that learning is not simply a function of the mind, but is inherently physical

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Language and learning- it considers the significance of language in thinking and learning. It investigates language development from a number of different perspectives, including its role in reproducing societal advantage.

Experiential and competency-based learning- it examines theories of experiential learning, and skill and competence acquisition.

Inclusivity – it presents an overview of the historical constructs of disability. Chapter 15 discusses two current discourses of disability, the deficit and the inclusivity models, together with their justifications, and indicates the stance adopted by the authors. It evaluates the educational consequences stemming from both discourses and points to a compromise position.

Blended learning – it begins by defining and distinguishing the terms blended learning and computer-based learning. Chapter 16 outlines the development of relevant theories and their current use in online collaborative learning systems.

The future – it considers three major transformations occurring in modern society:

individualization, the network society and globalization, and identifies significant trends and implications for education, together with some strategies for educators.

Of these 17 approaches, teaching RE could find tangent with almost all them. Though more relevant to teachers in England, various approaches are based on philosophies and pedagogies specific to RE, as well as more generic approaches. In “Pedagogies of Religious Education: case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE” (2000) Michael Grimmitt provide a good summary of approaches relating specifically to RE. Another example is a chapter on effective teaching and learning, based on different pedagogies in Julian Stern’s book

“Teaching Religious Education: Researchers in the classroom (2006).

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According to the authors (Jordan et al., 2008) educators base their professional practices on some aspects of theory and claim that a knowledge of theory gives the educator the following benefits including (1) insight into theoretical positions; (2) access to the considered experience of others;

(3) validation and affirmation of existing practice; (4) mind-tools for recognizing, analyzing and evaluating issues; (5) power to manipulate and develop concepts in a reflective manner; (6) terminology to explore epistemological and pedagogical topics; (7) shared educational discourse for engagement in the scholarship of teaching; (8) justifications for personal teaching practices to colleagues and stakeholders; and (9) protection from unproven and faddish ideas (p.1).

Having defined theoretical approaches in part as a set of teachers’ professional practices, the next question becomes: what is teaching through these approaches, and when and how should it be done?

Let us look at one example: the case of the United States. In the USA, religion is not a separate, required subject in public K12 schools; however, religion is embedded in curriculum standards across disciplines, especially in social studies and English, and there are a growing number of elective courses that focus on religious themes or topics explicitly (AAR, 2010). The American Academy of Religion (the world’s largest association of religion scholars) provides comprehensive guidelines of teaching about religion in public schools.

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Examples of Specific RE Pedagogies Phenomenological Approach

As exemplified by Ninian Smart (1969) “The Religious Experience of Mankind” and his dimensions of religion. This is based on a study of phenomena associated with different world religions.

RE as Human Development

As exemplified by Michael Grimmitt (1987) “Religious Education and Human Development”. The focus is on mankind meaning through RE. This is at the heart of learning from religion (AT2).

Experiential approach

As exemplified by David Hay and John Hammond (1990) “New Methods in RE Teaching: An Experiential Approach”. The emphasis is on spiritual development through RE.

Interpretative Approach

As exemplified by Robert Jackson (1997) “Religious Education: An Interpretative Approach”. The focus is on the skill of interpretation, and the importance of internal religious diversity as well as religious plurality.

De-constructivist Approach

As exemplified by Clive Erricker (2000) “Reconstructing Religious, Spiritual and Moral Education”.

See also the Hampshire Agreed Syllabus (2003). This approach is based on constructivist theories of education, the task of education being to construct the ‘self’. In terms of RE, this is to do with the philosophical or spiritual self. World views as well as religions become increasing important in this approach.

Religious literacy

As exemplified by Trevor Cooling (1994) “A Christian Vision for State Education: Reflections on the Theology of Education”. and Andrew Wright (1993) “Religious Education in the Secondary School:

Prospects for Religious Literacy”. The focus is on understanding the central concepts and truth-claims of different religions.

Examples of generic pedagogies Dilemma-based learning

Developed by Phil Wood, Barry Hymer and Deb Michel. The approach involves reflection and action in equal measure. It does this by allowing the teacher to expose their students to enquiries into a number of difficult choices based upon real life. The dilemma-based learning approach helps students to improve their group skills, as enquiries are based upon a joint quest, in the belief that several thinkers working together are more effective than just one. For more information see Dilemma-Based Learning in the Humanities, B. Hymer, P. Wood and D. Michel, published by Chris Kington, London 2007.

Mantle of the expert

This is an inquiry based approach to teaching and learning involving role play (donning the mantle of the expert). It was invented and developed by Professor Dorothy Heathcote at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in the 1980s. The big idea is that the class do all their curriculum work as if they are an imagined group of experts. For more information see www.mantleoftheexpert.com.

Thinking actively in a social context (TASC)

This is an approach developed by Belle Wallace (past president of NACE). The TASC approach encourages personalized learning and a sense of ownership. Students use the

TASC problem solving wheel to guide their thinking. The approach encourages creativity and flexibility, within the framework of the Agreed Syllabus. For more information, see

www.nace.co.uk/tasc and www.tascwheel.com.

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Concepts and processes: the ethos of Curriculum 2008

The focus is on exploring and understanding concepts, rather than a content led curriculum. The emphasis on personal, learning and thinking skills exemplifies this, and the opportunities to work with a range of different curriculum areas is presented through the cross curricular dimensions. See

http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/.

Philosophy for children (P4C) and community of enquiry

This approach was developed by Professor Matthew Lipman and his associates at the

Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children at Montclair State College, New Jersey.

Lipman emphasized the importance of questioning or enquiry in the development of reasoning. In this he was influenced by Vygotsky, the Russian psychologist. Lipman developed a new model of learning, the ‘community of enquiry’, in which teacher and pupils collaborate with each other to grow in

understanding, not only of the material world, but also of the personal and ethical world around them.

For more information see http://sapere.org.uk

Note: Adapted from RE Matters for Every Child. (Essex County Council, 2014)

These guidelines stresses on the following methodological approaches including historical, literary, traditions based, and cultural studies. In applying these approaches, the AAR is also clear that public school teachers would be reminded of three central premises of academic learning about religion: religions are internally diverse; religion are dynamic; and religions are embedded in culture. As stated in AARK-12 Curriculum Guidelines, “These Guidelines support the former, constitutionally sound approach for teaching about religion in public schools- encouraging student awareness of religions, but not acceptance of a particular religion; studying about religion, but not practicing religion; exposing students to a diversity of religious views, but not imposing any particular view; and educating students about all religions, but not promoting or denigrating religion” (Nashille: First Amendment Center, 1999 as cited in AAR, 2010). Furthermore, since few educators have taken religious studies courses, AAR encourages using these Guidelines in substantial teacher pre-service and professional training that imparts content, pedagogy, and academically and constitutionally sound approaches for teaching about religion in K-12 public schools. (p. i.).

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Let us explore some of the instructional resources involved in RE teaching. Selection of the necessary learning resources for teaching is the responsibility of school administrators, teachers, authority and so forth. Learning resources may include, but are not limited to, print and non-print materials; audio, visual, electronic, and digital hardware/software resources; and human resources.

According to Akubue (1992), the pedagogical criteria in selecting instructional materials involve the following elements. The materials should

- relate directly to the objectives;

- be in keeping with the ability of learners;

- be in keeping with the age level of the learners;

- be of interest of learners; and

- be varied enough to make provision for individual differences.