The various meditation subjects that the Buddha prescribed on different occasions for the development of serenity have been systematized in the commentaries into a set called the forty kamma((hānas. The word kamma((hāna means literally a place of work.
It is applied to the subjects of meditation since these are the places where the meditator undertakes the work pertaining to his calling, the work of meditation. An equivalent term occurring in the texts in āramma5a, meaning “object” in general, but in this context the object focussed on in developing concentration.
1. PP., p. 100. Vism., p. 80.
2. PP., p. 102. “Rāgacarito, dosacarito, mohacarito, saddhācarito, buddhicarito, vitakkacarito.” Vism., p. 82.
The forty meditation subjects are distributed into seven categories. They are enumerated in the Visuddhimagga as follows: ten kasi5as, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, four divine abidings, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.1
A kasi5a is a device representing a particular quality used as a support for concentration.
The ten kasi5as are the earth kasi5a, water kasi5a, fire kasi5a, wind kasi5a, blue kasi5a, yellow kasi5a, red kasi5a, white kasi5a, light kasi5a, and limited space kasi5a. The word kasi5a has the meaning of “entirety” (sakala((hena). It is extended to these ten objects of meditation in that each represents the entire quality appropriate to itself. As used in the manuals of meditation, a kasi5a can signify any of three items: first the ma5>ala, the circle or other physical object used as the initial subject of concentration;
second the nimitta, the mental image of the object obtained from repeated contemplation of the device; and third the jhāna that arises from meditation on the nimitta. Here kasi5a is used to indicate principally the physical basis for concentration. This can be either a naturally occuring form of the element or color chosen, or an artificially produced device such as a colored or elemental disk that the meditator can use at his convenience in his meditation quarters.
The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in the decomposition of a corpse. These are: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skeleton. The primary purpose behind these meditations is to reduce sensual lust by gaining a clear perception of the repulsiveness of the body. In order to gain the “sign” of the corpses, actual dead bodies have to be seen. Thence these subjects are also known as the cemetery meditations.
The ten recollections are: the recollections of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, morality, generosity, and the deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing, and the recollection of peace. The first three are devotional contemplations on the sublime qualities of the “three jewels”, the primary objects of Buddhist veneration. The second three are reflections on two cardinal Buddhist virtues and on the devas inhabiting the heavenly worlds, intended principally for those still intent on a higher rebirth. Mindfulness of death is reflection on the inevitability of death, a constant spur to spiritual exertion. Mindfulness of the body involves the mental dissection of the body into thirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to perceiving its unattractiveness. Mindfulness of breathing is awareness of the in-and-out movement of the breath, perhaps the most fundamental of all Buddhist meditation subjects. And the recollection of peace is reflection on the qualities of nibbāna.
The four divine abidings are the development of boundless loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. These meditations are also called the
“immeasurables” (appamaññā) because they are to be developed towards all sentient beings without qualification or exclusiveness.
1. PP., p. 112. Vism., p. 89. The Pāli names for the forty kamma((hānas are given in the Appendix 2.
The four immaterial states are the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither perception nor non-perception. These are the objects leading to the four corresponding meditative attainments called the imaterial jhānas (arūpajjhāna), immaterial deliverances (āruppā vimokkhā) or immaterial attainments (arūpasamāpatti).
The one perception is the perception of the repulsiveness of food. The one defining is the defining of the four elements, that is, the analysis of the physical body into the elemental modes of solidity, fluidity, heat, and oscillation.
The forty kamma((hānas are treated in the Pāli commentarial texts from two important angles – one their ability to induce different levels of concentration, the other their suitability for different temperaments.
Not all meditation subjects are equally effective in inducing the deeper levels of concentration. As we explained above, beyond the preliminary stage of initial concen-tration (parikammasamādhi) concenconcen-tration can occur either at the level of access concentration (upacārasamādhi) or at the level of absorption concentration (appa5āsamādhi), depending upon the strength of the jhāna factors in the meditative state. Absorption too, consisting in the eight attainments – the four lower jhānas and the four āruppas – can occur at the different levels corresponding to these eight attainments.
Therefore the forty kamma((hānas are first distinguished on the basis of their capacity for inducing only access or for inducing full absorption as well; then those able to induce absorption are distinguished further according to their ability to induce the different levels of jhāna.
Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leading only to access concentration. These are eight recollections – i.e., those excepting mindfulness of the body and mindfulness of breathing – plus the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment and the defining of the four elements. Cultivation of these subjects can cause the hindrances to subside and the jhāna factors to become manifest. However, because they are occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve an active application of discursive thought they cannot lead concentration beyond the stage of access. The other thirty subjects can all lead to absorption.
Of these latter, the ten kasi5as and mindfulness of breathing bring all four jhānas their efficiency in this regard due apparently to their simplicity and freedom from thought construction. The ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body bring only the first jhāna, being limited because consciousness can only hold onto them with the aid of applied thought (vitakka), which is absent in the second and higher jhānas. The first three divine abidings can induce the lower three jhānas but not the fourth, since they arise in association with pleasant feeling (sukha), present in the first three jhānas but replaced by neutral feeling in the fourth. Conversely, because it requires the company of neutral feeling and cannot coexist with pleasant feeling, the divine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the fourth jhāna, where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The four immaterial states conduce to the respective immaterial jhānas corresponding to their names; but because these latter are identical in factorial
constitution with the fourth jhāna, differing only in their objects, the four immaterial states are said to lead to the fourth jhāna.
Since in the main section of the present work we wish to follow the progress of meditation through all four jhānas, we will presume the case of a meditator who has taken as his meditation-subject either a kasi5a or mindfulness of breathing.
The forty kamma((hānas are also differentiated according to their appropriateness for different character types. The principal temperaments recognized for this purpose are, as we said, six – the greedy, the hating, the deluded, the faithful, the intelligent, and the speculative. The danger of oversimplification involved in this scheme has been acknowledged by ancient teachers, and the possibility of complex combinations of traits finds ready affirmation. But the sixfold typology is taken to be sufficient as a pragmatic guideline for the purpose it is intended to serve, the assignment of a suitable subject to a meditator.
The Visuddhimagga divides the forty kamma((hānas among the different temperaments as follows. The ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body, clearly intended to attenuate sensual desire, are eleven subjects suitable for those of greedy temperament.
Eight subjects, the four divine abidings and four color kasi5as, are appropriate for the hating temperament.1 Mindfulness of breathing is one recollection suitable for those of the deluded and the speculative temperaments. The first six recollections are appropriate for the faithful temperament. Four subjects – mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment – are especially effective for those of intelligent temperament. The remaining six kasi5as and the immaterial states are suitable for all kinds of temperaments. But the kasi5as should be limited in size for one of speculative temperament and large in size for one of deluded temperament.2
Immediately after giving this breakdown Buddhaghosa adds a proviso to prevent misunderstanding. He states that this division by way of temperament is made on the basis of direct opposition and complete suitability, but actually there is no wholesome form of meditation that does not suppress the defilements and cultivate virtuous mental factors. He then cites a passage from the Meghiya Sutta advising a single meditator to meditate on foulness to abandon lust, on loving kindness to abandon hatred, on breathing to cut off discursive thought, and on impermanence to eliminate the conceit “I am”.3
1. Exactly why the color kasi5as are offered as an antidote to hatred is not explained. Perhaps the contemplation of color has a subtle psychological effect of reducing anger and aversion.
2. PP., pp. 117-18. Vism., p. 92-93.
3. PP., p. 118. AN. 4:358.