探究現代越南政府與宗教之間的協同作用 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文治政大. 學 Buddhism and Communism:. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 立 Master’s Thesis. er. io. sit. The Case for Synergy in Modern Vietnam. n. a 探究現代越南政府與宗教之間的協同作用 iv l C hengchi Un. Student: Chi Phuong Tran 陳芳枝 Advisor: Prof. Ching-Ping Tang 湯京平 2016 年 08 月 August 2016. 1.

(2) National Chengchi University International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 Master’s Thesis 碩士論文 Thesis Title （論文名稱）： Buddhism and Communism: The Case for Synergy in Modern Vietnam. 政治大. 探究現代越南政府與宗教之間的協同作用. Name（姓名）： Chi立 Phuong Tran 陳芳枝. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. This is hereby certified that this Master’s Thesis has successfully passed the final defense 茲證明本碩士論文業經口試委員審查通過. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 2.

(3) Acknowledgements The Thesis is inspired my Grandfather who passed away in the Vietnam War. In about 40 years, my Grandmother keeps searching for her husband; my Father did not lose his hope to find his dad by both technical and religious services. After the miracle incident happened, we were able to find his body, in the very first time; we can conduct a funeral ceremony for our Grand Father. Religion is the only one way for us, to believe that our family member is always beside, despite where they are. If Vietnamese government did not respect the folk belief and pay attention to millions of. 政治大. Martyr’s families, we would not have a golden opportunity to memorizing our heroic. 立. Grandfather. As a consequence, the research on Buddhism and Vietnamese. ‧. ‧ 國. the Resource’.. 學. Communist is to express my gratitude to the governmental policy on the ‘Return to. y. Nat. io. sit. I am deeply indebted to my Advisor, Distinguished Professor Tang Ching-. n. al. er. Ping. The paper cannot be completed without his patience guide and encouragement. I. Ch. i Un. v. would like to thank the Committee members, Professor Wang Yun, for his detail. engchi. correction on my thesis draft and the reading suggestions that he gave; my sincerely thank also addressed to Professor Hsieh Jun-Yi from Taipei University who delivered much useful writing skill advice for my future study. I am very appreciated for the great company of IMICS Department Faculties, Administrator, and Friends from the first day we arrive Taipei. My interviewees who I had more opportunities to meet, talk and discuss on religion poured my curiosity on theology, they were of significant support. The last but not least, I am grateful for the help, the guidance from my family, they offer truly unconditional love.. 3.

(4) Abstract. 採用馬克思主義意識形態為宗教動員理想狀態的人是被存疑的;然而，在特定環境中的集體社會，這兩個矛盾的信仰找到解決之道，共生和共存。本主題研究在越南共產主義和佛教之下，慈善組織和獨裁政權之間協同作用的可能性。透過探索該國歷史、傳統文化的魅力之下，研究者亦探討這兩股權力不得不尋找在不同時期共同目標的過程。. 立. 政治大. The ideal of Marxism and theological belief may not be able to exist in an individual;. ‧ 國. 學. however, in a collective community, within the particular circumstance, the two contradict ideologies find their resolution to negotiate, work and develop together.. ‧. The study on Vietnamese Communist and Buddhism indicates a possibility of a. y. Nat. io. sit. synergetic relationship between philanthropic organizations and authoritarian regime.. n. al. er. The mentoring process that religious and political elites had to search for the mutual. i Un. v. goal in different periods will be explored through the country’s history, under the allure of traditional culture.. Ch. engchi. 4.

(5) Table of Contents CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 6 1.1 Research Goals.................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Research Motivations ........................................................................................................ 9 1.2.1. Religion and Politic Interactions .................................................................................. 9 1.2.2. Buddhism and the State in Vietnam ......................................................................... 14 CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 18 2.1. Religious Engagement ..................................................................................................... 18 2.2. The Buddhist Activists ..................................................................................................... 22 2.4. Research Methodology .................................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER III. NARRATIVE CASE ............................................................................ 29. 政治大. 3.1 The Dawn of Communist Era, Wars and Unification (1945-1975) ............... 29 3.1.3. The Southern and Northern government (1955-1975) ................................ 34 3.2 Motivations to release Re-innovation Policy (1975-1990) .............................. 43. 立. ‧ 國. 學. CHAPTER IV. THE ALLURE OF A UNIQUE CULTURE ................................................ 60. ‧. 4.1 How Buddhism Identity is recognized in Vietnam? ............................................ 61 4.2 Buddhism, the Traditional Cults and the Elites..................................................... 63 4.2.1 The Role of Buddhism in Traditional Cults practice ........................................ 64 4.3 The Confucius Value in Vietnamese Society ........................................................... 69 4.4 The Supernatural Blessing of the Ancestors .......................................................... 72. er. io. sit. y. Nat. CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 78. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. 5.1 Beyond the development ............................................................................................... 79 5.2 The Contemporary Policy Implications on Cuba in Comparative Perspective ................................................................................................................................. 82 5.3 Research Limitation ......................................................................................................... 86. engchi. References ................................................................................................................... 88 Appendices .................................................................................................................. 92. 5.

(6) 政治大. 學. ‧ 國. 立 This Page is Innitially Left Blank. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 6.

(7) Chapter I Introduction 1.1 . The Research Goals. Religion in contemporary Vietnam is no longer orchestrated by the state, which against the Communism ideology on an atheist community. Since Ho Chi Minh was in power to lead the revolution in Vietnam, he delivered an authentic strategy on the nation’s faiths and beliefs to appeal significant support from various social groups. The policy was different from church-state separatism policy by Chairman Mao in the neighborhood state that critiqued by Welch (1961)1 as the basic policy of the regime. 政治大. is not to revise Buddhism and transform it into Marxism-Leninism but to let it die. In. 立. comparison, a local Buddhism, intertwined with Vietnamese popular faiths has been. ‧ 國. 學. mobilized to contribute on national communal solitary to sustain the national independence then enhance the economical liberalization. In the specific collective. ‧. society, Buddhism has not been challenging the political power but play an important. y. Nat. io. sit. role to empower the Communism. Regardingly, the result for such dialogue exists is. n. al. er. accounted for a long historical background, in addition of the non-orthodox religious. Ch. belief in most Vietnamese citizens.. engchi. i Un. v. The Chinese Mahayana Buddhism was transmitted to Vietnam around two thousand years ago, became the majority in religious population. In the very beginning, the Buddha statue had been placed beside traditional Goddesses from the Traditional Cults. As a consequence, the Buddhist in Chinese practice was replaced by local way of worship. Vietnamese monks and nuns were instead of locating in the high mountain, chanting sutras; they open a space to teach Buddhist philosophies in villages. They offered handle support on social issue, assisting agriculture work by operating religious ceremonies. Step by step, the monastic wisdom recognized by the 7.

(8) royal families, unlevelled to state religion in Tran and Ly dynasty. In spite of deeply engaged to the civil and political issue, Buddhist leaders had never taken over the ruling role of the authoritarian on Vietnamese society. Respectively, Buddhists became the majority, a true religion to accumulate conventional culture. When the invaders concreted Vietnam into the colonial state, Buddha teachings was replaced by Confucius preach in around 1000 years. Buddhism practice was restricted under the French colonial period. The religion survived through a long-difficult period by the protection and support of the citizens. Hence, the Communism with revolutionary aims to benefit the working class is competent with the Buddhist's aspiration in the mean time.. 立. 政治大. The study dedicates to resolve the puzzle on the question of ‘How Buddhism in. ‧ 國. 學. Vietnam flourish in an atheist regime?’ More than thousand years of colonialism is. the. profound. Buddhism. philosophy.. The. second. y. and. sit. ideal. Nat. Communist. ‧. conceptualized as an essential factor to attach mutual goals between the new. io. al. er. conceptualization addresses at the authentic cultural condition, where citizens are not loyalty to certain universal religion but sticks on local belief and family value.. n. iv n C accomplishmenth acts i U to sustain e n asg ca hguarantor. Religious cultural. State-Buddhism. relation regardless different timelines. Thirdly, Vietnamese Buddhism has the vigorous involvement in the humanitarian work. Religious group has built fundamental trust in local society, from generations to generations. Accordingly, in order to propagate political message, the Communist established a relation with Buddhism Association, step by step take advantage of religious channels to conjure up the nationalism in the public.. 8.

(9) 1.2 . Research Motivations Vietnamese government’s policy on religion in general and Buddhism Association in specialty are equally based on some regulations. The administration is in charge of managing the society and religion is one of the members. The most important value that is respected by governmental decision is how to gather the national strength. Hence, religious right in an individual is also supported, as long as the belief does not harm the nation’s stability. The government does not involve to Buddhism Association‘s internal affairs such as their choice of leaders and successors.. 政治大. Buddhism Association is in return define their slogan as Dharma- Nation and. 立. Socialism. The group’s ideology is sustaining the nation’s independence. The. ‧ 國. 學. organization is also promise to keep the close connection with traditional religion.. ‧. 1.2.1. Religion and Politic Interactions. sit. y. Nat. Thousands years of religion has been treasured by many cultures before the State’s. n. al. er. io. political affair began. The philosophy and wisdom from Jesus or Buddha has inspired. i Un. v. philosophers to reform the national polity. In other words, the rulers either use. Ch. engchi. religious power to enhance their power or deny religion to address citizens to material center world. For illustration, in India, according to the Caste ‘Varna', the societies are divided into four classes that are priestly, rulers, artisans, merchants, farmers and laboring. They used the word, which is borrowed by Hindu and Mahayana Buddhism as Karma to manipulate the lower classed. Prejudge was not only a traditional taboo but also legalized in the country's policy. According to Caste system, administrative jobs are the only grant for upper castes. It was also practiced in the University, education quotas.. 9.

(10) The un-equilibrium system was generated until the year of 1950. The constitution, discrimination was Illegal toward Caste lower classes and aboriginal people. Nevertheless, the participant of Christianity in social work, such as performing schools and medical clinics in the tribal areas, among the poverty villages made Hindu extremism acted violence. They were afraid of their ruling position in the local. They were afraid Christian tried to convert the lower caste Hindus using social welfare. As can be seen, religion, once explained as a veneration of truth, which fissures human modesty and humility, is a qualification needful to regular and virtuous deportment in all the offices and services of humanity. The statement that. 政治大. Berger mentioned a long time ago, that whenever a society must motivate its. 立. members to kill or to risk their lives, thus consenting to be placed in extreme marginal. ‧ 國. 學. situations, religious legitimations become necessary. Thus the ‘official' exercise of. ‧. violence, be it in war'. The Irish and the Swiss were great examples of the situation.. sit. y. Nat. io. al. er. In Western countries, their history can be told as historical-religious stories within several centuries. It was as complex as the political-religious problems in the Middle. n. iv n C East recently. Switzerland is wellhknown i U country that had not been e n gascahpeaceful suffered from World War I and II. Their problem did not come from the outer but. internal conflict- almost under the name of God. In the 16th century, the Kappel Wars broke out between the Catholics and the Reformation. It was due to the two opposing theological views. Churches seemed empowered by the state, there was none of the government roles has been involved. Meyer (2009)1 appointed that these battles were intended to resolve the questions of the denomination to which Switzerland should. Meyer. H. 2009. In M.Jorio&C. Sonderegger (Eds), Hítorisches Lẽikon Schweiz. Bern: HLS. 1. 10.

(11) belong. In fact, the both side implemented religious feelings of owned by target their political issues. Until the contemporary Swiss, Florian and Indrani still insisted that ‘ The Bishop of Church and the Holy See value Roman Catholic canon law higher than the Swiss Federal Constitution. Despite being a democracy and developed country, Switzerland is still on the edge of preserving the equilibrium among different ethnic and religious groups, where the voice of the state is not greater that the Church.. In some democratic countries, the elites take advantage of Religion, like a lullaby to let the working classes ‘fall into sleep'. They even reinforced under a constitution that. 政治大. every single resident needs to have a religion, such as Indonesia. In different. 立. approaches, the people of Communism Party ‘reject' religion by using the ‘religious. ‧ 國. 學. freedom' policy such as China, religious discrimination, as Russia. In both societies,. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. between the government and non-favored religious groups.. ‧. we found several incidents reported violence accused either within the society or. Lenin admitted that Religion is the heart of the society which without heartily. n. iv n C under Chairman h e n gMao i U the ‘brand’ of c h used. behavior. In fact, China. Marxism and. Leninism to established his concept of ‘religious freedom' in 1950. The policy was applied due to an incompatibility ideal of Chinese leaders on Religion. For instance, Christianity is believed as ‘foreign culture imperialism,' whereas Buddhism and Taoism were seen as feudalism. Based on Mao approach, Hen (1958) stated as ‘Every citizen has the freedom to believe in religion, and also the freedom not to believe in religion. Within a particular religion, every citizen has the freedom to believe in this sect or that sect. A person who was previously on non-believer has the freedom to become a religious believer and one who has been a religious believer has. 11.

(12) the freedom to become a non-believer’.. In the next five decades, the basis of China Communism Party remained. Nevertheless, the interpretation of this policy rejected any opportunity that Party members were able religious faith. Li acknowledged that ‘ using coercion in dealing with people's ideological and spiritual questions- including religious issues can be extremely harmful'. In fact, their strategy on eliminating Religion has seen as very sophisticated as the government put in the account of how powerful religion is. They also estimated the result of forcing atheist ideology on the civilians. As a result, Li. 政治大. explicitly revealed ‘The religious freedom policy is a revolutionary slogan. If we. 立. thoroughly implement this motto, believers will gradually change from believing in. ‧ 國. 學. religion towards non-believing. In short, the religious freedom policy is our Party. ‧. basic policy towards religion. We can adopt only this policy, not any other policy.’. sit. y. Nat. io. al. er. In practice, until 1982, praying services or customarily events were forbidden. They claimed that this regulation was to protect the non-believers from being influenced by. n. iv n C U and Buddhism monks/nuns zealous believers. Also, in some cities, h e nChristian g c h iclergy were advised not to wear their attire outside of the church or temples. This has not mentioned to Chinese Muslim religious life was also report as devastated. In the 1980s, even though Deng XiaoPing was ambitious to introduce a ‘reconciliation and unity' plan for modernization, he still wished to control the expansion of religious groups. In this stage, we must compliment the persistence of Churches and Temples in China, Jiang Ze Ming in 1991 alarmed that the collapse of Soviet Union and especially Communism in Europe had an invisible hand of ‘religious proliferation'. He found that China had to emerge, recognized and prevent this danger. In the. 12.

(13) following decades, Protestants number raised double, churches expanded to 16,000 with 32,000 meeting points.. Numerous religious incidents led the Socialist State to be undermined. Ming (1997)2 reported, both the periodic religious crackdowns in Tibet between 1992 and 1996 and the Muslim riots in Xinjiang province were blamed on Muslim separatism. The Eastern Turkistan Organization in Turkey, which actively promoted Muslim independence, as well as the serious Falun Gong ‘evil cults, confirmed the view that religious activities threatened national security. Consequently, the present of. 政治大. Churches, Temples and Mosques are not to gain Positive Merits but become Political. 立. Challenge. The pressure under the international arena, legalism and accommodation. ‧ 國. 學. policy is more tolerated. The new liberty and ‘separatism' of state-religion model in. ‧. China were introduced with very positive attitude. However, this policy is soon aware. sit. y. Nat. that it is not similar to the American form of separation and other developed. io. al. er. countries. When the success and failure of religious organizations are in the hand of the people, not the state, means there is none of financial or the government will. n. iv n C provide security support. Would ith be huge question e na g c h i U for ‘public utility' function inside China?. In1987, Gorbachev ran his plan on perestroika, introduced the liberalization of religion. It was not long time afterward, in 1993, a new Article 14 of the Constitution stated ‘The Russian Federation is a secular state. No religion may be instituted as a state-sponsored or mandatory. Religious associations are separated from the State and are equal before the Law. In contrast, the ‘equal' word was no longer used in the 1997. 2. Ming Pao. 1997. A Bomb in Beijing. Hong Kong: The Economist. 13.

(14) law. In specific, the Constitution distinguished between the four traditions as Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and other ‘non-traditional religions and sects'. Also, Orthodox Church was made by law as the only religious organization eligible to receive state aid for “the restoration, maintenance, and protection of buildings and objects which are monuments of history and culture". The legal action brought up several discriminate issues in the society. Indeed, religious intolerance flourished among the youth groups and non-traditional religious organization. For illustration, in 2007, the Koranic commentary by Turkish theologian was banned. The ‘skin-head’ group involved to several murder of Muslim migrant workers from Africa, Central Asia.. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. 1.2.2. Buddhism and the State in Vietnam. ‧. In Vietnam, around 700 years ago, in Tran Dynasty, the Kind decided to give up royal. y. Nat. er. io. sit. life to establish a new Branch of Buddhism. His name is Tran Nhan Tong. Nearly 100 years ago, when the French colonized Vietnam, hundreds of monks and nuns removed. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. their attires, join in the Communism Party to fight for the Independent of the country.. engchi. Around 50 years ago, the Buddhist monk immolated himself in a busy road of Saigon. He did not only protest to against the persecution of Buddhism by the South Vietnam but also protest for the unification of the Country. Several Buddhism monks inspired by Quang Duc’s illustration also immolated themselves. Around four years ago, China threatened Vietnam in Truong Sa-South China Sea, they placed oil exploration system and built up artificial islands. Immediately, a number of monks and nuns voluntary registered to build pagodas and stay on the Island. The national-religious solitary spirit has not been fade away by the cause of time.. 14.

(15) The prime location with numerous mineral resources made the country become a targeting pie of the ‘big power’. As a result, the history of Vietnam sticks with the continuous stories of battles. The historical-religious coincident involved with the war to against enemy invasion. Buddhism teaching was famous in Vietnam around 2000 years ago. The Buddhist practitioners were respected in the monarch system, protected through the period of colonization. In1975, having influenced by the wave of the Soviet Union and China, the religion suffered from a light change, but soon became renaissance. The first time in history, a successful unification of Buddhism across Vietnam was established, named, Vietnam Buddhism Association. In a short. 政治大. time after the found of only Buddhism organization in Vietnam, this religion was. 立. even promoted by the government.. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. As an agriculture country, the civilians depends most on nature, water, soil, weather.. sit. y. Nat. They are placed in insecurity position, afraid of the flood, natural disaster, and. io. al. er. Hurricane. Despite living under poverty condition but the nation has never thought of surrender. They use their bare feet to fight against rivals. They seem to need a deep. n. iv n C U Buddha or God has unlimited faith, hold an empowerment to fulfill h ethenmission. g c h iIf the attainment of strength, by worshiping them, the people believe they will have more energy to solve problems. The local religion in Vietnam is different from India, where they learn from Religion is to believe and accept, happy with the situation of being born. Karma is also acknowledged in this South East Asia state but has a different way to practice. In comparison with China, the religion in Vietnam also worships national heroes, similar to Guan Gong. In the local temple in Vietnam, we are easy to find National Heroes besides the Buddha. They were the real person, who by revolution, battle and strategies to relieve civilians, give them peace, give them. 15.

(16) wealth. In other words, they are people that have phenomenal favors for the Nation. According to Vietnamese culture and human psychology, the fruit we have, come from the tree. Hence we must thank people, who grow the tree. Step by step, Buddhism becomes Vietnamese way to thank the invisible intimated heroes.. Apart from this local practice, another factor that scholars interested in worshipping culture in Vietnam is the feminism. In specific, Female Buddha (Guan-Ying Buddha) and female Heroes are respected equally to ‘Male' side. This is the extraordinary culture that differentiates the state character from China Confucianism and Taoism,. 政治大. where women do not have a voice in society or sacred places. Vietnam used to be a. 立. feminism country, where in the family, women have a responsibility to manage.. ‧ 國. 學. When the rivals from other country came, men were more in the advantage of. ‧. battling, hence, step by step, the state transfer to masculinity culture. Nevertheless,. sit. y. Nat. female soldiers and leaders are equilibrium in the government. Almost temple across. io. al. er. the country has Guan-Yin Buddha Statue. We believe in the sincerity, humanity and humble attitude of the Buddha. Hence, Buddhism stayed in people's everyday life. n. iv n C with peace. Religious leaders are h famous i U but have never brought bad e n gandc htalented. influence on politics or economy. They became a substantial motivation and a ‘fuel’ station for soldiers in the wartime. For example, master Thich Quang Duc selfimmolation to enquire for the unification of North and South Vietnam has been reported by international Media. Buddhism monks remarked special relations with the country, the people, the culture, and the military.. After 1975, the ‘flourish relation' had been modified. Having little and particular impact on China and Russia once drove Vietnamese government into a dark path.. 16.

(17) There were not a report on the conflict between the state and religious institutions, the monk has not been eliminated from their temple as China Cultural Revolution but were not encouraged and expanded. In the meantime, the state economic, politic and society were also struggling. Uncle Ho-Ho Chi Minh once said: "We do not fight against pure religious people, we fight against people who use religion to support their opposed political motives." The protectionism in the new government was too tied to open for worship.. Around ten years later, Buddhism associations across the countries have been reunited. 政治大. into the only one organization. The state proposed a strategy to open border, modified. 立. foreign affair policies, and adopted economic liberalism. The whole country had one. ‧ 國. 學. stepped ahead. Religious policies were also reviewed. In the contemporary Vietnam,. ‧. Buddhism organization still keeps a unique position in the society. They delivered. sit. y. Nat. social services that reduce burden for the state welfare. They are peacekeeper not only. io. n. al. er. for private people but also the Vietnamese migrants in foreign countries.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 17.

(18) Chapter II. Literature Review. The chapter indicates theories and literature to study the interaction between state and religion. Next, the exploration continues to examine the value of ‘religious actors and groups' in the national political history and social issues. The last but not least, several examples of Buddhism activists in the political revolution will be indicated. As a consequence, how the state delivers a strategy to deal with religious grievances.. 立. 政治大. 2.1. Religious Engagement. ‧ 國. 學. After sequences revolutions in Iran, Nicaragua, and the rise of ‘New Christianity. ‧. Rights’ in the United States, stress not only the importance of religion in society, but. Nat. sit. y. also challenge new form of relevant agents, religion moved forward to the new. n. al. er. io. revolution. The third sector developed, included vast areas of associations, clubs,. i Un. v. voluntary organization and religious group. Religious groups may be regulated but. Ch. engchi. not controlled by the state, and market relations are generally excluded, through this is contested (Gellner& Bryant, 1994) 3 . In the account of a strong religion-state relationship, whereby religion directly influences state policy and the state intervenes in religious organizations, is incompatible both normatively, and in the long term empirically, with democratic forms of modernity (Casanova, 1994)4. For illustration,. 3. Bryant, C. (1994) ‘A further comment on Kumar’s “civil society” ’, British Journal of Sociology, 45, 3, pp. 497–9.. 4. Casanova, J. (1994) Public Religions in the Modern World, Chicago: Chicago University Press.. 18.

(19) the Churches in Brazil can play a vital role in offering social services. As Lunn (2009) 5 mentioned ‘ Religious organization are key participants in civil society, active across the development-related fields including conflict resolution and reconciliation; humanitarian assistance and disaster relief; environmental protection and conservation; politics and social movements; and social welfare. The temples, churches or mosques are no longer a place to worship but play diverse co-ordination bodies; missionary and political organization.. The ‘functional’ act that religious association adopted was to serve political aim rather than supporting civilians.. 立. 治政 In European colonial 大 period, Christianity was. enforced in the society with the duty to civilize and convert ‘backward’ peoples. It is. ‧ 國. 學. not a singular case, under the authoritarian regime of Suharto, Aspinall (2004)6 found. ‧. that ‘ most large civil society organizations were affiliated to political parties that. sit. y. Nat. aimed to hold or seize political power. Civil society became a mechanism, not for. io. al. n. conflict and transmitting into the very bases of society. In origin, corporatist is to. Ch study. er. generating civility and ‘social capital’, but rather for magnifying socio-capital. iv n i U nation-state eonn how g c h‘modern. consolidation. challenged traditionally powerful corporate identities and organizations. ‘ The ideal organization is able to practice in any political format, as Unger and Chan (1995) 7 found ‘ the corporatist mechanisms… do not define a political system: a polity can 5. Lunn, J. (2009). The Role of Religion, Spirituality and Faith in Development: A critical theory approach. Third World Quarterly, 30(5), 937-951. 6. Aspinall, E. 2004. Indonesia: Transformation of Civil Society and Democratic Breakthrough. Civil Society and Political Change in Asia: Expanding and Contracting Democratic Space, M. Alagappa. Stanford, Calif.: Stan- ford University Press. 7Unger,. Jonathan, and Chan.A. 1995. China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33:29–53.. 19.

(20) contain corporatist elements and at the same time be a dictatorial Communist Party regime, or an authoritarian Third World government, or a liberal parliamentarian state’. In specific, associational life in China lead corporatist became ‘instrument of state rule’.. The. corporatist. framework. is. entirely. fitted. in. ‘government-organized. nongovernmental organizations’ (GONGOs) in term of attracting foreign investments, boost legitimacy in institutions. In the contrast observation, Bill&Scott (1994)8 argued that the relevant agents in struggles over legitimation are now seen as. 政治大. actors and groups rather than systems and institutions because ‘the contestable. 立. character of legitimation derives from the fact that the uses and functions of power. ‧ 國. 學. always involve participating (human) agents. ‘ As a consequence, we found. ‧. emergencies in society for ‘group of expression’ or the real actors to renovate places. sit. y. Nat. where ‘government is absent, impotent, or unwilling to act. Ammerman (1990) 9. io. al. er. stresses the contingency of active mobilization (agency) rather than cleavages in the broad presumptive structures of normative reality. In the meantime, the concept of. n. iv n C ‘bottom-up’ grassroots introduced.h It e is similar to ireligious n g c h U organization the mean of having neither government ties nor official government support. It is different from. the NGOs concept in Corporatist theory. They are diverse in-group purpose, for example, in the matter of environment eco-religious activist, human issue as antiracism, anti-discrimination. They may able to ‘challenge government policy’ or alternatively,. “As the state has expanded its functions, particularly in areas of. welfare, education, equal rights legislation, and other kinds of regulation that affect 8. Billings, D. B. (1994). Religion and Political Legitimation. Annual Review of Sociology, 20(1), 173201 9 Ammerman NT. 1990. Baptist Battles: Social Change and Religious Conflict in the Southern Baptist Convention. New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press. 20.

(21) the day-to-days activities of citizen, special interests groups arisen for the express purpose of combatting, restraining or promoting certain types of government activity’.. If the official GONGOs are willing to receive foreign funds and regulated in authoritarian states under the term ‘corporatism’, functional temples in Vietnam are arguably similar to grassroots associations, relates with the government by the concept of ‘contingent symbiosis’. The temples that operate hospitals, orphanages, and schools located in villages or provinces in Vietnam gains support from local. 政治大. citizens, administrations rather than the central governments. Indeed, the ground-. 立. level realities construct a relationship that is symbiotic in that NGOs are looking to. ‧ 國. 學. meet social needs, while government officials, especially at the local level, seek to. ‧. make sure problems in their jurisdictions are dealt with in ways that do not attract. sit. y. Nat. unfavorable attention from the higher up’. Indeed, religion such as Muslim in civil. io. al. er. society also plays a vital role to deal with specific fields. For illustration, Herbert (2009)10 reported that Brotherhood, the BJP and related organizations are active at. n. iv n C U grassroots, running education, training We may conclude that h e and n gwelfare c h i schemes.. the foundation of social work rooted from the compassion of human being. In the development, one of humanitarian issue is living in a democratic environment where the opportunities of choices are enlarged. Tocqueville ultimately concluded ‘free and voluntary association, was the bedrock on which American democracy was built’.. 10. Herbert. D in Haynes, J. (2009). Routledge handbook of religion and politics. London: Routledge.. 21.

(22) 2.2. The Buddhist Activists Tocqueville inspired the important connection of group who ‘voluntary give away’ and the political system where civilians can get involve in policymaking process. None of the words relate to Religion albeit they have similar aim: pursuing freedom. Buddhism is considered as one of the most peaceful religion (lack of internal and external conflicts). The practice of meditation helps people relieve their stress, go back to their original mind and soul. In some Buddhism branch, monks and nuns are. 政治大 thus it is easier to be relieved from material society. In contradictory, ‘for Burmese 立 advised to practice in the mountain or places where isolated with the society. Then,. ‧ 國. 學. of today, tired and demoralized by three decades of military rule, Buddhism plays a crucial role.’ In the modern state, Buddhism is not only diverse but also actively. ‧. engage with the social, political matters.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. In Myanmar, Theravada Buddhism is majority with total monastic population,. i Un. v. estimated 8% whereas Buddhist are around 87 % of the population. The temple is so. Ch. engchi. called sangha ‘ feature of a religion that is based to a large degree on the notion of mendicancy as the principal way to salvation’. Burmese monks, instead of having modest life in sangha, they became action group in politic and social issue. YMA (Young monks association) ‘was initially compromised almost solely Sudhamma clergy specifically opposed to forces perceived threats to Buddhism, such as colonialism and communism’. (Bruce, 2003)11 The monks also became cultural police, setting standards of dress; the monks became the ‘monastic. 11. Bruce, S. (2003) Politics and Religion, Cambridge:Polity.. 22.

(23) spokesman for the army point of view’. Along the history, Buddhism style in the country can be explained as ‘ politicized sangha’ or the ‘power of overturning the begging bowl’, then militant Buddhism. The monastic can be ‘as activist as anyone else if given the opportunity’, however, they have not successful in ‘religion and state seek ways to work out an appropriate relationship’.. In comparison, although Buddhism is one of those main religions in Taiwan, but Taiwanese Buddhist organization, chose to be ‘fellow travelers’ of the government under authoritarian rule. They also ‘avoid lending support to nongovernmental. 政治大. organizations in the process of democratization, and prefer cooperation with state. 立. officials.’ They may in lack of enthusiasm in political revolution; instead, they are. ‧ 國. 學. able to take advantage of the legal structure prevailing during martial law in Taiwan.. ‧. The establishment of Foguangshan and Tzu-chi may demonstrate the fundamental. sit. y. Nat. role of Buddhist institution in the society. They do not work directly with political. io. al. er. party but quietly exercise their influence ‘through informal channels within existing institutions, in line with their conservative theology. ‘ The way that Buddhism. n. iv n C adapted can h e‘appear i U with n g c hcontent. organization in Taiwan. the current premarket. policies pursued by current governments, which implement most of the developmental state models’. (Andre, 2001) 12. In summary, the literatures showed how Buddhism performs under different rulers. Vietnamese monks are neither aggressive as Myanmar monastic, nor reluctance to become involve in political movement. The unique path that Vietnamese adopted literately supports them to reach ‘appropriate’ relationship between religion and the 12. Andre.L. 2001. Buddhist Organizations and Democracy in Taiwan. American Asian Review. Proquest Research Library pg.97. 23.

(24) state. In return, government policies in the development of Vietnam, even though under Communism Party but equally liberal as legal system in Taiwan.. 2.4. Research Methodology. There are two methods to examine the research question above. Historical account in the current religious issue is considered. This is due to the aim on how Buddhism in Vietnam evolved over war-peace and development period. Nevertheless, having only historical data is apparently not adequate. As Tatsuru (2013) 13 commented on the. 政治大. history book of Vietnam as “ Recording and storing documents is not a tradition of. 立. Vietnam culture. It leads to many difficulties for foreign scholars to conduct a. ‧ 國. 學. research about Vietnam, without living in the society’. Indeed, implied about accommodate with the culture and interacting with people is the best way to write. ‧. about this country. Subsequently, interviews will be conducted within the Buddhism. y. Nat. er. io. sit. clergies and the policy makers. The religious leader from other new religion in Vietnam, such as Yi-guan Dao is also included. The different view from foreigner,. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. who is practicing new- different beliefs in Vietnam may bring an objective comment. engchi. on religious administration system from the government.. The next paragraph will explain how the historical research and interviews will be conducted. In order to look at the different religious policy during the colonization, immoral American War and after the economy liberalization, we divide our exploration into three pillars of time. As a close neighbor of Mainland China, Vietnamese in the early day, used to live under the powerful authority. Having. 13. Tatsuru.A. 2013. The role of Buddhism in Social Work Vietnam and Japan. Social Work Institute Asian Center for Welfare in Society.. 24.

(25) acknowledged that an unbalance war was soon started, the King offered donations, bribes to avoid battles. During about thousand years, the country had a national political slogan as “ formal dependence but true independence”. In content, the King had his own power to establish Buddhism net in social-cultural life. Hence, we use this historical ruler as our first pillar to determine a strong Buddhism base in culturalreligious society. When French came to colonize Vietnam, other Western religion, especially Christianity had been seen as a forced religion. However, again, with a ‘none denied’ strategy, the civilians leaders safe the country from a religious war. This period is not only important but also a signature on the reconciliation culture. 政治大. within the country. They endure diverse religions without conflict. The Western. 立. intelligentsia was forced in the society, but people, still insisted on hiding their own. ‧ 國. 學. belief, culture. In the America War, Vietnam was divided by two part, the North and. ‧. the South. Merely, this ‘short’ twenty years as the most suffered in the War history of. sit. y. Nat. Vietnam. We evaluate it as the most difficult path to have accurate, non-bias historical. io. al. n. significantly.. er. documents. If the ‘history belongs to the winner’, in this war, both side was lost. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. The discussion will highlight on the result of America War and how Buddhist became soldiers, patriots, and pioneers. Before having a ‘seat’ in the Communism party, the monks, priests sustained over 10 years of misunderstanding. The new government has been effected from Russia and China ideology on removing ‘theology’ from the society. Fortunately, thank to the long history and Vietnamese individual characteristic, there was none of dramatic ‘punishment’ had been applied. The continue period, after 1986, Vietnam government again, keep their ‘traditional respect’ attitude on religion. It was the main key on differentiating religious policies. 25.

(26) in Vietnam, in comparisons with other alliances. Our data and documents come from the Institute of Philosophy in Vietnam, with a combination of new project has been done in The University of Social Science and Humanities of Vietnam. As having mentioned, with the aim of anti-bias in history, we will also research on the academic literature from Vietnam War in different foreign sources.. The chapter attempts to describe the relation between Communist Party and Buddhist groups that influenced by historical contexts. The mechanism between the two powers was flourish before the Party took over the provisional government. Back to the. 政治大. recruiting period for the military to conduct an independent revolution in 1932, the. 立. main arm force source came from the working class. They were accounted for around. ‧ 國. 學. 80% population in the meantime. Colonial empire brought many disadvantages for. ‧. the ordinary residences. The more suffer they have, the more tendency they find. sit. y. Nat. religion to escape from the material life. As a consequence, the purpose for civilians. io. al. er. to follow the Party was similar as they visited the worship houses. In addition, under. n. the two colonials, Buddhism lost their popularity on the reinforcement of Confucianism and Romans. iv n C Catholics, h e nfollowed g c h ibyUthe empire China and. France.. When Buddhism institutions were struggling to survive, the ambition of Communism revolution attracted the group.. During around 45 years of political instability, religion went through several synergetic stages in the relation with the government. Since 1990, the single-party state acknowledged the important role of religion to imply governmental policy in the public. In particular, Buddhism attained an irreplaceable position on political propagation, public affairs and cultural guardian in the re-innovation period. Notably,. 26.

(27) when a dialogue had been built with the theological leaders, the state was given free hands to concentrate on economic development. In the foreign affair, religious issue became central mediator for Vietnam to join international organization. In particular, the human right claim on religious freedom in the domestic controversy was resolved to promote the normalization between Vietnam and the United State (in 1995). Vu,Bailey& Chen (2016)14 affirmed that Vietnam have grown increasingly wary of China’s rising economic and military power, the country ought to hedge against Chinese influence by building relations with other regional power, it is the United State.. 立. 政治大. Religious institutions, especially Buddhism in return, obtained state fund to maintain. ‧ 國. 學. the temples facilities. Religious projects such as building educational institutions,. ‧. further pagodas and temples construction were processed. The Buddhism Association. sit. y. Nat. became the authority of number of religious property and religious sightseeing. The. io. al. er. monastic life was improved significantly. Also, Vietnamese Buddhism heavily. n. depended on Buddhism documents, books, and sutras from the foreign resources. Hence, the better relation. iv n C religious h e nleaders i U with g c hgained. the state, the more. opportunities for monks and nuns to study abroad. Buddhism circumstances in Vietnam need to acquire further educational level to join the global Buddhism. The transnational religious affair not only offer chances for domestic clergies improve their knowledge to translate important Buddhism sutras, but also gathering number of foreign, devotees in other countries to nourish the ability of Buddhist group on social and charitable work. Recently, a communicative channel has been gradually figured for the debate of religious groups and the state on the Draft of Religious Law.. 14. 27.

(28) Appendix 1 The Vision of Synergy in different Historical Periods. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 28.

(29) Chapter III. Narrative Case 3.1 The Dawn of Communist Era, Wars and Unification (1945-1975). Vietnam has a long coast in South China Sea, richness in natural resource and labor forces, a beneficial pie for other enemy to invade. The Vietnamese Communist Party officially backed up by the Soviet Union after Paris denied on the request of joining French Federal from Ho Chi Minh (the party leader.) The stage will be explained. 政治大 1954, in which Vietnam rescued 立 by China and Soviet Union. The French soldiers in regard to three historical events, followed by Second Indochina War, from 1946 to. ‧ 國. 學. Indochina received financial aid from the United State. Despite having difficulties in sustaining the peace and stability in the domestic affairs, Ho Chi Minh insisted on the. ‧. religious freedom policy for the citizens. He offered equal positions in the. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. government assembly for the religious and non-religious officers.. i Un. v. In the next twenty years, Buddhism crisis attracted international media attention on. Ch. engchi. the religious issue in Saigon according to the immolation of Venerable Thich Quang Duc. The Southern government since then had conducted massacre towards the monks and nuns in Hue- the most traditional Buddhism city and other Southern provinces. The violent act did not only aim to regulate the Buddhist devotees but also to threaten the Communist members. The Communist in North Vietnam was blamed as assisting the crisis. In an assumption, the religious restriction in the South Vietnam concluded a symbiosis connection for the Communist members and Buddhism devotees to arrange a coup on the authoritarian of discrimination.. 29.

(30) The national building period (from 1975 to 1990) was still under the pressured of Cold War. Vietnam on behalf of Soviet Union to sent soldiers to Cambodia, known as the campaign of counter-invasion at Vietnam’s national South-West border. The complex among attacking, border wars, domestic conflicts was the coercion to undertake the innovation.. 3.1.1. The first Religious Freedom Constitution In 1945, the Japanese, French, Chinese and British soldiers were in Vietnam. In. 政治大 without any difficulties. Ho Chi Minh noted that the French imperialist wolf was 立. March, the Japanese arranged a battle, rounded up the French colonial government. ‧ 國. 學. finally devoured by the Japanese fascist hyena. 15 In the international battlefield, World War II was going to end. The arm forces of Communism Party named Viet. ‧. minh (found in 1932) were well prepared to wait for the right moment. As planned,. sit. y. Nat. when the Japanese surrendered after the World War II, Viet Minh triggered the. al. n. provisional government.. er. io. August Revolution. They occupied central administration hall in Ha Noi, claimed. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. On September 2nd, chairman Ho Chi Minh read independent speech in Ba Dinh Square. He declared the sovereignty of the new state, named as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. While the Japanese soldiers left, Chinese soldiers head back to back up their civil war. French and British soldiers remained in the country on the Independent day. Immediately after the victory day, the provisional government faced several challenges. The Japanese starved around two million people. French colonial with their ‘stupid strategy’ made approximately 60% of the population were unable to. 15. William J, Duiker. 2000. Ho Chi Minh, A Life. NY: Hyperion.. 30.

(31) read and write. The government treasury was empty. Ho Chi Minh figured three main tasks for the country were to fight hunger crisis, to enhance education and to keep alarming on foreign invaders.. Religious issue was placed in the central tenet of the state. The liberal attitude towards religion based on two reasons. Firstly, Roman Catholics and Buddhist were the majority in the population. Almost priests and monks were well-educated that studied in either Chinese or French schools. They seemed as the main resources to evolve education level for the civilians. Secondly, religious solitary was one of the strongest. 政治大. weapons to prevent foreign intervention.. 立. As a result, the first constitution defined that ‘Religious Freedom should be promoted. ‧ 國. 學. to enhance national solitary. The most important target of religious freedom policy is. ‧. to protect the equal rights of non-religious and religious groups. The protection also. io. al. er. Roman-Catholics. ‘ (Vietnam Constitution, 1946) 16. sit. y. Nat. extends to the equilibrium among religions, especially Buddhism, Confucius, and. n. iv n C The constitution was not only stated h ine the i U government also practiced n gpaper, c h Vietnam in administration system. For example, the formal Minister of Ministry of National Economy was Roman Catholic- Minister Nguyen Manh Ha (1913-1992). The monk Thich Mat The was the National Assembly member. The priest Nguyen Ba Truc was vice National Assembly Secretary. By having the tolerate manner, Ho Chi Minh was considered as the most innovative leader in the world at that time.. 16. State Records Management and Achieves III: Vietnamese Constitution. 2945-1946. File no 97.. 31.

(32) The French government attempted to restore colonial, backed up by the British. After battles and retreats in Saigon, Hue, Ho Chi Minh soon realized his military and a new government was devastated after continuous fights. On March 6th, he proposed to sign an agreement with the French representative, by which the Democratic Republic of Vietnam might become a ‘free state' in the French Union. In return, French can keep their soldiers and progressively withdraw in the next five years. The deal has not been successful, Ho Chi Minh decided to fly to Paris to negotiate with the central government. The French lieutenants in Indochina were rather aggressive. He suspected that Paris politicians would try to leave Vietnam. Hence, on November 20,. 政治大. Haiphong incidents caused massive Vietnamese causalities. On December 19, 1946,. 立. the Viet Minh attacked French base, declared the first Indochina War.. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Throughout 1950, the Chinese Communist Party won the Civil War. They formally. sit. y. Nat. recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, offering large supplies of weapons. io. al. er. and logistic assistance. In addition, the Soviet Union also forced British and America to recognize the Associate State of Vietnam. The phenomenal support from the two. n. iv n C U army. great Communism states brought ahmenace e n g toc hthei opposite. French requested. aid from the US to continue the war. Truman signed about $15 million to support the French. American officially started to involve with Indochina War.. 3.1.2. Roman Catholics fled from the North to the South caused the change in Religious Policy. After series of random attacks, Viet Minh prepared their people, weapons to gamble on being able to defeat the French army in Dien Bien Phu- the province nearby border between China and Vietnam. It was the ‘Operation Castor' strategy. The French. 32.

(33) operated a massive base in Dien Bien Phu, where their strategic experts considered, as an irresistible target for Communists and this would allow them to use their firepower and aircraft.. In early 1954, the Great Powers decided to hold a conference in Geneva to resolve the Korean and Indochina War. Having won the Dien Bien Phu battle, but managing to have control of less than half the country. Ho Chi Minh suggested a referendum on possible unification of Vietnam. The delineation of the border had been agreed, however, the referendum has been refused by the USA.. 政治大. People between the two parts have six months to move if desired. The North and the. 立. South Vietnam officially separated.. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. During the war (1946-1954), Vietnamese Catholics and the church leadership. sit. y. Nat. supported the French and staunch opponents of the Vietnamese Communist. Gheddo. io. al. er. (1970)17 noted fear and hysteria associated with the North government ascension to power led to the flights of Northern Vietnamese Catholics to the South Vietnam. In. n. iv n C U All religions in the North this historical event, the statement from Gheddo was hen g c h i biased. back to 1955 have to obey the Land Reform Program. In addition, without the transportations and promises offered by the South government, the Roman Catholics would not make such decision. The argument demonstrated clearly in the next period (after 1963), they returned to support the Communist upon reunification mission. Within the 6 months, the United States privately and publicly poured financial support into the South of Vietnam. The delegations of a new government in the South 17. Gheddo. P. 1970. The Cross and the Bo-tree: Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam.. Trans. Charles Quinn. New York: Sheed and Ward.. 33.

(34) Vietnam assisted about 900,000 Roman Catholics to travel and resettle in the South. They expected those people would support the new government, backed by the American, become activists to defense communists. 3.1.3. The Southern and Northern government (1955-1975) 3.1.3.1. Buddhism Restriction. This period was one of the most complex periods for the religious activities in Vietnam. The South government had a negative reputation on religious discrimination. The Buddhist as a consequence became anxious. Buddhism crisis in. 政治大. 1963 attracted international attention, thus contributed to breakdown the dictatorship. 立. in South Viet Nam. The North in the meantime failed to transform their economy. ‧ 國. 學. situation, however, the government managed to work with Buddhist leaders to. ‧. established Buddhism Association in around 10 Northern provinces. As can be seen, in the historical national context, the secular Communism asserted symbiosis object. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. with religious groups, to against Ngo Dinh Diem (South president’s government).. i Un. v. Ngo Dinh Diem was a devout Roman Catholic, who had been appointed as the prime. Ch. engchi. minister of South Vietnam. He favored by the US government, with the promise of establishing a strong anticommunist government. Between 1955 and 1961, the USA poured $1.65 billion into the South Vietnam, making that country the fifth largest recipient of US aid at the time (Robert and Olson, 1996). 18. Wesley Fishel, a political scientist at Michigan State University (MSU) led the MSU team to assisted president Ngo Dinh Diem with training and advice on matters of. Jame S Olson & Randy Roberts. 1996. Where do the Dominos fell: America and Vietnam, 19451990. NY: St Martin Press 18. 34.

(35) refugee resettlement, civil service education and police administration (Latham, 2006)19. The expert demonstrated to an American audience about an optimistic vision of South Vietnam modernization. He elided the increasing problems of Diem's corruption and dictatorial regime. Incidentally Vietnam was placed into the midst of nation-building struggle. Latham (2006) 20 expressed the resultant society was a product of political miscegenation: one with a traditional base, influenced by Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism ideas and values, topped by the weighty superstructure of Western organizations, principals, laws, and techniques. Indeed, if the government leaders were more objective to the mass psychology of the public. 政治大. sphere, they would find a way to calm negative feeling of Buddhism and other. 立. traditional religions. However, Diem and his family published legal policies,. ‧ 國. 學. reinforced the citizen's feeling that the government was building a Catholic State. For. ‧. instance, the Morality Law, which banned gambling, dancing, beauty contests, martial. sit. y. Nat. art competitions and cockfighting. Nguyen (2012)21 stated on his observation while. io. al. er. working for the South Vietnam government as Catholicism was a condition to granting some favors- a job, a new position, and promotion. And a small number of. n. iv n C priests in each area were powerful.hTheir e n request g c h iforUsome kind of local government and military material such as lumber, metal sheets or cement, and military trucks, were always approved.. The Buddhist monks, meanwhile, never dreamed of receiving such favors. He added that the Sai Gon (Ho Chi Minh city after 1975) government did not recognize any of. 19. 20. Michael E, Latham. 2006. Redirecting the revolution. Third World Quarterly, pp 27-41 Michael E, Latham. 2006. Redirecting the revolution. Third World Quarterly, pp 27-41. Cong Luan, Nguyen. 2012. Nationalist in Vietnam Wars: Memoirs of a Victim Turned Soldier. Indiana University Press, p233 21. 35.

(36) the Buddhist factions as the official church representing the majority of Vietnamese Buddhists, but only as groups of Buddhists under the status of the nonprofit association.. 3.1.3.2 Buddhism and the Second Revolution of Vietnamese Communist Party In 1955, the government launched the Land Reform program, which was considered as the second Revolution of the Communist Party. Despite the revolution affected on government reputation in the public and the elites, the monastic members insisted on. 政治大. their political vision. This is due to the government endeavored to maintain the. 立. properties that belong to the scared places. The target of the Land Reform was to. ‧ 國. 學. share agriculture product, living spaces among different social class people within the. ‧. country. Many party leaders were not familiar with the paper work in the office. They struggled to establish the governmental management system. Consequently, after two. y. Nat. er. io. sit. years, Ho Chi Minh publicity admitted the government false. The public trust on the new government was steeped down but chairman Ho gained the support from. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. religious followers. For instance, in the land reform program, when the government. engchi. collects agriculture land to share for the farmers, temples or churches land were excluded. The aim of guarantee material life of the monastic, the government reduced tax on temple and church property.. In 1958, the Buddhism association found in the North included Buddhism adherents in about 10 provinces. Since then, Buddhism Management administration rooted in the villages and communities. After around 900,000 of the Catholics fled from the home, Ho Chi Minh urged his civilians as the government still respect religious freedom. The government does not restrict individual beliefs, however, will punish 36.

(37) anyone who takes advantage of religion to go against the government.' For example, when priest Pham Ba Truc passed away, his funeral was organized as a national funeral. Around 400 Roman Catholics joined the praying session in Ha Noi Opera house. As can be seen, religious practice in the public sphere was not restricted.. 3.1.3.2- How Hoa Hao Buddhism and Cao Dai-ism opposed to Communist Party?. The Buddhism association in the North challenged the appearance of two opposite Buddhism branches that assisted the French colonial restore process. Cao Dai was. 政治大. found in 1919, in an island of South Vietnam. The Buddhism Hoa Hao sect was more. 立. recent vintage, which was created in 1939. The Hoa-Hao philosophy was based on. ‧ 國. 學. Master Buddha, Pacifier of the West, who in 1830 predicted that the end of. ‧. Vietnamese Empire at hands of ‘men come from the West'. The two newfound Buddhism branches have not stayed in the same line with the Viet Minh. According to. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Fall (1995)22, on January 8, 1947, the Cao Dai signed a military convention with the French High Command, promising ‘loyal collaboration' with the French and respect. al. n. iv n C for laws and regulations of the authorities. the French were to arm and h e n gIncexchange, hi U. pay the organized armed forces of the Cao-Dai, to be composed of ‘Mobile Brigades' and of garrison troops. This was done, and the majority of the Cao Dai forces cooperated from then on with the French troops with the exception of a small group under Trinh Minh The, an ultranationalist who in 1951 tool to the hills with a few hundred men.. Bernad. B, Fall. 1955. The Political-Religious Sects of Viet-Nam. Pacific Affairs, Vo.28, No.3, pp. 235-253 22. 37.

(38) In 1954, when Dien Bien Phu battlefield won by VietMinh, Cao Dai sects struggled to survive, they seeked the help from Premier Diem. However, they were failed to work under the new South Vietnam government. On June 1955, the leaders from the two branched crossed into Cambodia. The disagreement on political ideology with Communism raised in the two sects along the history but contemporary Vietnamese government still official recognized their identities.. Associations and adherents. belong to the two are legally practiced in the present. This is account for the enthusiastic of the contemporary government to guarantee religious freedom within the state.. 政治大. 立. 3.1.3.3 The Buddhism Anger. ‧ 國. 學. The consequence of problematic government was the burst out in Hue (the ancient. ‧. capital of Vietnam) on Buddha's Birthday. Buddhist striped flag flew illegally. The. sit. y. Nat. movement started to condemn Diem and his presidents. In Binh Dinh and other. n. al. er. io. coastal provinces, Buddhist protests continuously exposed. South Vietnam believed. i Un. v. the Communists was behind the scene. For illustration, all the protests were well. Ch. engchi. planned. English-language placards were displayed. The leaflets and message in English were published and handed out on the street. The international press raised significant concern over the events.. The reaction of Diem administration was stubborn, he asked for extra powers to expand the army. He acted aggressively in killing and arresting monks and nuns. In Hue, around 400 monks, backed up with thousand of civilians to resist military Special Forces for about 8 hours. South Vietnam pointed out that their authoritarian was being threatened. Buddhism protests ranged quickly and uncontrollable. The. 38.

(39) execution session from Diem had a strong negative effect on his own officers and enlisted men, in term of morality. They were also Vietnamese soldiers, who somehow still worship the Buddha privately. Rumors and fears accumulated in the South soldiers. The Buddhism fire kept escalating all over the state. Local government turned not to obey the central order. The military junta made a ridiculous mistake that releasing hundreds of captured communist intelligence officers and secret agents operating in the South. They believed that it was an exchange to calm the Buddhist Anger. In some extension, it was also the signal of un-cooperative action from the military. Diem government was weakening. The anti-Diem protests started from his. 政治大. administrators. Many in the military silently prepared for the coup. His relation with. 立. the U.S government also experienced a critical period. Washington attempted to. ‧ 國. 學. suspend aid to Sai Gon.. ‧. sit. y. Nat. Madame Nhu (Diem sister in Law) came to Lost Angeles to raise support for the. io. al. er. South Vietnam. In November 1963, the first declaration of the coup leader was officially announced in the media. President Diem and his brother Nhu got. n. iv n C weeks hbefore e n gPresident c h i UKenedy. assassinated. It was three. also assassinated. The. rumorß leaked out that Soviet Union got involved in the two incidents, led to a major decision of the new USA government: the American soldiers directly sent to South Vietnam.. The Gulf of Tonkin crisis in August 1964 created a moral season to deploy 50,000 soldiers into Vietnam. The American was not alone. The British made their clear opposition to the war, whereas the UAS allies such as Australia, Korea, Thailand, New Zealand, Philippine and the Spain also contributed soldiers. The number of. 39.

(40) ‘foreigners' (over half millions of servicemen) transformed Saigon and other coastal provinces rapidly. Leisure life was invested along with military fund. Several nightclubs and luxury hotels built. Despite the new president of Vietnam (Nguyen Cao Ky) was also Roman Catholics, he had no attention to deduct the leisure services. Unfortunately, they have not imagined that events and parties turned to be favorite bombing attack for the Communists. Religious societies in South Vietnam were diverse in this period. The Roman Catholic people who fled from the North were abandoned when Diem Government collapsed. They were forced labors to work in rubber trees field. Gradually, their opposition with Communism Party was ceased.. 政治大. They became potential supporters for the upcoming offensive in American Embassy,. 立. Sai Gon.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 3.1.3.4 The Fear of Thai soldiers on Vietnamese monks. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Around 38,958 Thais soldiers sent to Vietnam. They operated troop in the forest. They have adhered Buddhism and believed in spiritual norms. For instance, Thais. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. soldiers believed that the killing of wild animals in the forest triggered the misfortune,. engchi. caused them numerous problems in the South. Their stories of sinful activities were all concluded to the casualties, mistreated by Viet Cong. Richard (2010) 23 wrote on their interview with Thai Soldier that in most accounts of Thai soldiers killed after harming wild animals in the South Vietnam, there is a suggestion of a connection between indigenous creatures and the Viet Cong with whom they shared the forest.. Ruth, Richard A. 2010. In Buddha’s Company: Thai soldiers in the Vietnam War. University of Hawai’i Press, pp 181-212 23. 40.

(41) The People Army of Vietnam (PAVN) built a Ho Chi Minh trail to connect the South and the North through jungles in Truong Son Mountain. Weapons were transferred by this trail. Around 1968, the North was still under poverty, instead of moving by cars, the PAVN ‘s main transportation was bicycles. The northern guerilla men were nothing compared to the professional soldiers from the U.S or their other allies. On January 31st 1968, the PAVN managed to attack to the heart of Saigon- American Embassy. U.S forces were able to defeat with relative difficulty after several days. The Tet ( the name of traditional Vietnamese Lunar New Year) Offensive was not successful. North Vietnam hope for reunification was too early. In the public. 政治大. perception, however, the Communists were capable of showing the world their ability. 立. to gain back the South Vietnam. Since the attack, the PAVN was called by the. ‧ 國. 學. Western concept as Viet Cong.. ‧. sit. y. Nat. Buddhism crisis in Vietnam in addition of Vietcong strongly influenced the Thai. io. al. er. religious ideology. Thai leadership's promoted the idea that Buddhism and communism were antithetical. Hence, Thai soldiers have emerged in single step they. n. iv n C 24 U from Thai soldiers that the moved in the South of Viet Nam. Richard h e n(2010) g c h irecalled perception of danger was the main factor prohibiting them from pursuing more than superficial examinations of the country's Buddhist centers. Unit leaders discouraged unauthorized stop, for fear of ambush. Temples were militarily suspect areas. Unit commanders dismissed the empty temples as unsuitable for temporary field based; their anxiety was both tactical and spiritual. In addition, Thais viewed the lack of praying people in the South Vietnam temples was also an. R Richard A. 2010. In Buddha’s Company: Thai soldiers in the Vietnam War. University of Hawai’i Press, pp 181-212 24. 41.

(42) aura of danger. The commitment to religious faith has been modified by political aims and military goals on the Vietnamese Communist.. 3.1.3.5 The Role of Buddhist Devotees on the Unification Day In February 1972, Richard Nixon visited the Red China. The meeting worried both North and South Vietnam. Nguyen (2012) wrote in his memoir that it was the American's intention to give up South Vietnam to the Chinese communists. In addition, before the election in November, Nixon calmed the domestic public by the. 政治大. peace agreement drafted in Paris. National Security adviser Kissinger declared ‘peace was at hand' in Vietnam.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Unfortunately, after Nixon won the election, the Peace agreement has never been. ‧. reached. On December 18th, American air raid of several B-52 began bombing the. y. Nat. io. sit. North Viet Nam. On December 26th, the U.S conducted the largest B-52 raid, utilized. n. al. er. up to 150 B-52s in total. Despite delivering sophisticated aircraft, American could not. Ch. i Un. v. win the battle. The North claimed victory, forced American government to sit in. engchi. Peace talk meeting again in January 1973.. In March 1975, the US cut aid to the South of Vietnam. The two foreign ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Republic's of China and the Provisionary Government of the Republic of the South Vietnam had signed an agreement. The citizens of the one country permitted to travel to the other country without visa of entry or exit. The North government was in doubting that whether the Chinese would replace the American in South Vietnam. As a consequence, in April 1975, the North eventually seized control of South Vietnam. On the day of attacking central South Vietnam, 42.

(43) millions of Buddhist supporters walked on the street. They disturbed the government on operating either a defeat or requesting for other's forced from provinces nearby. The large crowd symbolically gathered around the statue in central Saigon, erected to commemorate the sacrifice of South Vietnamese soldiers in the war against the Communist. Sai Gon was officially assigned with the new name: Ho Chi Minh City.. Only one day before the strike of Viet Cong, the United States started the largest helicopters evacuation in the history. There are 6000 Vietnamese, 1000 Americans and third-country nationals evacuated. Most of the servicemen who serve the U.S. 政治大. military in Saigon were afraid that the North arm forces would execute them. Murfin,. 立. Rambo, and Le conducted a survey on refugee movement during Spring 1975,. ‧ 國. 學. commented on the correlation between religion and refugee motivation, they found. ‧. the difference between Catholics and none- Catholics actually expressing a slightly. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. higher anti-Communist feeling than Catholics.25. i Un. v. 3.2 Motivations to release Re-innovation Policy (1975-1990). Ch. engchi. Living in the joys of victory, the new reunification Vietnam government seemed lack of experience in state management. The country survived largely on a donation from the Soviet Union and other communist countries. Millions of people made homeless by the war. One-eighth of the population injured in the war. Many children were not able to attend schools. The country again, after 20 years suffered from civil war, was under devastated circumstance: poverty, lack of education, men power reduced dramatically. Also, the border attacks exploded in 1978, led the new government Tran Q, Le & A Terry, Rambo and Garry D, Murfin. 1976. Why they Fled: Refugee Movement during the Spring 1975Communist Offensive in South Vietnam. University of California Press. Asian Survey, Vo. 16, No.9, pp 855-863 25. 43.

(44) became weaker. Policy makers chose to put the religions under the control of the regime’s control to manage any further risk. Subsequently, the hierarchy strategy applied on religious policy in this period, conceived more than ten years state-religion in the discord.. The state welfare obligations could not allow the state deliver more support to the civilians' religious life. The monks and nuns were not enough to cover the empty temples and churches across the countries. In order to survive, some of the local government allowed farmers to grow rice, agriculture products in the temple's land.. 政治大. After 1975, the North and the South Buddhism were divided. Most monks who. 立. supported the SaiGon government fled to France and the USA. One of the famous. ‧ 國. 學. people was master Thich Nhat Hanh, who in the further years created the Plum In 2005, he was welcome by the government and Buddhist. ‧. Village in France.. sit. y. Nat. Association in Vietnam to return and deliver Buddha teaching to the Vietnamese. The. io. al. er. initial separatism in Buddhism challenged the new government. However, the regime did not force and dismiss religious activities. Hoa-hao and Cao Dai-ism returned to. n. iv n C U existence. South Vietnam. The government also h edidnnot h i their g cviolate. Monks and nuns were encouraged to attain further education in Buddhism University (Van Hanh University). Bruce (1992)26 stated that there were instructed in the history and philosophy of Buddhism, the Pali, Chinese and English languages and something called ‘civic education'. Many graduates go on to head important temples, other work. Bruce Mathews. 1992. The Place of Religion in Vietnam Today. Buddhist-Christian studies, Vol.12, pp65-74 26. 44.