becoming especially prominent in the first jhāna, where discursive thought has subsided but vitakka remains.
In an illuminating discussion, Shwe Zan Aung shows how the directing of the mind and its concomitants to an object is the elemental meaning of vitakka, applicable in every case where its operation is discernible. Aung explains:
[In cognition of sense objects] the element of vitakka is present as a directing of concomitant elements to a sensible object. In imagination vitakka directs to an image; in conception, to an idea; in symbolical conception, to a concept; in judgments (vinicchaya-vīthi), to a proposition; in reasoning (takkavīthi), alluded to, but not discussed in my Essay (it belongs to the province of logic), to a syllogism or an inference. In doubt, vitakka is a directing now to one object, now to another, back again, etc. In distraction vitakka is a directing of mind to several objects one after another. In first jhāna, vitakka is a directing of mind to the ‘after-image’ etc., and in transcendental consciousness, vitakka is a directing of mind to nibbāna, the Ideal. So engaged it is called sammā-sa.kappa, perfect aspiration.1
A problem seems to arise from the fact that, according to the abhidhammic system of analysis, vitakka is not a universal concomitant of consciousness. It is not present in every state of consciousness. So the question arises how, in those states of consciousness devoid of vitakka, the mind can be mounted onto its object. The commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya answers that when vitakka is absent the mind is directed upon its object through its own nature (attano dhammatāya), without dependence on other states.2 At the level of the second jhāna, after vitakka has subsided, the mind remains focussed on its object even more intensely than before, despite the absence of vitakka.
The Majjhima Nikāya subcommentary explains that a state of mind without vitakka can mount upon the object by the power of vitakka itself through the force of previous experience. Just as a person who has become familiar with a king can enter his dwelling freely without hesitation, so the mind which has gained experience of the object by means of vitakka can remain focussed on the object even after vitakka has left the mind.3
Akusala Vitakka
In itself vitakka is neither unwholesome (akusala) nor wholesome (kusala). It is merely the intrinsically indeterminate function of directing the mind and its concomitants onto the object. Its moral quality is determined by its associated factors, especially its under-lying roots. When it is associated with the unwholesome roots – greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha) – it becomes unwholesome vitakka, When it is associated with the wholesome roots – non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha) – it becomes wholesome vitakka. The vitakka influenced by these roots can reach expression physically as unwholesome bodily action (akusalakāyakamma) or verbally as unwholesome verbal action (akusalavacīkamma). If it does not express itself outwardly it remains internal pertaining to unwholesome mental action (akusala-manokamma).
Unwholesome vitakkas are enumerated in the suttas as threefold: thoughts of sensuality (kāmavitakka), thoughts of ill will (byāpādavitakka), and thoughts of harming (vihi/sāvitakka). The former is thought rooted in the factor of greed; the latter two are differing expressions of thought rooted in hatred or aversion. In describing his practice during his search for enlightenment the Buddha explains that he divided vitakkas into two categories, the wholesome and the unwholesome. On the unwholesome side he placed thoughts of sensuality, thoughts of ill will, and thoughts of harming. Whenever one of these thoughts would arise in him he would dispel it by reflecting that these thoughts lead to the harm of oneself, to the harm of others, and to the harm of both; they are destructive of wisdom, conduce to vexation, and lead away from nibbāna.1 He then explains that whenever one frequently thinks and ponders on these unwholesome thoughts, the mind inclines to them and makes them habitual.2
Unwholesome thoughts (akusalavitakka) are also called unwholesome intentions (akusalasa.kappa), the words vitakka and sa.kappa being used interchangeably. Thus the Buddha also declares that there are three unwholesome intentions – namely, intentions for sense pleasures, for ill will, and for harming. In the SamanamaLYikā Sutta the Buddha states that these unwholesome intentions originate from perception:
And how, carpenter, do these unskilled intentions originate? Their origination is spoken of too. It should be answered that their origination is in perception.
Which perception, for perceptions are many, various, diverse? Perception of sense-pleasure, perception of malevolence, perception of harming – origin-ating from these are unskilled intentions.3
In the SaJyutta Nikāya the Buddha explains that intentions of sensuality arise in depen-dence on sensual perceptions and issue in sensual desire (kāmacchanda), the fever of sensuality (kāmapari8āha), and the search for sensual gratification (kāmapariyesanā).
1. MN. 1:115-18.
2. Ibid.
3. MLS. 2:226. “Ime ca, :hapati, akusalasaJkappā kiJ samu::hānā? Samu::hānā pi nesaJ vuttaJ.
Saññāsamu::hānā ti’ssa vacanīyaJ. Katamā saññā? Saññā pi hi bahu anekavidhā nānappakārikā, kāmasaññā byāpādasaññā vihiJsā saññā; itosamu::hānā akusalasaJkappā.” MN. 2:27.
Engaged in this sensual search the worldling practices wrongly in three ways: by body, speech, and mind. The same pattern is repeated for intentions of ill will and intentions of harming.1
Beyond these three, other minor types of unwholesome thoughts are spoken of in an unspecified way as “evil unwholesome thoughts” (pāpakā akusalā vitakkā). The Buddha declares that the suppression and elimination of all unwholesome thoughts and intentions is one of the essential disciplines of the spiritual life. He says that a monk in training
... wisely reflective, does not give in to thought about sense pleasures that has arisen, he gets rid of it, he eliminates it, makes an end of it, sends it to its ceasing; he does not give in to malevolent thought... to thought of harming...
to evil unskilled mental objects that have constantly arisen, he gets rid of them, eliminates them, makes an end of them, sends them to their ceasing.2
He also states that when unwholesome perceptions arise in a recluse or brahmin, if he does not quickly dispel them and eliminate them “he both fares ill here, with trouble, despair, yearning, and at the separation of the body, after death, has to expect a bad destiny.”3
In striving for jhāna, a yogin will have to eliminate all unwholesome vitakkas. These will be the vitakkas associated with the five hindrances. The vitakka associated with the first hindrance, sensual desire, is clearly thought of sense pleasures. Thoughts of ill will and thoughts of harming will cluster around the hindrance of ill will. The vitakkas connected with the remaining hindrances can be seen as comprised in the “evil, unwholesome states” which a monk has to overcome in the course of his training. The texts record several minor distracting thoughts as “thoughts about relatives, thoughts about one’s district, and thoughts about one’s reputation.”4 The Buddha declares that all unwholesome thoughts cease without remainder in the first jhāna, the practice for eliminating unwholesome thoughts being the four right endeavors – the endeavor to abandon arisen unwholesome states, to prevent unarisen unwholesome states from arising, to arouse unarisen wholesome states, and to develop arisen wholesome states.5
Kusala Vitakka
Kusala vitakka or wholesome thought occurs at three levels:
(a) the wholesome thought of ordinary morally virtuous states of consciousness, (b) the wholesome thought of the first jhāna, and
1. KS. 2:105-106. SN. 2:150-51.
2. MLS. 1:15. “… pa:isamkhā yoniso uppannaJ kāmavitakkaJ nādhivāseti pajahati vinodeti byantikaroti anabhāvam gameti,… byāpādavitakkaJ…, vihiJsāvitakkaJ… uppannuppanne pāpake akusale dhamme nādhivāseti pajahati vinodeti byantikaroti anabhāvaJ gameti.” MN. 1:11.
3. KS. 2:106. SN. 2:152.
4. GS. 1:232. “Ñātivitakko janapada vitakko anavaññatti pa:isaJyutto vitakko.” AN. 3:254.
5. MN. 2:27.
(c) the wholesome thought of the supramundane path consciousness present as noble right intention (ariya sammā sa.kappa).
Ordinary kusala vitakka
Vitakka becomes wholesome in association with the three wholesome roots, of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. Kammically wholesome thoughts that do not directly involve a higher spiritual experience are analyzed in the suttas as threefold:
thoughts of renunciation (nekkhammavitakka), thoughts of benevolence (abyāpādavitakka), and thoughts of harmlessness (avihi/sāvitakka). These three are the direct antitheses of the three unwholesome thoughts. The thought of renunciation opposes the thought of sensuality, the thought of benevolence the thought of ill will, the thought of harmlessness the thought of harming. The Buddha explains that when he was a Bodhisatta he established a category of wholesome thoughts into which he put the three thoughts of renunciation, benevolence, and harmlessness. He understood that these thoughts conduce neither to the harm of oneself, to the harm of others, or to the harm of both, that they lead to the growth of wisdom, to freedom from vexation, and to the attainment of nibbāna. Moreover, he declares, by thinking and pondering on the thought of renunciation one can expel thoughts of sensuality; by thinking thoughts of benevolence one can expel thoughts of ill will; and by thinking thoughts of harmlessness one can expel thoughts of harming.1
Wholesome thoughts are also spoken of in the suttas under the name “wholesome intentions” (kusalasa.kappa), which are of the same threefold nature.2 The Buddha declares that the intention of renunciation originates from the perception of renunciation (nekkhammasaññā). It issues in the desire for renunciation (nekkhammacchanda), the yearning for renunciation (nekkhammapari8āha), and the search for renunciation (nekkhammapariyesanā). Engaged in this search the noble disciple practices rightly in three ways: by body, speech, and mind. The same pattern is repeated for intentions of benevolence and harmlessness.3
In the VitakkasaL:hāna Sutta the Buddha recommends five methods of using wholesome thoughts (kusalavitakka) to overcome unwholesome thoughts (akusalavitakka), here classified by way of their roots as connected with desire, hatred, and delusion. One method involves applying a wholesome thought to eliminate the unwholesome thought directly opposed to it:
Like an experienced carpenter or carpenter’s apprentice, striking hard at, pushing out, and getting rid of a coarse peg with a fine one, should the bhikkhu in order to get rid of the adventitious object, reflect on a different object which is connected with skill. Then the evil unskillful thoughts connected with desire, hate and delusion are eliminated; they disappear. By
1. MLS. 1:150. MN. 1:116.
2. MLS. 2:227. MN. 2:27.
3. KS. 2:106. SN. 2:151-52.
their elimination, the mind stands firm, settles down, becomes unified, and concentrated, just within (his subject of meditation).1
The other four ways of overcoming unwholesome thoughts are (i) pondering on their disadvantages (ādīnava), (ii) trying not to pay any attention to them,
(iii) reflecting on the removal of the [thought] source of those unskilful thoughts, and
(iv) with clenched teeth and tongue pressing the palate, restraining, subduing, and beating down the [evil] mind by the [good] mind.2
This advice is given to a bhikkhu who is training himself to attain the higher consciousness (adhicitta), an equivalent term for jhāna. When unwholesome thoughts arise from time to time hindering his progress, he can develop wholesome thoughts to overcome them. The commentary explains that he should reflect on an unlovely object (asubhanimitta) in order to overcome lustful thought connected with living beings and on impermanence in order to overcome thoughts of desire connected with inanimate objects. He should cultivate loving kindness in order to overcome hatred towards living beings and on the modes of materiality (dhātumanasikāro) to overcome hatred towards inanimate objects.3
Kusalavitakka in jhāna
The general function of vitakka, as we have seen, is to direct the mind and its associated factors onto the object. In jhāna this function becomes stronger and more pronounced than on other occasions. On occasions of jhānic consciousness it would perhaps be more exact to say that vitakka thrusts its concomitants into the object rather than that it directs them onto the object. The Visuddhimagga thus characterizes the function of jhānic vitakka to be “to strike at and thresh – for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied thought.”4
1. Soma Thera, Comp. trans. and ed., The Removal of Distracting Thoughts, Vitakka-Sa5(hāna Sutta. A Discourse of the Buddha (Majjhima-Nikāya No. 20). (Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society, 1960), p. 1. “Seyyathāpi bhikkhave dakkho palagaLYo vā palagaLYantevāsī vā sukhumāya āLiyā olārikaJ āLiJ abhinīhaneyya, abhinivajjeyya – evaJ eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhuno yaJ nimittaJ āgamma yaJ nimittaJ manasikaroto uppajjanti pāpakā akusalā vitakkā chandūpasaJhitā pi, dosūpasaJhitā pi mohūpasaJhitā pi, tena bhikkhave bhikkhunā tamhā nimittā aññaJ nimittaJ manasikātabbaJ kusalūpasaJhitaJ; tassa tamhā nimittā aññaJ nimittaJ manasikaroto kusalūpasaJhitaJ ye pāpakā akusalā vitakkā chandūpasaJhitā… te pahīyanti te abbhatthaJ gacchanti, tesaJ pahānā ajjhattaJ eva cittaJ santi::hati sannisīdati ekodi hoti samādhiyati.” MN. 1:119.
2. Ibid. 119ff.
3. Reflection on materiality (dhātumanasikāra) means the reflection on the elements of which all tangible objects are made. When one reflects on the basic material elements one would realize that no one particular element is responsible for the cause of his anger. This realization helps him eliminate hatred toward material objects.
4. PP., p. 148. “Āhanana-pariyāhananaraso, tathā hi tena yogāvacaro ārammaLaJ vitakkāhataJ vitakkapariyāhataJ karotī ti vuccati.” Vism., p. 114.
In the context of jhāna, vitakka is qualified by another term, appanā, meaning absorption. The Milindapañha states this quality of absorption to be the salient characteristic of vitakka: “Vitakka, your majesty, has the characteristic of absorption.
Just as a carpenter drives (appeti) a well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint so vitakka has the characteristic of absorption.”1 (Wr. tr.). Shwe Zan Aung makes explicit the distinction between vitakka in ordinary states of consciousness and vitakka on occasions of jhāna as follows:
Ordinary vitakka merely throws its concomitants onto the surface, so to speak, of an object – i.e., it is the initiative element in cognition of a superficial kind.
But appana-vitakka is mind penetrating into the inwardness or import of its object, and it has come to be applied to samādhi, ‘concentration’ or developed individualization of thought.2
Vitakka at the level of absorption is compared to a solid body, which sinks to the bottom of water and remains fixed there; the vitakka of ordinary consciousness is compared to a hollow ball which stays under the water when held down by pressure but rises to the surface when the pressure is removed.3 The word appanā used to define vitakka comes to be applied to concentration of the jhānic level, called appanā samādhi or “absorption-concentration” in contrast to the pre-jhānic concentration called upacāra samādhi or
“access concentration.”
The object of jhāna into which vitakka thrusts the mind and its concomitants is the counterpart sign (pa(ibhāganimitta). We already met this object in our discussion of the suppression of the hindrances, but its nature must now be further clarified. When a meditator begins his practice for the attainment of jhāna, he takes a preliminary object such as a colored or elemental kasi5a and concentrates on it until he is able to visualize it with his eyes closed as clearly as when he looks at it with eyes open. Whenever he notices that the object is not clear he should open his eyes and look at the object again until he is able to build up a clear mental impression of its mode of appearance. Then, remembering the appearance of the object, he should shut his eyes again and repeat the process of visualization as long as is required. When the object comes into focus when he attends to it with eyes shut as clearly as it does when he looks at it with open eyes the learning sign (uggahanimitta) is said to have arisen.4 At this point the yogin should leave off the physical object and focus solely on the learning sign, developing it “by reiterated reaction to it and by striking at it with applied thought and sustained thought.”5
1. “AppanālakkhaLo mahārāja vitakko. Yathā mahārāja vaYYhakī suparikammakataJ dāruJ sandhismiJ appeti, evaJ kho mahārāja appanālakkhaLo vitakkho’ti” V. Trenckner, ed. The Milindapañho, Being Dialogues Between King Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Nagasena (Pali Text Society Publication Series no. 69; London: Luzac & Co., for the Pali Text Society, 1880-1962), p. 62 (hereafter cited as Milp.).
2. Compendium, p. 57.
3. Ibid.
4. PP., p. 130. Vism., pp. 101-102.
5. PP., p. 130. Vism., pp. 101-102.
As he practices thus the jhāna factors grow in strength, each suppressing its respective hindrance. Vitakka, as we saw, counters the hindrance of sloth and torpor, eventually reducing it to a state of complete suppression. When the hindrances are suppressed and the defilements subside the mind enters access concentration. At this time the learning sign is replaced by the counterpart sign. The Visuddhimagga explains the difference between the two signs thus:
In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent. But the counterpart sign appears as if breaking out from the learning sign, and a hundred times, a thousand times, more purified, like a looking-glass disk drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the moon’s disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a thunder cloud. But it has neither colour nor shape; for if it had, it would be cognizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension [by insight] and stamped with the three characteristics. But it is not like that. For it is born only of perception in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere mode of appearance.1
The counterpart sign is the object of both access concentration and jhāna. The difference between the latter two consists, not in their object, but in the strength of their respective jhāna factors. In the former the jhāna factors are still weak and not yet fully developed. In the latter they are developed to the point where they can actually thrust the mind into the object with the force of full absorption. In this process of thrusting, the factor most responsible for bringing about the mind’s absorption in the counterpart sign is the factor of vitakka.
Since vitakka in jhāna is associated with the wholesome roots, it will take form as a wholesome thought of renunciation, of benevolence and of harmlessness. Its occurrence in these modes stems from the abandonment of the hindrances of sensual desire and ill will, the defilements responsible for the three unwholesome thoughts of sensuality, ill will, and harming. Since vitakka is needed to directly counter the hindrance opposite to itself, it performs the task of suppressing sloth and torpor. And since vitakka has the general function of directing the mind to the object, it will also thrust the mind into the counterpart sign, keeping it fixed and focussed there with the intensity of absorption-concentration.
Kusalavitakka in the Noble Path
The highest form of wholesome vitakka is the vitakka included in the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path, with its eight factors, operates at two levels – the mundane and the supramundane. The mundane (lokiya) path is developed on occasions of wholesome consciousness when the aspirant is striving to reach penetration of the
1. PP., p. 130. “Uggahanimitte kasiLadoso paññāyati. Pa:ibhāganimittaJ, thavikato nihatādāsamaLYalaJ viya, suddhotasaKkhathalaJ viya, valāhakantarā nikkhantacandamaLYalaJ viya, meghamukhe balākā viya, uggahanimittaJ padāletvā nikkhantaJ iva tato sataguLaJ sahassaguLaJ suparisuddhaJ hutvā upa::hāti. TaJ ca kho pana n’eva vaõõavantaJ, na saL:hānavantaJ. Yadi hi taJ īdisaJ bhaveyya, cakkhuviññeyyaJ siyā oXārikaJ sammasanūpagaJ tilakkhaLabhāhataJ. Na pan’etaJ tādisaJ. KevalaJ hi samādhilābhino upa::hānākāramattaJ saññājaJ etan ti.” Vism., p. 102.
Four Noble Truths and to eradicate defilements. The supramundane (lokutara) path arises when the practice is fully mature. When this path arises it penetrates the four truths by realizing nibbāna as its object, simultaneously eradicating defilements.
Wholesome vitakka figures on both levels of the noble path as sammāsa.kappa, “right intention”, the second factor of the path. At the mundane stage it is the threefold wholesome thought of renunciation, benevolence, and harmlessness. At the supramun-dane level it is the directive factor of consciousness which thrusts the mind upon its object, in this case nibbāna, the unconditioned element. The Buddha clarifies the twofold division of right intention in the Mahācattārīsaka Sutta as follows:
And what, monks, is the right purpose that has cankers, is on the side of merit, and ripens unto cleaving? Purpose for renunciation, purpose for non-ill will, purpose for nonharming. This, monks, is right purpose that... ripens unto cleaving.
And what, monks, is the right purpose that is ariyan, cankerless, super-mundane, a component of the Way? Whatever, monks, is reasoning, initial thought, purpose, an activity of speech through the complete focussing and application of the mind in one who, by developing the ariyan Way, is of ariyan thought, of cankerless thought, and is conversant with the ariyan Way – this, monks, is right purpose that is ariyan, cankerless, supermundane, a compon-ent of the Way.1
Right intention in this latter sense is still a wholesome thought of renunciation, benevolence, and harmlessness, since it is associated with non-greed and non-hatred. Its primary characteristic, however, is its ability to lead the mind into absorption upon its supramundane object. Therefore it is this aspect which the Buddha emphasizes in his definition of the ariyan sammāsa.kappa.