Power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. Hofstede empirically categorized cultures at the national level with several dimensions, including power distance, and uncertainty avoidance (Gladwind & Hofstede, 1981). Power distance defined as “the acceptable degree of hierarchical power inequality existing between the authority and the subordinate” (Hofstede, 1980). Uncertainty avoidance refers to “the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertainty or an unknown situation.” (Hofstede & Bond, 1993).
Most of the research conducted in Western countries regarding PCB are typically low in power distance and uncertainty avoidance. Conversely, Eastern countries tend to have higher degrees in both dimensions.
Individuals in high power distance are more likely to show greater respect, and loyalty to authority (Chao, Cheung, & Wu, 2011; Farh et al., 1997). The higher power distance nations tend to find “greater centralization, taller organization pyramids, closer supervision, and much less in the way of participative management” (Gladwind & Hofstede, 1981, p. 682). Chao et al.
(2011) indicates that power distance is a significant moderator between PCB and the counterproductive work behavior (CWB). When individual in high power distance countries, perceive PCB, even though the prior promises were not fulfilled by the organization, they would reasonably perform less behavior that against the authorities. If individuals in the low power distance countries feel been betrayed by the organization, they tend to generate negative performance and behavior to convey their unsatisfied emotion (Chao et al., 2011). Also, the other study from Zagenczyk et al. (2014) found power distance has a moderation effect between PCB and exit in that higher power distance orientation can weaken the positive relationship.
With the finding, there is an assumption that the higher level of power distance culture may lead to higher resistance of breach, so the impact to turnover intention may be lower. For OCB performance, it would be lower with higher power distance culture when individuals face breach since the change will not be obvious comparing with the lower power distance culture.
On the other hand, the lower level of power distance culture let the employees convey their real feeling and emotion, which could trigger the higher intent to leave once they feel breached.
For uncertainty avoidance, it was also proved to have higher degree in Eastern countries and much lower in the Western countries. Although studies from 2010 to 2019 rarely probe into the moderation effect of uncertainty avoidance, this study proposes that higher level of uncertainty avoidance can enhance employees’ intention to leave when facing breach, because these group of people tend to avoid as much negative impact as possible. Deciding to leave the current workplace would be preferable comparing to endure the uncertain outcome. For OCB performance, it will increase in the higher level of uncertainty avoidance culture, as individuals may try to contribute more to remove the uncertain feeling of breach. With the assumption, this study will test if power distance and uncertainty avoidance can moderate the associations of PCB and work outcomes. Hence, the hypothesis 3a, 3b, 4a and 4b are proposed.
Hypothesis 3a: Power distance will moderate the relationship between PCB and TI, whereby a higher level of power distance will decrease the effect of PCB on TI.
Hypothesis 3b: Uncertainty avoidance will moderate the relationship between PCB and TI, whereby a higher level of uncertainty avoidance will increase the effect of PCB on TI.
Hypothesis 4a: Power distance will moderate the relationship between PCB and OCB, whereby a higher level of power distance will increase the effect of PCB on OCB.
Hypothesis 4b: Uncertainty avoidance will moderate the relationship between PCB and OCB, whereby a higher level of uncertainty avoidance will decrease the effect of PCB on OCB.
Percentage of individual using internet. With the well-developed internet accessibility these years, people can get new information by various channels. It makes our life become more convenient, however, also increases some concern in workplace, such as information asymmetry. The term, information asymmetry refers to a situation when the message and information are not evenly received by the different parties, which may potentially increase the risk for PCB (Dries & De Gieter, 2014). For example, once the individuals obtain more critical information by internet than other parties (i.e. employer, colleagues, people from other company), they will start comparing the advantages and disadvantages among the internal workplace or even the external environment. By those comparing process, people will evaluate if their organization has fulfilled the original expectations or promises. If the results of the comparison lead to a feeling of breach by the current company, the intention to leave or to withdraw OCB contribution will be strengthened. Therefore, the internet popularity of a country is predicted to positively moderate the association between PCB and turnover intention, as well as PCB and OCB, which are stated as the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3c: The percentage of individuals using internet will moderate the relationship between PCB and TI, whereby a higher percentage will increase the effect of PCB on TI.
Hypothesis 4c: The percentage of individuals using internet will moderate the relationship between PCB and OCB, whereby a higher percentage will increase the effect of PCB on OCB.
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, it demonstrates the concept, procedure, and the statistical techniques to make sure the research process adequately meets the research purpose. This chapter describe the research framework, hypothesis, research procedure, design, and method. The research method of meta-analysis is introduced in detail. Lastly, the characteristics of the studies included in this meta-analysis are presented.