CHAPTER III. NARRATIVE CASE
3.1 The Dawn of Communist Era, Wars and Unification (1945-1975)
3.1.3. The Southern and Northern government (1955-1975)
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Vietnam assisted about 900,000 Roman Catholics to travel and resettle in the South.
They expected those people would support the new government, backed by the American, become activists to defense communists.
3.1.3. The Southern and Northern government (1955-1975) 3.1.3.1. Buddhism Restriction
This period was one of the most complex periods for the religious activities in Vietnam. The South government had a negative reputation on religious discrimination. The Buddhist as a consequence became anxious. Buddhism crisis in 1963 attracted international attention, thus contributed to breakdown the dictatorship in South Viet Nam. The North in the meantime failed to transform their economy situation, however, the government managed to work with Buddhist leaders to established Buddhism Association in around 10 Northern provinces. As can be seen, in the historical national context, the secular Communism asserted symbiosis object with religious groups, to against Ngo Dinh Diem (South president’s government).
Ngo Dinh Diem was a devout Roman Catholic, who had been appointed as the prime minister of South Vietnam. He favored by the US government, with the promise of establishing a strong anticommunist government. Between 1955 and 1961, the USA poured $1.65 billion into the South Vietnam, making that country the fifth largest recipient of US aid at the time (Robert and Olson, 1996). 18
Wesley Fishel, a political scientist at Michigan State University (MSU) led the MSU team to assisted president Ngo Dinh Diem with training and advice on matters of
18 Jame S Olson & Randy Roberts. 1996. Where do the Dominos fell: America and Vietnam, 1945- 1990. NY: St Martin Press
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refugee resettlement, civil service education and police administration (Latham, 2006)19. The expert demonstrated to an American audience about an optimistic vision of South Vietnam modernization. He elided the increasing problems of Diem's corruption and dictatorial regime. Incidentally Vietnam was placed into the midst of nation-building struggle. Latham (2006)20 expressed the resultant society was a product of political miscegenation: one with a traditional base, influenced by Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism ideas and values, topped by the weighty superstructure of Western organizations, principals, laws, and techniques. Indeed, if the government leaders were more objective to the mass psychology of the public sphere, they would find a way to calm negative feeling of Buddhism and other traditional religions. However, Diem and his family published legal policies, reinforced the citizen's feeling that the government was building a Catholic State. For instance, the Morality Law, which banned gambling, dancing, beauty contests, martial art competitions and cockfighting. Nguyen (2012)21 stated on his observation while working for the South Vietnam government as Catholicism was a condition to granting some favors- a job, a new position, and promotion. And a small number of priests in each area were powerful. Their request for some kind of local government and military material such as lumber, metal sheets or cement, and military trucks, were always approved.
The Buddhist monks, meanwhile, never dreamed of receiving such favors. He added that the Sai Gon (Ho Chi Minh city after 1975) government did not recognize any of
19 Michael E, Latham. 2006. Redirecting the revolution. Third World Quarterly, pp 27-41 20Michael E, Latham. 2006. Redirecting the revolution. Third World Quarterly, pp 27-41
21 Cong Luan, Nguyen. 2012. Nationalist in Vietnam Wars: Memoirs of a Victim Turned Soldier.
Indiana University Press, p233
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the Buddhist factions as the official church representing the majority of Vietnamese Buddhists, but only as groups of Buddhists under the status of the nonprofit association.
3.1.3.2 Buddhism and the Second Revolution of Vietnamese Communist Party
In 1955, the government launched the Land Reform program, which was considered as the second Revolution of the Communist Party. Despite the revolution affected on government reputation in the public and the elites, the monastic members insisted on their political vision. This is due to the government endeavored to maintain the properties that belong to the scared places. The target of the Land Reform was to share agriculture product, living spaces among different social class people within the country. Many party leaders were not familiar with the paper work in the office. They struggled to establish the governmental management system. Consequently, after two years, Ho Chi Minh publicity admitted the government false. The public trust on the new government was steeped down but chairman Ho gained the support from religious followers. For instance, in the land reform program, when the government collects agriculture land to share for the farmers, temples or churches land were excluded. The aim of guarantee material life of the monastic, the government reduced tax on temple and church property.
In 1958, the Buddhism association found in the North included Buddhism adherents in about 10 provinces. Since then, Buddhism Management administration rooted in the villages and communities. After around 900,000 of the Catholics fled from the home, Ho Chi Minh urged his civilians as the government still respect religious freedom. The government does not restrict individual beliefs, however, will punish
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anyone who takes advantage of religion to go against the government.' For example, when priest Pham Ba Truc passed away, his funeral was organized as a national funeral. Around 400 Roman Catholics joined the praying session in Ha Noi Opera house. As can be seen, religious practice in the public sphere was not restricted.
3.1.3.2- How Hoa Hao Buddhism and Cao Dai-ism opposed to Communist Party?
The Buddhism association in the North challenged the appearance of two opposite Buddhism branches that assisted the French colonial restore process. Cao Dai was found in 1919, in an island of South Vietnam. The Buddhism Hoa Hao sect was more recent vintage, which was created in 1939. The Hoa-Hao philosophy was based on Master Buddha, Pacifier of the West, who in 1830 predicted that the end of Vietnamese Empire at hands of ‘men come from the West'. The two newfound Buddhism branches have not stayed in the same line with the Viet Minh. According to Fall (1995)22, on January 8, 1947, the Cao Dai signed a military convention with the French High Command, promising ‘loyal collaboration' with the French and respect for laws and regulations of the authorities. In exchange, the French were to arm and pay the organized armed forces of the Cao-Dai, to be composed of ‘Mobile Brigades' and of garrison troops. This was done, and the majority of the Cao Dai forces cooperated from then on with the French troops with the exception of a small group under Trinh Minh The, an ultranationalist who in 1951 tool to the hills with a few hundred men.
22 Bernad. B, Fall. 1955. The Political-Religious Sects of Viet-Nam. Pacific Affairs, Vo.28, No.3, pp. 235-253
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In 1954, when Dien Bien Phu battlefield won by VietMinh, Cao Dai sects struggled to survive, they seeked the help from Premier Diem. However, they were failed to work under the new South Vietnam government. On June 1955, the leaders from the two branched crossed into Cambodia. The disagreement on political ideology with Communism raised in the two sects along the history but contemporary Vietnamese government still official recognized their identities. Associations and adherents belong to the two are legally practiced in the present. This is account for the enthusiastic of the contemporary government to guarantee religious freedom within the state.
3.1.3.3 The Buddhism Anger
The consequence of problematic government was the burst out in Hue (the ancient capital of Vietnam) on Buddha's Birthday. Buddhist striped flag flew illegally. The movement started to condemn Diem and his presidents. In Binh Dinh and other coastal provinces, Buddhist protests continuously exposed. South Vietnam believed the Communists was behind the scene. For illustration, all the protests were well planned. English-language placards were displayed. The leaflets and message in English were published and handed out on the street. The international press raised significant concern over the events.
The reaction of Diem administration was stubborn, he asked for extra powers to expand the army. He acted aggressively in killing and arresting monks and nuns. In Hue, around 400 monks, backed up with thousand of civilians to resist military Special Forces for about 8 hours. South Vietnam pointed out that their authoritarian was being threatened. Buddhism protests ranged quickly and uncontrollable. The
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execution session from Diem had a strong negative effect on his own officers and enlisted men, in term of morality. They were also Vietnamese soldiers, who somehow still worship the Buddha privately. Rumors and fears accumulated in the South soldiers. The Buddhism fire kept escalating all over the state. Local government turned not to obey the central order. The military junta made a ridiculous mistake that releasing hundreds of captured communist intelligence officers and secret agents operating in the South. They believed that it was an exchange to calm the Buddhist Anger. In some extension, it was also the signal of un-cooperative action from the military. Diem government was weakening. The anti-Diem protests started from his administrators. Many in the military silently prepared for the coup. His relation with the U.S government also experienced a critical period. Washington attempted to suspend aid to Sai Gon.
Madame Nhu (Diem sister in Law) came to Lost Angeles to raise support for the South Vietnam. In November 1963, the first declaration of the coup leader was officially announced in the media. President Diem and his brother Nhu got assassinated. It was three weeks before President Kenedy also assassinated. The rumorß leaked out that Soviet Union got involved in the two incidents, led to a major decision of the new USA government: the American soldiers directly sent to South Vietnam.
The Gulf of Tonkin crisis in August 1964 created a moral season to deploy 50,000 soldiers into Vietnam. The American was not alone. The British made their clear opposition to the war, whereas the UAS allies such as Australia, Korea, Thailand, New Zealand, Philippine and the Spain also contributed soldiers. The number of
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‘foreigners' (over half millions of servicemen) transformed Saigon and other coastal provinces rapidly. Leisure life was invested along with military fund. Several nightclubs and luxury hotels built. Despite the new president of Vietnam (Nguyen Cao Ky) was also Roman Catholics, he had no attention to deduct the leisure services.
Unfortunately, they have not imagined that events and parties turned to be favorite bombing attack for the Communists. Religious societies in South Vietnam were diverse in this period. The Roman Catholic people who fled from the North were abandoned when Diem Government collapsed. They were forced labors to work in rubber trees field. Gradually, their opposition with Communism Party was ceased.
They became potential supporters for the upcoming offensive in American Embassy, Sai Gon.
3.1.3.4 The Fear of Thai soldiers on Vietnamese monks
Around 38,958 Thais soldiers sent to Vietnam. They operated troop in the forest.
They have adhered Buddhism and believed in spiritual norms. For instance, Thais soldiers believed that the killing of wild animals in the forest triggered the misfortune, caused them numerous problems in the South. Their stories of sinful activities were all concluded to the casualties, mistreated by Viet Cong. Richard (2010)23 wrote on their interview with Thai Soldier that in most accounts of Thai soldiers killed after harming wild animals in the South Vietnam, there is a suggestion of a connection between indigenous creatures and the Viet Cong with whom they shared the forest.
23 Ruth, Richard A. 2010. In Buddha’s Company: Thai soldiers in the Vietnam War. University of Hawai’i Press, pp 181-212
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The People Army of Vietnam (PAVN) built a Ho Chi Minh trail to connect the South and the North through jungles in Truong Son Mountain. Weapons were transferred by this trail. Around 1968, the North was still under poverty, instead of moving by cars, the PAVN ‘s main transportation was bicycles. The northern guerilla men were nothing compared to the professional soldiers from the U.S or their other allies. On January 31st 1968, the PAVN managed to attack to the heart of Saigon- American Embassy. U.S forces were able to defeat with relative difficulty after several days.
The Tet ( the name of traditional Vietnamese Lunar New Year) Offensive was not successful. North Vietnam hope for reunification was too early. In the public perception, however, the Communists were capable of showing the world their ability to gain back the South Vietnam. Since the attack, the PAVN was called by the Western concept as Viet Cong.
Buddhism crisis in Vietnam in addition of Vietcong strongly influenced the Thai religious ideology. Thai leadership's promoted the idea that Buddhism and communism were antithetical. Hence, Thai soldiers have emerged in single step they moved in the South of Viet Nam. Richard (2010)24 recalled from Thai soldiers that the perception of danger was the main factor prohibiting them from pursuing more than superficial examinations of the country's Buddhist centers.
Unit leaders discouraged unauthorized stop, for fear of ambush. Temples were militarily suspect areas. Unit commanders dismissed the empty temples as unsuitable for temporary field based; their anxiety was both tactical and spiritual. In addition, Thais viewed the lack of praying people in the South Vietnam temples was also an
24 R Richard A. 2010. In Buddha’s Company: Thai soldiers in the Vietnam War. University of Hawai’i Press, pp 181-212
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aura of danger. The commitment to religious faith has been modified by political aims and military goals on the Vietnamese Communist.
3.1.3.5 The Role of Buddhist Devotees on the Unification Day
In February 1972, Richard Nixon visited the Red China. The meeting worried both North and South Vietnam. Nguyen (2012) wrote in his memoir that it was the American's intention to give up South Vietnam to the Chinese communists. In addition, before the election in November, Nixon calmed the domestic public by the peace agreement drafted in Paris. National Security adviser Kissinger declared ‘peace was at hand' in Vietnam.
Unfortunately, after Nixon won the election, the Peace agreement has never been reached. On December 18th, American air raid of several B-52 began bombing the North Viet Nam. On December 26th, the U.S conducted the largest B-52 raid, utilized up to 150 B-52s in total. Despite delivering sophisticated aircraft, American could not win the battle. The North claimed victory, forced American government to sit in Peace talk meeting again in January 1973.
In March 1975, the US cut aid to the South of Vietnam. The two foreign ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Republic's of China and the Provisionary Government of the Republic of the South Vietnam had signed an agreement. The citizens of the one country permitted to travel to the other country without visa of entry or exit. The North government was in doubting that whether the Chinese would replace the American in South Vietnam. As a consequence, in April 1975, the North eventually seized control of South Vietnam. On the day of attacking central South Vietnam,
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millions of Buddhist supporters walked on the street. They disturbed the government on operating either a defeat or requesting for other's forced from provinces nearby.
The large crowd symbolically gathered around the statue in central Saigon, erected to commemorate the sacrifice of South Vietnamese soldiers in the war against the Communist. Sai Gon was officially assigned with the new name: Ho Chi Minh City.
Only one day before the strike of Viet Cong, the United States started the largest helicopters evacuation in the history. There are 6000 Vietnamese, 1000 Americans and third-country nationals evacuated. Most of the servicemen who serve the U.S military in Saigon were afraid that the North arm forces would execute them. Murfin, Rambo, and Le conducted a survey on refugee movement during Spring 1975, commented on the correlation between religion and refugee motivation, they found the difference between Catholics and none- Catholics actually expressing a slightly higher anti-Communist feeling than Catholics.25