Thus we see that the five hindrances arise and increase, in general, through engagement in the three wrong ways of practice, lack of sense control, lack of mindfulness, and unwise consideration. Specifically, sensual desire arises through unwise consideration of the attractive appearance of things, ill will through unwise consideration of the repulsive features of things, sloth and torpor through unwise consideration of states conducive to lethargy, restlessness and worry through unwise consideration of disturbing states, and doubt through unwise consideration of matters provocative of doubt.
(vipassanāyānika) who develop “serenity preceded by insight.” Both types must eventually cultivate insight by practising the foundations of mindfulness, since insight-wisdom is needed to reach the supramundane path. They differ, not with respect to the inclusion of insight, but in the sequence they follow to develop insight. The practitioner of serenity attains jhāna then cultivates insight, and finally reaches the path. The practitioner of insight reaches the path directly by cultivating insight, without relying on a foundation of jhāna.
We will now consider in turn each of the two approaches to the overcoming of the hindrances, taking first the approach of the gradual training, in which the attainment of serenity is emphasized, and then the approach of the foundations of mindfulness, which emphasizes the direct development of insight. Finally we will briefly note the way the hindrances are eradicated by the four supramundane paths.
The Way of the Gradual Training
We saw above that the hindrances are maintained by a series of conditions beginning with failure to follow after superior men and continuing on through not listening to the true Dhamma, lack of faith, unwise consideration, absence of mindfulness and self-possession, non-restraint of the senses, and engagement in the three wrong ways of practice. The standard canonical presentation of the gradual training, as found for example in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta, shows the way this originative pattern is reversed.1 The presentation begins with the appearance in the world of the Buddha and his teaching of the doctrine, which make available the opportunity to follow after superior men and to hear the true Dhamma. The gain of faith in the teaching leads to commitment to the training, which proceeds according to a graded step-by-step structure designed to lead the practitioner gradually to the goal of liberation.
The most elementary step along the path is the observance of moral discipline. The moral precepts, varying in range from the five precepts for the laity to the full code of Vinaya rules for monks, have the purpose of inculcating restraint of body and speech.
Since the unwholesome mental states motivating bodily and verbal misconduct grow stronger when such actions are indulged in, to overcome the defilements it is necessary to begin by controlling their coarser expressions by way of physical and verbal activity.
This control is exercised by acting in conformity with the rules of conduct. By careful observance of the moral code, the disciple can eliminate the bodily and verbal modes of misconduct which nourish the five hindrances, thereby weakening their outer impulsive force.
The mere observance of moral rules, however, is not sufficient to combat the hold of the defilements upon the interior processes of the mind. The defilements must be dealt with at their own level by being subjected to a thoroughgoing mental discipline. This training begins with the restraint of the senses (indriya sa.vara). Seeing a visible form with the eye, or cognizing any object with any sense faculty, the disciple does not seize upon its
1. Dial., 1:3-26; DN. 1:64-69.
general appearance or details, but controls, guards, and masters his sense faculties.1 Since apprehension of the general appearance and details of sensually attractive and repulsive objects can become a ground for attachment and aversion, the meditator has to avoid this entrancement with sense objects, confining his attention to the bare data without elaborating upon them through subjective commentary. Then, endowed with this self-restraint, the disciple develops mindfulness and discernment (satisampajañña) in all his activities, movements, and modes of deportment.2 By examining everything he does with full awareness and clear comprehension, he can prevent these activities from becoming bases for the arising of the hindrances. To avoid attachment and aversion with respect to the physical supports of life, he is further enjoined to cultivate contentment (santu((hi) with a bare minimum of robes, food, medicine, and shelter.3
These preliminary trainings in morality, restraint of the senses, mindfulness and discernment, and contentment provide the necessary preparation for the cultivation of the higher consciousness through the practice of meditation. Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is prepared to go into solitude to develop the jhānas, and it is here that he meets the hindrances in direct confrontation.
He, returning from alms-gathering after his meal, sits down cross-legged holding the back erect, having made mindfulness rise up in front of him. He, having got rid of covetousness for the world, lives with a mind devoid of coveting, he purifies the mind of coveting. By getting rid of the taint of ill will, he lives benevolent in mind; and compassionate for the welfare of all creatures and beings, he purifies the mind of the taint of ill will. By getting rid of sloth and torpor, he lives devoid of sloth and torpor; perceiving the light, mindful and clearly conscious, he purifies the mind of sloth and torpor. By getting rid of restlessness and worry, he lives calmly, the mind subjectively tranquillised, he purifies the mind of restlessness and worry. By getting rid of doubt, he lives doubt-crossed; unperplexed as to the states that are skilled, he purifies his mind of doubt.4
The elimination of the hindrances requires, first of all, that the meditator honestly appraises his inner condition by way of introspective self-scrutiny: “If a monk while considering knows thus: ‘the five hindrances have not been got rid of by me,’ he should
1. DN. 1:70. MN. 1:180-81.
2. DN. 1:70. MN. 1:181.
3. DN. l:71. MN. 1:180.
4. MLS. 1:227. “So pacchābhattaJ piLYapāta-pa:ikkanto nisīdati pallaKkaJ ābhujitvā ujuJ kāyaJ paLidhāya parimukhaJ satiJ upa::hapetvā. So abhijjhaJ loke pahāya vigatābhijjhena cetasā viharati, abhijjhāya cittaJ parīsodheti. Vyāpāda-padosaJ pahāya avyāpanna-citto viharati, sabba-pāLa-bhūtahitānukampī vyāpāda-padosā cittaJ parisodheti. ThīnamiddhaJ pahāya vigata-thīnamiddho viharati, ālokasaññī sato sampajāno thīna-middhā cittaJ parisodheti. Uddhacca-kukkuccaJ pahāya anuddhato viharati, ajjhattaJ vūpasanta citto uddhacca-kukkuccā cittaJ parisodheti. VicikicchaJ pahāya tiLLa vicikiccho viharati, akathaJkathī kusalesu dhammesu vicikicchāya cittaJ parisodheti.” MN. 1:181. DN.
1:71.
make an effort to get rid of them.”1 When sensuality, ill will, and the other hindrances are present, “he knows with understanding that they are present.”2 Then, when their presence has been detected, what is required is knowledge of their appropriate antidotes.
Since all the hindrances arise, as we saw, through unwise consideration, it follows that the most efficient general way to overcome them is to alter the manner in which things are attended to. This means, in effect, to replace unwise consideration with wise consideration (yonisomanasikāra). Wise consideration is consideration which accords with the true nature of things; it is “expedient reflection, reflection going on the right track,… reflection that considers the facts of impermanence, suffering, soullessness, and impurity according to reality.”3 By correcting the subtle perceptual and cognitive distortions which supply the hindrances with food for growth, the constant cultivation of wise consideration removes the hindrances and holds them at bay: “But, monks, in him who gives systematic attention, sensual desire (… doubt) which has not arisen does not arise, and if it has arisen it is abandoned.”4
Just as each hindrance has its individual nutriment in the particular kind of unwise consideration corresponding to its own unique operative mode, so each hindrance has its
“non-nutriment” (anāhāra), the cause for its elimination, in the appropriate kind of wise consideration.
And what, monks, is no food for the arising of sensual lust not yet arisen, or for the more-becoming and growth thereof, if already arisen? There is, monks, the repulsive feature of things. Systematic attention thereto, if made much of, is no food for the arising of sensual lust, if not yet arisen, or for its more-becoming and growth if already arisen.5
Similarly, wise consideration of the mental liberation of loving kindness (mettā-cetovimutti) counteracts ill will; wise consideration of the elements of effort (ārambhadhātu), exertion (nikkamadhātu), and striving (parakkamadhātu) counteracts sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquility (cetaso vūpasama) counteracts restlessness and worry; and wise consideration of wholesome and unwholesome states (kusalākusaladhammā) counteracts doubt.6
1. MLS. 3:344. “Sace, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaJ jānāti: ‘Appahīnā kho me pañca nīvaraLā’ti, tena,
… bhikkhunā pañcannaJ nīvaraLānaJ pahānāya vāyamitabbaJ.” MN. 3:295.
2. DN. 2:300-301.
3. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 117. “Yoniso manasikāro nāma upāyamanasikāro patha manasikāro anicce aniccanti vā dukkhe dukkhanti vā anattani anattāti vā asubhe asubhanti vā manasikāro.” MN.A.
1:286.
4. KS. 5:7l. “Yoniso ca kho bhikkhave manasikaroto anuppanno ceva kāmacchando (… vicikicchā) nūppajjati. Uppanno ca kāmacchando (… vicikicchā) pahīyati.” SN. 5:85.
5. KS. 5:88. “Ko ca bhikkhave anāhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? Atthi bhikkhave asubbanimittaJ. Tattha yonisomanasikāra-bahulīkāro ayaJ anāhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhi-yyobhāvāya vepullāya.” SN. 5:105.
6. Ibid., pp. 105-106.
In the commentaries the Buddha’s miscellaneous suggestions on the elimination of the hindrances are organized into a systematic exposition of six measures conducive to the vanquishing of each hindrance. Sensual desire is to be abandoned by:
Taking up the sensuously inauspicious subject of meditation; application for the development of the jhāna on the sensuously inauspicious subject of meditation; the guarded state of the controlling faculties of sense; moderation in food; the sympathy and support of good men in the endeavour; stimulating talk that helps the accomplishment of the object in view.1
Ill will or anger is overcome by the following six measures:
Taking up the practice of the love subject of meditation; applying oneself to the development of jhāna on the thought of love; reflection on one’s action as one’s own property; abundance of wise consideration; sympathetic and helpful companionship of the good; and stimulating talk that assists the development of the thought of love and the overthrow of anger.2
The six things leading to the conquest of sloth and torpor are:
The seeing of the reason of sloth and torpor in the fact of eating too much, or gluttony; the changing of the postures completely; reflection on the perception of light; staying in the open; sympathetic and helpful companionship of the good; and stimulating talk that assists in dispelling sloth and torpor.3
The six things conducive to eliminating restlessness and worry are:
Knowledge; questioning; understanding of disciplinary rules; association with those more experienced and older than oneself in the practice of things like virtue; sympathetic and helpful companionship; and stimulating talk that helps the rejection of mental agitation and worry.4
And the following six measures lead to the transcendence of doubt:
The state of being learned in the Buddha’s teaching; of inquiring about the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Order of Real Saints; of understanding thoroughly the nature of the Discipline; of being decided about the truth of the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Order of the Real Saints; sympathetic and helpful companionship; and stimulating talk that helps to dispel doubt.5
1. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 117. “Asubhanimittassa uggaho asubhabhāvanānuyogo indriyesu guttadvāratā bhojane mattaññutā kalyāLamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” MN.A. 1:286.
2. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 120. “Mettānimittassa uggaho mettābhāvanānuyogo kamassakatāpaccavekkhanā pa:isankhanābahulatā kalyāLamittatā sappāyakathā’ti” MN.A. 1:287.
3. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 123. “Atibhojane nimittaggāho iriyāpathasamparivattanatā āloka-saññāmanasikāro abbhokāsavāso kalyāLamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” MN. A. 1:288.
4. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 124. “Bahussutatā paripucchakatā vinaye pakataññutā vuddhasevitā kalyāLamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” MN.A. 1:289.
5. Soma Thera, Way of Mindfulness, p. 126. “Bahussutatā paripucchakatā vinaye pakataññutā adhimokkha-bahulatā kalyāLamittatā sappāyakathā’ti.” MN.A. 1:290.
The suppression of hindrances effected by these techniques is necessary not only as a preliminary for entering upon jhāna, but also to ensure the ability to extend the attainment and make it last long. Even if a meditator can overcome the hindrances by force of sheer concentration, if he has not weakened their grip on the subliminal layers of the mind by right reflection and mental application, they will tend to break through the absorption and dispel his concentration. Therefore his enjoyment of jhāna will be short and superficial.
When a bhikkhu enters upon a jhāna without (first) completely suppressing lust by reviewing the dangers in sense desires, etc., and without (first) completely tranquillising bodily irritability by tranquillising the body, and without (first) completely removing stiffness and torpor by bringing to mind the elements of initiative, etc., and without (first) completely abolishing agitation and worry by bringing to mind the sign of serenity, etc., and without (first) completely purifying his mind of other states that obstruct concentration, then that bhikkhu soon comes out of that jhāna again, like a bee that has gone into an unpurified hive, like a king who has gone into an unclean park.1
The Way of Mindfulness
In the Satipa::hāna Sutta, the “Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness,”2 the Buddha proposes a different technique for overcoming the hindrances, one which utilizes direct, mindful observation of the hindrances themselves as a method for loosening their hold upon the mind. This approach presupposes the same basic set of preliminaries observed in following the gradual training: moral discipline, restraint of the senses, mindfulness and discernment, and contentment. However, instead of employing a variety of techniques to counteract the hindrances with the aim of reaching jhāna, the method of mindfulness proceeds directly to the contemplation of mental and bodily phenomena with the aim of arousing insight. The diverse phenomena of body and mind are classified into four “foundations of mindfulness”: the body (kāya), feelings (vedanā), states of mind (citta), and mental objects (dhamma). The confrontation with the hindrances enters into the last set, the contemplation of mental objects (dhammānupassanā), where it comes as the first exercise in this group:
Here, O bhikkhus, a bhikkhu lives contemplating the mental objects in the mental objects of the five hindrances.
How, O bhikkhus, does a bhikkhu live contemplating mental objects in the mental objects of the five hindrances?
1. PP., p. 157. “Yo hi bhikkhu kāmādīnavapaccavekkhanādīhi kāmacchandaJ na su::hu vikkhambhetvā, kāyapassaddhivasena kāyadu::hullaJ na su::hu pa:ipassaddhaJ katvā, ārambhadhātumanasikārādivasena thīnamiddhaJ na su::hu pa:ivinodetvā, samathanimittamanasikārādivasena uddhaccakukkuccaJ na su::hu samūhataJ katvā, aññe pi samādhiparipanthe dhamme na su::hu visodhetvā jhānaJ samāpajjati, so avisodhitaJ āsayaJ pavi::habhamaro viya, avisuddhaJ uyyānaJ pavi::harājā viya ca, khippaJ-eva nikkhamati.” Vism., p. 122.
2. DN. 2:290-315. MN. 1:55-63.
Here, O bhikkhus, when sensuality is present, a bhikkhu with understanding knows: ‘I have sensuality,’ or when sensuality is not present he with understanding knows: ‘I have no sensuality’. He understands how the arising of the non-arisen sensuality comes to be; he understands how the abandoning of the arisen sensuality comes to be; and he understands how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned sensuality comes to be… anger is present…
sloth and torpor are present… agitation and worry are present… When doubt is present, he with understanding knows: ‘I have doubt’. He understands how the arising of non-arisen doubt comes to be; he understands how the abandoning of the arisen doubt comes to be; and he understands how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned doubt comes to be.1
Since it is impossible for a meditator to completely avoid situations tending to provoke the hindrances into activity, he requires a technique which enables him to deal with them effectively at the causal level – to prevent them from arising if possible, or to eliminate them swiftly and surely if they should arise. Mindful observation provides him with just such a technique. Through bare attention to the hindrances, he is able to gain clear comprehension of their individual nature and to discern their causes and conditions.
Contemplation of the hindrances is a means both to calm and insight. By directly facing each hindrance that presents itself, the meditator is able to divest it of the destructive power it can freely exercise when it escapes undetected. Repeated introspective self-examination, performed with complete sincerity, gives him the self-knowledge required to transform and purify the direction of his mental life. In this way mindfulness of the hindrances becomes a means to the development of concentrated calm.
The same contemplation, when directed towards the hindrances as bare instances of phenomena exhibiting the universal features of phenomena, becomes a means for gaining insight (vipassanā). By observing the rise and fall of the mental processes associated with the hindrances, the meditator gains insight into the fact of impermanence (anicca). By attending to their restless nature and disturbing effects, he sees the truth of suffering (dukkha). And by viewing the hindrances as mere impersonal events, devoid of any substance or ego-oriented reference point, he comes to an appreciation of the truth of selflessness (anattā). If these insights are pursued and developed to the deeper levels they imply, they could even issue in the attainment of the supramundane path. In this way the method of mindfulness is able to transform even obstacles to meditation into integral parts of the meditative process.
1. Dial., 2:334-35. “Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu santaJ vā ajjhattaJ kāmacchandaJ ‘atthi me ajjhattaJ kāmacchando’ti’ pajānāti, asantaJ vā ajjhattaJ kāmacchandaJ ’n’atthi me ajjhattaJ kāmacchando’ti pajānāti. Yathā ca anuppannassa kāmacchandassa uppādo hoti taJ ca pajānāti, yathā ca uppannassa kāmacchandassa pahānaJ hoti taJ ca pajānāti, yathā ca pahinassa kāmacchandassa āyatiJ anuppādo hoti taJ ca pajānāti… ajjhattaJ vyāpādaJ… thīnamiddhaJ… uddhaccakukkuccaJ… vicikicchaJ ’atthi me ajjhattaJ vicikicchā’ti pajānāti, asantaJ vā ajjhattaJ vicikicchaJ ’n’atthi me ajjhattaJ vicikiccha’ti pajānāti. Yathā ca anuppannāya vicikicchāya uppado hoti taJ ca pajānāti, yathā ca uppanāya vicikicchāya pahānaJ hoti taJ ca pajānāti, yathā ca pahīnāya vicikicchāya āyatiJ anuppādo hoti taJ ca pajānāti.”
DN. 2:300-301.
In the practice of insight meditation no deliberate effort is made to develop concentration. Since the practitioner does not confine his attention to a single object, the arising of concentration at the access or absorption level is impossible. Insight meditation involves the contemplation of the constantly changing flow of phenomena.
its object is shifting from moment to moment, as one phenomenon passes away to be replaced by the next. Thus the stability of a single focal point essential to attaining jhāna is absent.
Nevertheless, the practice of insight does produce a spontaneous kind of concentration existing concurrently with itself. This kind of mental unification, called “momentary concentration” (kha5ika samādhi) comes into being through the fixity with which the mind attends to the changing phenomena. As the mind examines undistractedly the phenomenal process, the successive moments of contemplation acquire a concentrative power equal to the task of suppressing the hindrances. Though it does not possess the force needed to attain jhāna, this momentary concentration arisen through insight-practice is sufficiently strong to prevent the hindrances from disturbing contemplation and to allow the wisdom of insight to arise. Thus even without developing jhāna the practitioner of bare insight can build up concentration moment by moment, giving him enough mental unification to serve as a basis for insight and attainment of the path.
In sum, the practitioner of serenity first suppresses the hindrances by access concentration or jhāna, then begins to develop insight. The practitioner of bare insight begins by contemplating the four foundations of mindfulness. He incidentally develops momentary concentration which eliminates the hindrances, then he arouses insight.
The Eradication of the Hindrances
In the jhāna the hindrances are abandoned only by way of suppression. Though inactive, they still remain as dormancies in the mental continuum, capable of cropping up again if sufficiently stimulated. The actual eradication of the hindrances requires the wisdom of the supramundane paths, which abandons the hindrances by cutting them off at the root.
This abandonment by cutting off (samucchedappahāna) is accomplished with respect to different hindrances by different paths in the four stages of supramundane development.
According to the Visuddhimagga, the first path, the path of stream-entry (sotāpattimagga), cuts off the hindrance of doubt. The second, the path of the once-returner (sakadāgāmi magga), weakens all the hindrances but cuts off none. The third, the path of the non-returner (anāgāmi magga), cuts off the hindrances of sensual desire, ill will, and worry. And the fourth, the path of arahatship (arahatta magga), cuts off the remainder – sloth and torpor and restlessness.1 Thus it is only the arahat who has completely overcome all the hindrances. In the arahat, the Buddha explains, “these five hindrances are abandoned, cut down at the root, made like a palmtree stump, made something that has ceased to be, so as not to grow again in future time.”2
1. PP., p. 802. Vism., p. 589.
2. “TesaJ pañca nīvaraLā pahīnā ucchinnamūlā tālāvatthukatā anabhāvakatā āyatiJ anuppādadhammā.”
SN. 5:327.