臺灣穆斯林少數民族的社會適應︰以印尼穆斯林與中國穆斯林為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University 碩士論文. 立. Master’s 政治Thesis. 大. ‧ 國. 學. 臺灣穆斯林少數民族的社會適應︰. ‧. 以印尼穆斯林與中國穆斯林為例. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Social Adaptation of Muslim Ethnic Minorities in Taiwan:. n. Case Study of aIndonesian Muslim and Chinese Muslim. iv l C n hengchi U. Student/ 研究生： Retno Widyastuti/ 孫莉瑋 (101926020) Advisor/ 指導教授: Prof. Chang, Chung-Fu/ 張中復. 中華民國 104 年 01 月 January 2015.

(2) 臺灣穆斯林少數民族的社會適應︰以印尼穆斯林與中國穆斯林為例 Social Adaptation of Muslim Ethnic Minorities in Taiwan: Case Study of Indonesian Muslim and Chinese Muslim. : 孫莉瑋. 指導教授 : 張中復. 立. Student: Retno Widyastuti Advisor: CHANG, Chung-fu 政治大. ‧ 國. 學國立政治大學. ‧. Nat. y. 亞太研究英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. n. er. io. al. sit. 研究生. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. A Thesis. Submitted to International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies National Chengchi University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the Degree of Master of Arts 中華民國 104 年 01 月 January 2015 ii.

(3) Acknowledgements First and foremost, Praise to Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful and the Creator of this universe. Also prays and salam for the Prophet Muhammad, the perfect idol in this life. This thesis will not completed without the outstanding advice, suggestion and full support from my advisor, Prof. Chang Cung Fu, who help me to finish this thesis and teach me various things about academic life. Also to Prof. Tsai Yuan Lin and Prof. Tsai Zhong De who are willing to be the thesis committee and offer significant advices for my thesis. I also would like to thank Prof. David Holm who introduced me to Prof. Chang, as well as to Prof. David Blundell and Prof. Kuan from their classes during my study in National Chengchi University, introduced and. 政治大 I would also like to give a 立 nod of appreciation to Prof. Paul O Connor from CUHK and Mr. motivated me to learn more about anthropology, ethnology, and sociology.. ‧ 國. 學. Shalih Yu from CMA for the important discussion and information about my early research, and for Chinese Muslim Association officers, Imam and staffs in Taipei Grand Mosque, Taipei Cultural Mosque, Longgang Mosque, At-Taqwa Dayuan Mosque, Taichung Mosque, and. ‧. Kaohsiung Mosque. This research can’t be done without the insightful and important discussion. y. Nat. from all my interviewees and informant; Indonesian Muslim students, Indonesian Muslim. io. sit. workers communities and Chinese Muslim communities in Taipei, Taoyuan, Longgang,. n. al. er. Taichung and Kaohsiung. Also my thankful for Jerrel for helping me with Chinese translation.. Ch. i n U. v. Special for my dearest family, Pak and Mak, my elder sister, brother in law and my niece, thank. engchi. you very much for your undying support of my studies in Taiwan. I’m a truly blessed person in the world, who’s been given many wonderful opportunities in life. Also my family here in Taiwan (Aarin and Ni’mah as my sisters), my circle group in Taiwan, NCCU IA (Dr. Dira Berman, Abner, Jerrel, Nancy and Christine) for wonderful multi-cultural experience, Indonesian family in NCCU ISA, PPI Taiwan, FORMMIT Utaratu family, my team and students in UT Taiwan and Kejar Paket C, OIC NCCU (esp. Yu Fen), continues support from IMAS officers (esp. Angela and Grace), and IMAS friends (esp. Marlene Dorsey), my new family in PPI Dunia – OISAA and last but not least, Kak Yani, Mbak Lina and Mbak Sarah who has been accompanying me until the end of my stay in Taiwan. I will missing this hectic activities but fruitful and memorable life in Taiwan. Jazakumullah khairan katsir. Taipei, January 2015 iii.

(4) Abstract. Taiwan and its Chinese culture is not associated with Islam as religion and Muslim people. However, historically Islam and Muslim play an important role in Chinese history. Starting in early 1990s, there was a growing number of immigrant worker, mainly from South East Asian countries to Taiwan to work in informal sector. Currently Indonesian numbered 200,000, and become the biggest in terms of foreign workers in Taiwan. Majority of these Indonesian workers are Muslim. In order to preserve their identity and cultural life, the Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan. 政治大 environment and interact with Chinese Muslim in Taiwan. 立. formed various religious-based community, do a social adaptation with their. ‧ 國. 學. The objective of this study is to initiate the study of Islam and Muslim development in Taiwan, specifically how the social adaptation of Indonesian Muslim with. ‧. Chinese Muslim in Taiwan, as well as how they preserve their identity as ethnic. y. Nat. minority in Taiwan. Qualitative approach on data collection was undertaken, using. io. sit. literature review followed by collecting primary sources from intensive field. er. research and observation in Taipei, Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung.. al. n. v i n C h gathered andUformed some Indonesian Muslim It’s found that Indonesian Muslim engchi. organizations in Taiwan, and they actively interact with Chinese Muslim as the part of their social adaptation. However, due to some differences in cultural. background, those Indonesian Muslim communities need to adapt their habit and social life in Taiwan. Key words: Chinese Muslim, Indonesian Muslim Communities, Muslim Ethnic Minorities, Social Adaptation, Taiwan. iv.

(5) 摘要台灣與其中華文化並不像伊斯蘭人民將回教有很強的宗教關聯性。然而歷史上回教和穆斯林在中華的歷史中扮演著一個重要的角色。從1990年代初期，從東南亞有一批勞動者移民來到台灣，並在當地工作。近期，印尼籍的工作者已達到20萬人，他們成為台灣外籍工作者中數量最大的一群。在這當中，絕大部分的印尼籍勞動者都是穆斯林。為了保留自己的身分認同與文化，這群身在台灣的印尼籍穆斯林竟而形成了以宗教為主的許多社群，並因應在地差異與台灣的華人穆斯林進行社會適應上的交流與互動。. 政治大. 此篇研究的目的在於為台灣的回教與穆斯林研究踏出第一步，尤其是印尼. 立. 穆斯林與當地的華人穆斯林如何進行社會適應，以及在台灣這樣一個異地. ‧ 國. 學. 環境，身為少數族群的他們如何保有自己的身分認同。此研究採用質性研究方法進行資料蒐集，並以集中性的田野調查中第一手資料的蒐集與觀察. ‧. 進行文獻探討，這些調查資料來自臺北、桃園、中壢、台中以及高雄等地。. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 此研究發現印尼籍穆斯林聚集並在台灣形成特定的印尼穆斯林組織，並與華人穆斯林有著積極互動，形成他們社會適應過程中的一環。然而，由於. al. n. v i n Ch 文化背景的差異，這些印尼穆斯林社群更需要改變他們社會中的生活習慣 engchi U 以因應在台灣的生活。. 關鍵字: 華人穆斯林、印尼穆斯林社群、穆斯林民族弱勢、社會適應、台灣. v.

(6) Table of Contents Cover………………………..………………………..…………………………… Acknowledgements………………………..………………………………………. Abstract………………………..………………………..…………………………. 摘要 (Abstract in Chinese) ………………………..………………………..…….. Table of Contents………………………..………………………..……………….. List of Figures and Graphs………………………………..………………………. List of Acronyms………………………..………………………..……………….. Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Background……………………………………………..……………….. 1.2 Research Questions……………………………………………..……….. 1.3 Research Purpose and Importance…………………………..…………... 1.4 Research Methods & Methodology..……………..……..……… ……… 1.5 Literature Review………………………..………………..…………….. 1.5.1 The Spiritual Life of Indonesia Migrant Workers in Taiwan (2009-2011)……………..………….……...…………………… 1.5.2 An Explorative Study on the Taiwanese Muslim (2012 - 2013)... 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Cohesion and Cleavage in a Chinese Muslim Minority……… Ethnic Identity in China: The Making of a Muslim Minority Nationality (1998) ………………………………………………. ‧. 1.5.3 1.5.4. 1 3 3 3 5 5 6 7 10. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 1.6 Conceptual Framework 1.6.1 Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation (1997) …………… 1.6.2 A Theory of Immigrant Religious Adaptation: Disruption, Assimilation, and Facilitation (2010) ………………………….. 1.7 Thesis Composition….………………………..……..….…….…………. i iii iv v vi viii vii. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 12 14 15. Chapter 2. Development of Islam and Muslim in Taiwan 2.1 History of Islam and Muslim in Taiwan ……………………....……..…. 2.1.1 Maritime Silk Road……………………………………………... 2.1.2 Establishment of Taiwan Prefecture by Qing Dynasty………… 2.1.3 Nationalist Period (1911 - 1949) ……………………………… 2.1.4 Japanese Occupation Period (1895 - 1945)………… ………… 2.1.5 Evacuation of KMT and Chinese Muslim to Taiwan (1949)….... 19 21 21 22 23 23. 2.1.6 Chinese Muslim Migration from Burma and Thailand………… 2.1.7 The Coming of Muslim Foreign Worker to Taiwan…………… 2.2 Demography and Development of Muslim in Taiwan ………..………… 2.2.1 Chinese Muslim Organizations in Taiwan……………………... 2.2.2 Comparison between Muslim in Taiwan and Mainland China…. 24 24 27 29 29. 2.3 Indonesian Muslim Communities in Taiwan……………………….…… 2.4 Perception of Islam and Muslim in Taiwan…………………………….... 32 36. vi.

(7) Chapter 3. Social Adaptation among Indonesian Muslim Communities in Taiwan…………………………………………………………………………….. 38. 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 3.2 Social and Ethnic Adaptation of Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan………… 3.2.1 Indonesian Muslim Activities in Taiwan……………………….. 3.3 Masjid At-Taqwa, Indonesian Mosque in Taoyuan……………………... 3.3.1 History of Masjid At-Taqwa in Dayuan………………………... 3.3.2 Masjid At-Taqwa Activities……………………………………. 3.3.3 Challenges for Masjid At-Taqwa……………………………… 3.3.4 Masjid At-Taqwa Phenomenon and Its Influence……………… 3.4 Social Adaptation of Indonesian Muslim Communities………………… 3.4.1 Cooperation…………………………………………………….. 3.4.2 Problem and Challenges……………………………………….... 38 39 40 44 44 46 47 47 49 49 51. 政治大. Chapter 4. Social Adaptation of Indonesian Muslim Communities and Chinese Muslim Communities in Taiwan……………………………………… 4.1 Religious Activities and Ceremonies……………………………………. 4.1.1 Marriage Procession Ceremony………………………………… 4.1.2 Death Procession Ceremony…………………………………… 4.1.3 Friday Prayer…………………………………………………… 4.1.4 Ramadan/ Fasting Month……………………………………….. 4.1.5 Islamic Holiday Celebration……….…………………………… 4.1.6 Tabligh Akbar…………………………………………………... 4.1.7 Islamic Education………………………………………………. 4.1.8 Islamic Exhibition and Seminar………………………………… 4.1.9 Hajj……………………………………………………………… 4.1.10 Visitation to Detention Center………………………………….. 4.2 Inter-Marriage……………………………………...……………………. 4.3 Halal Food and Business………………………………...………………. 4.4 Challenges for Social Adaptation……………………………………….... 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 5 Conclusion and Recommendation 5.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………... 5.2 Recommendation………………………………………………………… 5.2.1 For Indonesian Muslim Communities…………………………… 5.2.2 For Chinese Muslim Communities……………………..……….. 5.2.3 For Both Chinese Muslim and Indonesian Muslim……………... 5.3 Further Study……………………………………………………………... References……………………………………………..……..……………..…….... vii. 53 53 54 55 55 56 57 57 58 58 60 60 61 64 68. 73 73 74 74 74 75 76.

(8) List of Figures Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3. Field Work Agenda…………..…………..…………..………….. Acculturation Strategies…………..…………..…………..…….. Conceptual Model of Immigrant Religious Adaptation………….. 3 13 15. List of Graphs Graph 2.1. The Number of Indonesian Workers in Taiwan………………….. 25. Graph 2.2. Indonesian Resident in Taiwan - Based on Living Area……….... 26. 立. 政治大. : Chinese Muslim Association. FORMMIT. : Forum Mahasiswa Muslim Indonesia di Taiwan. FOSMIT. : Forum Silaturahmi Indonesia di. IETO. : Indonesia Economic and Trade Office. KMIT. : Keluarga Muslim Indonesia di Taiwan. KOMIT. : Komunitas On Air Indonesia di Taiwan. PCI NCU. : Pengurus Cabang Istimewa Nahdatul Ulama. PCIM. : Pengurus Cabang Istimewa Muhammadiyah. PPI Taiwan. : Perhimpunan Pelajar Indonesia di Taiwan. n. Ch. engchi. viii. sit er. io. al. y. Nat. CMA. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. List of Acronyms. i n U. v.

(9) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION People are on the move, and so are their faiths… - The Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life (2012). 1.1. Background. Taiwan and its Chinese culture are not associated with Islam as religion and Muslim people. In fact, the number of Chinese Muslim in Taiwan is expected between 20,000 – 60,000. 政治大 argued that the number of Chinese Muslim is decreasing in the past 60 years, some others 立 adherents and mostly they are living in major cities in Taiwan. However, some scholars. said it is growing. Due to the absence of official statistical survey on religious adherents in. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwan, this matter still become debatable topic. In fact since 1990s, with the incoming of immigrant workers from South East Asian counties to Taiwan, it’s impacted on the number. ‧. of Muslim in Taiwan.. Nat. sit. y. Currently, there are approximately 200,000 Indonesian workers in Taiwan. Based on. io. er. Berry's categories on cultural groups (1997; p. 8), the majority of Indonesian who come to Taiwan can be included as temporary (such as international students and guest workers).. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Only a limited number of Indonesian who are permanently settled in Taiwan. They are. engchi. mostly working in the informal sector, female in early 20’s, coming from rural Java and are Muslim. With their presence, it gives significant growth for Muslim’s number in Taiwan in these last 20 years and also gives an important role to represent the image of Islam and Muslim as a whole in Taiwan. It creates a more diverse environment in Taiwan’s multicultural life. In order to preserve their identity and cultural life, Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan formed various religious-based community. Therefore, the existence of Indonesian Muslim communities and their activities can help the workers to maintain freshness, and give spiritual strength. These communities can be the medium of aspirations and to maintain brotherhood and solidarity among Indonesian Muslims towards goodness.. 1.

(10) As ethnic minorities and religious minority in Taiwan, Muslim and Islam still remaining as a stranger. But with the continues growing number of Muslim in Taiwan, as the part of Taiwan contemporary society, it is important to know and understand more about current development of Islam in Taiwan and Muslim, especially how Indonesian Muslim communities as the “guest” in Taiwan, adapt in new environment socially. Meanwhile, in their daily religious life, they keep interact with Chinese Muslim communities whom are already live in Taiwan for many decades. There should be some acculturations in both sides, during the social adaptation. The study about Islam and Muslim in Taiwan is still limited, including about the Indonesian Muslim religious life. Thus, in the end of 2013, I conducted a preliminary research and wrote a conference paper titled “Muslim in Contemporary Taiwan; Its Problems and. 政治大. Challenges”. From this research, it is found that the problems and challenges faced by. 立. Muslim are coming not only from external, but also internal, among the Muslim. ‧ 國. 學. communities themselves. There are different challenges between Chinese Muslim communities that already reside in Taiwan for a long time compare to Indonesian Muslim communities who are the “newcomer” in this island. However, there is also some. ‧. sit. Nat. population is very small and become minority.. y. challenges similarities especially due to Taiwan has Islamic country and the Muslim. er. io. With the presence of Indonesian Muslim, it shows a social phenomenon of current. al. v i n the development of Indonesian Muslims especially in sociological C hin contemporary Taiwan U i e h n g c adaptation with the Chinese Muslim and anthropological perspective, and their social n. multicultural life in Taiwan. After seeing these facts, I am interested to know more about. communities especially in major cities in Taiwan. Furthermore, with the multi-origins and multi-ethnic of foreign Muslims, as well as the existence of Chinese Muslims in Taiwan, it creates academic curiosity within me. With my background as an Indonesian, student, Muslim and experiences to join several Muslim community’s activities, these can give me an insider perspective on Muslim and Islam in Taiwan itself, by doing active-participative observation. However, to make an objective research that fits with academic standard, I will also use an outsider perspective during my field research by interviewing key person and reviewing various literatures as reference.. 2.

(11) 1.2. Research Question. There is limited prior study about Indonesian Muslim communities in Taiwan. Therefore, to initiate this topic I would like to know and analyze the social adaptation of Indonesian Muslim communities with Chinese Muslim communities. The main question in this research is: How does the social adaptation of Indonesian Muslim communities with the Chinese Muslim communities in Taiwan?. 1.3. Research Purposes and Importance. The number of Muslim in Taiwan is growing in the past 20 years, especially with the coming of Indonesian Muslim worker. Because there is still limited study about this topic, my. 政治大 development of Indonesian Muslim communities, and also social adaptation of Indonesian 立 Muslim communities with the Chinese Muslim communities in Taiwan, especially in Taipei, purpose and importance of study is to initiate an academic writing related to current. ‧ 國. 學. Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung. These areas are selected based on the presence of Mosque and the number of Muslim that reside in the city.. ‧. In some extend, it can be one part of studies of multicultural life of Taiwan in general. It. sit. y. Nat. also can be suggestion for both Muslim community and Taiwan government, for policy making process on social and multi-cultural integration in Taiwan. Furthermore, I do hope. io. n. al. er. that this research can enrich the study of contemporary Islam and Muslim in Taiwan,. i n U. v. specifically related to Indonesian Muslim communities in Taiwan.. 1.4. Ch. engchi. Research Methods & Methodology. To make an objective view and academic studies for this topic, I use wide range of primary and secondary sources. I conducted intensive field research and observation in Taipei, Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung for two months (June – July 2014) mainly in the mosque, especially during Ramadan or the fasting month on July 2014, Friday prayer, and Muslim communities’ weekend activities. From the observation, the highest interaction between Indonesian Muslim communities and Chinese Muslim communities happened in the mosque. Masjid or mosque plays very important roles for Muslim, not only in term of religious needs, but also social aspects. Mosque known as a place for Muslim to do the worship. However, mosque not restricted 3.

(12) to being a place of worship, a location for performing rituals, or a social and political dimension of the Muslim community, instead, it has served as a symbol of belonging and identity (Abdel-Hady, 2010). Figure 1.1 Field Work Agenda. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. For primary data, I did in-depth interview with Indonesian Muslim students, workers, and Imam/ staff of the mosque in those cities. The average time that I needed for each respondent for the interview was 45 to 60 minutes. Although it was not fulfil the standard time for an in-depth interview, but from various informant and sources I can cross-check and get the key points of the interviews. However, further research might be required to get a better findings. All the interviews were being recorded (audio), and after I finished it, I wrote the transcript of discussion and made field notes about my observation. While for secondary data I used references from journals, books, articles and news related to my research topic.. 4.

(13) 1.5. Literature Review. 1.5.1 The Spiritual Life of Indonesia Migrant Workers in Taiwan (2009-2011) A thesis written by Yu Li-na (Chinese name of Yuherina Gusman), an Indonesian that graduated from National Central University – Chungli, titled “The Spiritual Life of Indonesia Migrant Workers in Taiwan (2009-2011)”, will be used as reference to understand the background of Indonesian workers, as the biggest Muslim number in Taiwan, and their spiritual life. She was applying surface reading in looking at Indonesia Muslim migrant workers life in Taiwan. She found some importance of realities that cannot be understood by non-. 治政 (Gusman, 2011: p.84). Difference of cultures and beliefs 大have significant impacts for the 立 life of Indonesian migrant workers. Indonesian or non-Muslim if it is only read in terms of the differences of cultures and beliefs. ‧ 國. 學. She concluded and suggested some recommendations regarding regulation and policies on Indonesian Muslim workers, such as:. ‧. 1) Standard of Contract. y. Nat. Without proper legal protection and a standard contract, each new employment contract. io. sit. brings with it the risk of reduced freedom of mobility and exploitative employer. n. al. er. demand. The workers hardly have any chance to improve their situation. For Muslim. i n U. v. migrant workers, the missing standard contract makes the need of their beliefs remain un-seen.. Ch. engchi. 2) Reduce the Power of Agencies/ Broker. Most Indonesian Muslim migrant workers accept many mistreatments that violate their belief and psychologies because of their low bargaining power towards agencies. 3) Extended training and information for all involved government agencies 4) Develop A Plural Visions With the global migration, it makes the society become more complex in terms of religion and ethnicity. Employers and employees are from different countries and cultures and this creates the modern plural societies, thus building the plural vision can be both alienating and inspiring, a source of awareness and dissatisfaction, and a source of pleasure and apprehension. 5) Affirmative Policies 5.

(14) There should be affirmative policies from Indonesian government through political or cultural diplomacies. 6) Empowerment Activities 1.5.2 An Explorative Study on the Taiwanese Muslim (2012 - 2013) The most recent studies about Muslim demography and analysis in Taiwan, is the writing of Prof. Kuo Wen-ban, an associate professor from Department of Sociology in National Taipei University. His works titled "An Explorative Study on the Taiwanese Muslim (2012 - 2013)” for Institute for Asian Muslim Studies in Waseda University. Kuo explained about how the Taiwanese religious studies in general and sociology of religion in particular had contributed very little to the better understanding of the Muslims in Taiwan, and only a few. 政治大 or graduate students for their degree thesis (Kuo, 2013: p.2). He argued that perhaps it was 立 due to the inaccessible of Muslims from general social survey and because of its relatively anthropological field researches which conducted by researchers for their research projects. ‧ 國. 學. small size. The knowledge of the Muslims in Taiwan is more from the daily experiences, than from systematic investigations.. ‧. For his research, he conducted survey to Muslim respondents who residing in Taiwan, both. Nat. sit. y. Chinese/ Taiwanese Muslim and also foreign Muslim (mainly from Indonesia, and a small. io. er. number of Pakistan and Myanmar respondents). Kuo's research emphasizes demographic studies and analysis about immigrant Muslim in contemporary Taiwan. He mentioned that. n. al. i n U. v. marriage between immigrants Muslim with Taiwanese is higher in Muslim from Pakistan,. Ch. engchi. Myanmar rather than Muslim from Indonesia. Most of Indonesian Muslim practice endogamy. And he argued that the longer the immigrant Muslim have stayed, the greater marriage rates with Taiwanese. These Muslim immigrants come to Taiwan mainly because of economic reasons. From Kuo's survey, the income level of the Indonesians is the lowest, while the income distribution of Muslim from Pakistan and Myanmar (then called as Others Muslims) is similar to Taiwanese/ Chinese Muslims. He also argued that there is a positive correlation between year of stay and monthly income: the longer one have stayed, the more income they obtain (Kuo, 2013: 5). Kuo also mentioned four reasons of coming to Taiwan: 1) Economic reasons (earn money and being told there was a job), 2) Improving one's ability (to study and training), 3) Social 6.

(15) reason (invited by friends and family/ relative), and 4) Technical reason (easy to enter Taiwan and introduced by broker). He mentioned most of Indonesians' reason is economic reasons and technical reasons. While Others Muslim is to improving one's ability and social reasons. His survey covered some questions, such as: general conditions and respondents background, life in home country, life in Taiwan related to work, religious life (including access to halal food/ restaurant, access to mosque/ prayer room, and access to da'wa (calling people to Islam), life in Taiwan related to language comprehension, satisfaction to some aspects such as; work, residence, family, medical care, and financial condition, and the interesting part is satisfaction towards relations with people from respondent's country and relations with Muslims. 1.5.3. 政治大 Cohesion and Cleavage in a Chinese Muslim Minority (1973) 立. ‧ 國. 學. The first and mainly-cited reference on anthropological studies of Chinese Muslim as ethnic minority and Islam as a religious minority in Taiwan was a dissertation written by. ‧. Barbara Linne Kroll Pillsbury from Columbia University in 1973, titled Cohesion and Cleavage in a Chinese Muslim Minority. Most of her research was conducted in the capital. Nat. sit. y. city of Taipei where the concentration of Muslims is the greatest, but she also investigated. io. er. the secondary cities and towns which the Hui associational networks reached out. She spent about two years living and conducting field research in Taiwan to collect her data. n. al. i n U. v. through passive or adaptational research and participant-observation research.. Ch. engchi. Pillsbury’s main questions in her research (p.6) are to what extent has shared religion functioned as an integrative force in providing bases for association and for community solidarity in the urban milieu? To what extent have forces of conflict which characterize the community neutralized the existing cohesive forces? What is the nature of the boundaries existing between the Hui community and non-Muslims and how they maintained while its individual members learn to survive in the dominant Han society without being assimilated by it? Her dissertation consists of four parts. The first part presents the ethno-historical background of the “Hui-minzu” or Hui ethnic-minority, including the problem and its social, economic, religious and political setting. Mainlanders Muslims on Taiwan after 1949 concentrated primarily in Taipei, Kaohsiung and Taichung. Most of their profession were 7.

(16) career military personnel, civil servants or small businessmen, a small number of restaurant business owner, a few of farmer and none of sailor (p.3). Because of the civil war, the Muslims who crossed over to Taiwan in 1949 were become as refugees. They settled wherever and work wherever they found an employer in Taiwan. Pillsbury mentioned that their geographical origins, linguistic groups, and occupational backgrounds in mainland China were varied. But with the single element which drew them all together while setting them apart from other Chinese was Islam (p.4). For each new Muslim arrival on Taiwan access to the Muslim associational networks that had already come, for procuring housing and employment. Through this networks there developed multi-stranded relationships of mutual dependency among the Hui. Even though their diverse origins and socio-economic statuses, the Hui assumed themselves to be a single. 政治大. community united through Islam, as the expression said: “All Hui under heaven are one. 立. family” (p. 5).. ‧ 國. 學. The second chapter in this first part deals with factors Hui perceive as cohesive or integrative, those which have created a strong in-group sentiment among individuals and. ‧. families of very disparate origins. First of all, Pillsbury explained about isolation and sinification1 of religions in China. Similar to Buddhism, Christianity and Judaism, Islam. y. Nat. sit. was “foreign” religions imported into China (p. 8). However, although Islam has been. al. er. io. existed in China for thirteen centuries in China, Islam which underwent a high degree of. v. n. sinification never became the part of the Chinese religio-cultural mainstream. Then. Ch. 2. Pillsbury describes the development of Islam in China .. engchi. i n U. From Hui historians, he divided the development of Islam in ancient China into several periods (Sun 1963: 144-145, in Pillsbury 1973: 11-20): 1) Period of penetration (early Tang dynasty) During this period, many traders and mercenaries sent by the Caliph to assist the Chinese emperor in quelling a Tatar rebellion. They rewarded with land and permission to settle in China’s chief cities. Those merchants who came and settled known as “barbarian guests”, and they took Chinese wives.. 1. Sinification or Sinicization is a term to define the process of acculturation in China. Sinicization and the cultural contact with the Chinese (including the influence of Confucianism), continues to produce an acculturation of different background (Katzenstein, 2012). 2 Islam followed two routes to China, first by sea (Maritime-Silk Road) and later by land (the fabled Silk Road across Central Asia into Turkestan) (Pillsbury, 1973: p. 8-9) 8.

(17) 2) Period of expansion (during Tang dynasty 618 – 906 and Song dynasty, 960 – 1279) During this time, the trade in which Arab and Persian Muslims were middlemen, grew steadily. The Muslim population was able to increase and spread inland. 3) Period of influence (during the Yuan dynasty, 1279 – 1368) Under the Mongol emperor, there are more Muslims rose to high military and civil office. The freedom of travel throughout Central Asia, encouraged great crosscultures and cross-people: Chinese into Central Asia and Arabs, as well as Turks and Persians into China. It’s encouraged an influx of Muslim merchants, doctors, scholars, astronomers, astrologers and high-ranking military men who became. 政治大. Mongol’s advisors, military sides and staff officers (Pai Shou-I, 1951: 21-22 in Pillsbury, 1973: 12).. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 4) Period of weakness. Throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties, Chinese Islam remained in protracted. ‧. isolation from the Islamic world community. The Ming pursued a policy prohibiting foreign dress, foreign languages and foreign names. It is during this period that. y. Nat. sit. Chinese Islam underwent its greatest sinification.. n. al. er. io. According to Ting (1058: 349 – 350, in Pillsbury, 1973: 13-15), there are four aspects of sinification process:. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. a) Adoption of Chinese surnames. They chose the Chinese surname which sounded most similar to his original Arabic, Persian or Turkic name, such as; Ma, Ta, Ha, Ho, Na, Sa, Ting, etc. All Muslims on Taiwan have both Muslim and Chinese personal names as well as a Chinese surname b) Adoption of Chinese dress c) Adoption of Chinese food habits, such as techniques of preparation and the use of chopsticks. d) Adoption of local Chinese dialects, in came to replace Arabic and Persian language. Another factor that contribute to Muslim isolation was Manchu persecution. The Manchus adopted a deliberate divide and rule policy of setting the Muslims against 9.

(18) the Chinese. There was a series of rebellions in Gansu, Yunnan, and Northwest China. 5) Period of Renaissance The Islamic minority in China began to break out from isolation with the collapse of Qing dynasty. They tried to back into the Islam mainstream through “sunnification” 3 . Some factors that made Chinese Muslim can break out the isolations are: a) Cessation of large-scale hostilities b) Sun Yat-sen’s doctrine in 1911 about “harmony and quality of the five races”4 which officially put the Muslims on an equal footing with the Chinese. 政治大 pilgrimage to Mecca because of the new freedom of movement and improved 立 transportation.. c) The increasing number of Chinese Muslim who were able to make the. ‧ 國. 學. For the third, fourth and fifth chapter in first part, it consist of the social setting, economic. ‧. setting, religious setting. Part three discusses conflict within the community which the Hui perceive as dis-integrative and working against the cohesive factors (the cleavage in the. Nat. sit. y. community: political organization). While the concluding part focuses on maintenance of. io. er. social boundaries between the Hui minority and the Han majority, specifically on the threat of assimilation (Pillsbury, 1973: p. 2-3).. al. n. v i n CMaking Ethnic Identity in China: The Minority Nationality (1998) h e nofgacMuslim hi U. 1.5.4. There are several terms that often being used to call the Muslim in China, such as; the Hui, the Hui Muslim, Chinese Muslim, and Muslim Chinese. What are the differences? To have basic knowledge and understanding about Chinese Muslim, I will briefly reviewed two books written by Dru C. Gladney, who is one of the leading scholars that have expertise in China’s ethnic minorities, especially on Muslim minorities. These books titled “Ethnic Identity in China; The Making of a Muslim Minority Nationality” and “Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic”. They explain how are the Muslims “made”. 3. This term refers to reform aimed at purifying Islam of local unorthodox beliefs, practices, and laws which contradict the tenets of Islam (Pillsbury, 1973: 20-21). 4 Five races are Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan 10.

(19) in China and how their ethnic and cultural identity formed in China, as well as explanation of the term “Hui” identity. The “Hui” is the largest Muslim society among 55 official ethnic minorities in China, in which 10 of them are Muslim. Gladney wrote this book based on his field research for period of years, meeting and talking to Hui in more than 400 households throughout China (from north to south and east to west). He found a problem to discover how the Hui view themselves, how they recognize who is Hui. In the introduction, he said that he felt an ambiguity for the status of them. He said, “After almost 3 years of fieldwork in China, the longer I searched for the Hui, the less I understood what made them Hui (p.1)”. Compare to another 55 ethnic minorities in China, the Hui has the most special case among. 政治大 category outlined by Joseph Stalin. They generally do not have their own language, peculiar 立 dress, literature, music or the other cultural inventories by which more colorful minorities the others since the Hui distinguished separately and they are out of the four commons. ‧ 國. 學. are portrayed. George and Louise Spindler, the editors said that; for the Hui there is no “we”, because the Hui consist of widely divergent communities living within varying. ‧. ecological contexts and experience their ethnicity in radically different ways, and they inhabit every major metropolitan area of China and are considered China’s major urban. y. Nat. sit. ethnic group. Moreover, they are internally diverse and their presumed ethnicity so. n. al. er. io. ambiguous, so that they are out of the Stalin’s category.. i n U. v. To get further understanding about this matter, Gladney explains the root cause of this. Ch. engchi. problem. He mentioned about the uniting of China through the politics of ethnic identification and Han nationalism, as well as explanation about “unofficial” ethnicity. China’s centralized, state-sponsored policies as well as cultural politics and identity, directed at Muslims and other minorities. Gladney asked; “Why would anyone want to be recognized as an official minority nationality? And why would the government want to recognize them in the first place?” Later on, he describes more about who are the Hui. Gladney tries to identify the Hui and the background of the making of the Hui nationality as their ethnic identity in China. The explanation is through ethnicity theory from many approaches, such as: the ChineseStalinist approach, the Culturalist approach, the circumstantialist approach. Then, Gladney gives more specific case studies about ethno-religious resurgence in a northwestern Sufi 11.

(20) community, fundamentalist revival in Na homeland and the ethno-religious roots, also socioeconomic context and local government policies of Na identity. In the end of his book, Gladney explains about ethnic national identity in the contemporary Chinese State. Compare to other book, Gladney gives detail explanation about the “ambiguity” status of the Hui as an ethnic in China. Specifically, he gives the reader basic understanding about Hui’s identity as Muslim minority nationality, before explaining some case studies and the Hui’s life nowadays. After read this book, I can understand more about the “uniqueness” of Hui’s identity and status as a minority ethnic in China, and its consequences and impact on some issues/ phenomenon in current China’s situation.. 1.6 1.6.1. Conceptual Framework. 治政 Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation (1997) 大立 ‧ 國. 學. John W. Berry is a scholar from Queen’s University in Ontario, Canada. In 1997 he wrote an article titled “Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation”. His main question is how individuals who have developed in one cultural context manage to adapt to new contexts. ‧. that result from migration. Berry argue that, in the acculturation process there are several. y. Nat. variables that depends on the social and personal variables that reside in the society of. io. sit. origin, the society of settlement, and phenomena that exist prior to and arise during the. er. acculturation. He said that the concept of acculturation is employed to refer the cultural. al. n. v i n Ch U interrelated aspects of adaptation: 1) psychological, and 3) economic. e n g c h2) isocio-cultural,. changes resulting from these group encounters. Berry also mentioned that there are three. To understand the adaptation and cultural transition of immigrant, Berry gives explanation about basic concept of acculturation. There are several definition about acculturation, the classic one was defined by Redfield, Linton, and Herkovits in 1936 (in Berry, 1997). They defined acculturation as it comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures, come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original culture pattern of either or both groups. Acculturation is a collective or group-level phenomenon. In other word, acculturation is a change in the culture of the group. The next discussion emphasized on assimilation, that can be reactive by triggering resistance to change in both groups, creative by stimulating new cultural forms that not 12.

(21) found in either of cultures in contact, and delayed by initiating changes that appear more fully years later. Another basic concept related to immigration issues is plural societies. Berry mentioned that as a result of immigration, the society become culturally plural, means people of many cultural backgrounds come to live together in a diverse society. In some cases, the cultural groups has different power that resulted social terms such as minority, ethnic group, etc. For immigrant, they should deal with the issue of how to acculturate. In order to adapt and acculturate, there are two main issues for these cultural groups. First issue is cultural maintenance, means to what extent are cultural identity and characteristics considered to be important, and their maintenance strived for. The second issue is contact and participation, means to what extent should they become involved in other cultural groups. 政治大. or remain primarily among themselves (p. 9).. 立. Figure 1.2 Acculturation Strategies. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. (Source: Berry, 1997: p. 10) There are four acculturation strategies: 1) Assimilation; when individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other cultures; 2) Separation, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time 13.

(22) wish to avoid interaction with others; 3) Integration, when there is an interest in both maintaining one’s original culture, while in daily interactions with other groups; and 4) Marginalization, when there is little possibility or interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss), and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination). Berry defines adaptation as changes that take place in individuals or groups in response to environmental demands. In acculturation context, there are two adaptations: psychological adaptation and sociocultural adaptation. In this thesis, I will focus on sociocultural adaptation. It more closely linked to the social skills framework (Ward and Kennedy, 1993a in Berry, 1997: p. 14).. 政治大. 1.6.2 A Theory of Immigrant Religious Adaptation: Disruption, Assimilation, and. 立. Facilitation (2010). ‧ 國. 學. Phillip Carey Connor from Princeton University wrote his dissertation in 2010, titled “A Theory of Immigrant Religious Adaptation: Disruption, Assimilation, and Facilitation”.. ‧. From the research conducted by many sociologists, it is find that religion is important to immigrants, not only in theological or spiritual terms, but also religion has become a point. sit. y. Nat. of transnational contact between origin and host societies (p. 7 – 8).. er. io. This congregations become the center of religious and cultural reproduction for the second. al. n. v i n immigrants’ cultural traditions, but C it also ethnic and religious traditions for their h erecreates ngchi U and third generations. In other words, religious practice not only serves to maintain. children (p.8). Another important finding by sociologist of migration is that religion and religious institutions can positively assist immigrants in their incorporation into the host society, and religion helps immigrants economically, politically, and psychologically in their adaptation in new environment.. He mentioned that immigrant religious adaptation can consist of three distinct movements; 1) The change in religious practice from origin to host country, 2) The subsequent adjustments made to religious practice in the host country, and 3) The integration into the host society through religious practice. Connor said that in immigrant lives, assimilation to the new society in both its straight-line and newly modified forms, is not always expected for all aspects. For immigrant, religious affiliation is expected to remain a continuing part of the immigrant’s identity, and become a sacred piece of immigrant life left untouched by 14.

(23) the assimilation process. Although immigrants do not assimilate en masse to the dominant religious beliefs in the new society, immigrants do religiously assimilate in terms of form or frequency of religious participation. Figure 1.3 Conceptual Model of Immigrant Religious Adaptation. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. a l (Source: Connor, 2010: p. 60)i v n Ch U engchi Thesis Composition. 1.7. This research will be divided into five chapters. The first chapter will explain about thesis background and motivation, research questions, objectives, literature review, conceptual frameworks, thesis composition and research framework. The concept that will be used is social adaptation, and immigrant religious adaptation. The second chapter describe the development of Islam and Muslim in Taiwan, including its history background, current demography of Muslim in Taiwan, development of Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan and the problem and challenges of Muslim in the Taiwan’s cultural context.. 15.

(24) Currently, there are 1.6 billion adherents of Islam worldwide. Originated from Arabian Peninsula, Islam already spread to entire world, and Muslims have a wide range of races, ethnicities and cultures. They are united in their belief in God and the Prophet Muhammad and are bound together by such religious practices as fasting during the holy month of Ramadan and almsgiving to assist people in need (Pew Research Center, 2012b). There are also Muslim populations in China. In this country, Islam as religion and culture has been treated as foreign religion, and its presence is not associated with Chinese culture. In fact, according to Michael Dillon (2009), Islam had a significant presence in China since the earliest days of the religion, along with trade activities through Silk Road. Its presence also take important part in China’s long history, and gives influential culture that has often times changed the course of Chinese history. Its influence is too vital to be overlooked in. 政治大. discussion of current Chinese culture (Cho, 2009).. 立. In Mainland China, the Chinese Muslim often called as Hui, in which the Hui are one of. ‧ 國. 學. ethnic minority groups in China. However there is different context on using this term in Taiwan. In contemporary Taiwan, the term Hui still being used to refer to all Muslim. ‧. peoples and Islam is often referred to as Hui jiao, although there are some of them reject this term. Instead as a separate nationality in Taiwan, they are more as a religious group or. y. Nat. sit. the believers in the Hui religion (Hui jiao tu) rather than members of the Hui ethnic group. er. io. (Hui minzu) (Gladney: 1991, p. 19). Many urban Hui and intellectuals prefer and often to. al. use the term “Islam” (Yisilan jiao) and “Muslim” (Musilin) (Gladney: 1991, p. 20). This. n. v i n condition play an important role forCthe Hui identity construction in Taiwan that differ to hengchi U those in Mainland China. The difference between the PRC and Taiwan policies related to. religion and nationality has also affected Hui identity and its expression in both societies (Gladney: 1991, p. 283). In modern Taiwan, most of the Chinese Muslim was coming during the evacuation of Kuo Min Tang’s government from mainland China to Taiwan in 1949, with a big number of Chinese Muslim, including some of prominent Chinese Muslims in government and military position. There are military generals that had significant roles during Chiang Kai Shek early leadership in Taiwan, and had several influences which strengthen Islam and Muslim presence in Taiwan’s domestic and international affairs (especially with Islamic World & Middle East).. 16.

(25) While the second phase is the international migration5 of Chinese Muslim from Burma and Thailand in 1980’s. They are the descendant of Yunnan Chinese Muslim who moved to northern Thailand and Burma, and then later moved to Taiwan for seeking a better economic condition and living. The most current one is the coming of Muslim foreign workers to Taiwan in 1990s from South East Asian countries. Nowadays, Indonesian workers, in which the majority of them are Muslim, numbered the largest in Taiwan. The third chapter and fourth chapter will be focused on the analysis of the research finding of observation and field work in Taipei, Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung as well as some social adaptation cases of Indonesian Muslim communities with Chinese Muslim communities in Taiwan.. 政治大 communities in Taiwan. I will describe the development and analyze the social adaptation 立 of Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan. With the number of 200,000 Indonesian in Taiwan, it is The third chapter is my contribution for introducing the study of Indonesian Muslim. ‧ 國. 學. important to know how they preserve and maintain their identity in Taiwan, what are their problem and challenges. And to understand Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan, we should know. ‧. how their background. Most of the Indonesian Muslim workers are coming from rural Java Island and having Indonesian traditional Muslim background or often called “nahdiyin”. y. Nat. sit. (Nahdatul Ulama follower). Then continued with phenomenon of Masjid At-Taqwa that. n. al. er. io. includes the story behind.. i n U. v. As immigrant and “guest” in Taiwan, in order to preserve their identity and cultural life,. Ch. engchi. the Indonesian Muslim formed various religious-based communities and to fulfil their needs for a place for religious purpose and social gathering, they build this first “Indonesian-mosque” in Dayuan, Taoyuan. Masjid At-Taqwa officially launched on June 9th, 2013 and then become the 7th mosque in Taiwan. Its name sounds uncommon for a mosque in Taiwan; it is because this mosque was initiated and built by Indonesian Muslim immigrant in Taiwan. Later on, it will talk about social adaptation and relations among Indonesian Muslim Communities in Taiwan. Currently there are more than 200 Indonesian organizations in Taiwan, not only for religious activities but also advocacy for Indonesian workers.. 5. According to the United Nations Population Division, an international migrant defines as someone who has been living for one year or longer in a country other than the one in which he or she was born. This means that many foreign workers and international students are counted as migrants (Pew Research Center, 2012a). 17.

(26) While the fourth chapter will analyze the social adaptation of Indonesian Muslim community and the Chinese Muslim communities in Taiwan. This chapter as the finding and analysis part of the observation and interview that conducted in mosques in Taipei, Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung. Some cases for the social adaptation among them will be divided into inter-marriage, religious activities and ceremony, and also halal food and business. For the religious activities and ceremonies, some of the events where Chinese Muslim and Indonesian Muslim interacted are related to wedding procession ceremony, death procession ceremony, Friday pray, Ramadan, Islamic holiday celebration, tabligh akbar, Islamic education, Islamic exhibition and seminar, Hajj and visitation to Detention Center. These three aspects become main issues for social adaptation.. 政治大 The fifth chapter gives the conclusions and recommendations for a better social life of 立 Indonesian and Chinese Muslim communities in Taiwan. Hopefully, it can be a premier. ‧ 國. 學. research for further study about Muslim ethnic minorities in Taiwan, specifically Indonesian Muslim and Chinese community in Taiwan.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 18. i n U. v.

(27) CHAPTER 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM AND MUSLIM IN TAIWAN 2.1. History of Islam and Muslim in Taiwan. China and its culture is not traditionally associated with Islam and Muslim. In fact, according to Michael Dillon (2009), Islam had a significant presence in China since the earliest days of the religion, along with trade activities through Silk Road6. Its presence also take important part in China’s long history, and gives influential culture that has often times changed the course of Chinese history. However, its influence is too vital to be overlooked in discussion of current Chinese culture (Cho, 2009), and this condition similar to Islam in Taiwan.. 立. 政治大. Pillsbury (1973) in her dissertation mentioned that it is because of one thousand years’. ‧ 國. 學. isolation from the rest of the Islamic world. In fact, according to Michael Dillon (2009), Islam had a significant presence in China since the earliest days of the religion7, along with. ‧. trade activities through Silk Road. Its presence also take important part in China’s long history, and gives influential culture that has often times changed the course of Chinese. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. (Cho, 2009).. sit. history. Its influence is too vital to be overlooked in discussion of current Chinese culture. i n U. v. With its strong Chinese culture, people in general never thought that Islam and Muslim is. Ch. engchi. existed in this island. The very first wave of Muslim migration to this Island was in 1661, following the collapse of the Ming Dynasty China passed into the hands of the Manchus8 (Pillsbury, 1973: p.2). Fan Jing Peng and Ma Shi Ying (2012) divided the waves of Islam in Taiwan before 1945 into 3 phases9: 1) Zheng He’s fleet arrived in Taiwan in the late Ming and early Qing Islam, known as “Religion of Trade”, is spreading and developing in China along with the Silk Road routes, for both economic and religious term. The most common route was land route of Silk Route that stretch from Middle East through Central Asia to Eastern coast China. 7 Islam presence in Chinese land has been existing for more than 1300 years 8 Pillsbury (1973) mentioned that there are approximately 20,000 Taiwanese descendants of those Muslims who follows the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Cheng Cheng-kung) to Taiwan. Most of them settled in small coastal towns such as Lukang, Keelung, Sual, Changhua and Tamsui (p.2). 9 From the journal written by Fan and Ma (2012) it mentioned that the Islamic Studies in Taiwan before 1945 were insufficient. But then after 1945 the Restoration Day of Taiwan, it becomes much more sufficient. The scholars who studied Fujian and Taiwan local history and culture, introduced how the life of Muslim in 6. 19.

(28) Dynasties and then moved many immigrants from mainland, and many Hui living in Quanzhou moved to Taiwan, 2) During Qing Dynasty, in which Qing government unified Taiwan, set up the local government and sent several Muslim officials from mainland there 10 , and 3) During the Japanese occupation, “foreign” religions incl. Islam were suppressed. According to Ming history, the earliest Muslims in Taiwan were coming along with Zheng He (鄭和), a great navigator in Ming dynasty. The situation of Zheng He's journey to the West Ocean was recorded in Gòng Diǎn Lù (貢典錄), which also recorded the document of countries and local areas where Zheng He has been. Before Qing Dynasty government set Taiwan Prefecture in 1684, the local affairs of Taiwan were under the management of. 政治大 During the Tang, Song and Yuan 立Dynasty, many Muslim merchants from Central and West Fujian Province in China (Fan and Ma, 2012).. Asia11 travelled to Fujian, which located in eastern coast of China, by the Maritime Silk. ‧ 國. 學. Route to establish trade contact with China. Richard C. Foltz (1999: 97) mentioned some factors that become major factor accounting for the Islamization of the Silk Road are the. ‧. Muslim domination of commercial activity. He described that a businessman could feel. y. Nat. that becoming a Muslim would facilitate contacts and cooperation with other Muslim. sit. businessmen both at home and abroad. It would also benefit from favorable conditions. er. io. extended by Muslim officials and from the Islamic laws governing commerce. Another. al. n. v i n Islamization occurs most profoundlyCamong h e nthegsucceeding h i Ugeneration, since the convert’s c children in principle will be raised within the father’s new community, not his original one.. factor is assimilation through marriage. Whatever the reasons for one’s converting to Islam,. Taiwan. However, the introduction was incomplete and without comprehensive studies of Muslim in China and its relationship with Taiwan. 10 Chen Taiding and Bai Qiguo Hui group in Quanzhou Hui Community became major settlers in Taiwan 11 The Hui Chinese have diverse origins, and many of whom are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers. Some in the southeast coast (Guangdong, Fujian) and in major trade centers elsewhere in China are of mixed local and foreign descent. Their ancestors include Central Asian, Arabs, and Persian who married Han Chinese. Several medieval dynasties, particularly the Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty, and Mongol Yuan Dynasty encouraged immigration from predominantly Muslim Persia and Central Asia, with both dynasties welcoming traders from these regions and appointing Central Asian officials. In the subsequent centuries, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Han Chinese, and the Hui people were formed. 20.

(29) 2.1.1. Maritime Silk Road. In this period as well, many Muslim from Arab or Persia also followed the Maritime Silk Road for business or missionary purposes. In the past, Fujian and Quanzhou where crossed the Taiwan Strait and faced Taiwan, were the important starting point of “Maritime Silk Road”. The term “Maritime Silk Route” (海上丝绸之路/ Hǎishàng sīchóu zhī lù) is to describe the route that being used by Muslim migrants, who mostly were Arabs and Persians that first came to China, by the sea. Since the 7th century (Tang Dynasty), Muslims constituted a majority in China’s foreign immigration. Chinese scholars generally identified these foreign Muslims as ‘the maritime Muslims’ (海路穆斯林/ Hǎilù mùsīlín). Most of these Muslims were traders (Fan, 2001a: 309). Soon, the cross-strait open the ship. 政治大. transportation and since then there are more and more people came for different purposes, such as fishing and business.. 立. The maritime Muslim traders then settled down and lived here, formed a "special foreign. ‧ 國. 學. culture", married local Chinese, built mosque and tombs for Muslim as well, and then eventually formed a new ethnic group ‘Hui’12, which carried out the mission of spreading. ‧. the Islamic teachings. Foreign migrants formed their own neighborhood communities. y. sit. er. Establishment of Taiwan Prefecture by Qing Dynasty. io. 2.1.2. Nat. (fanfang or foreign street), as named by local Chinese in these cities.. al. n. v i n C h icon of China'sU sovereignty on Taiwan. In Qing in history, which is also a significant engchi The establishment of Taiwan Prefecture by Qing Dynasty is an important historical event. Dynasty, there were at least 10 Islamic officers had activities in Taiwan. The Islamic. officers in Qing Dynasty were under the management of the Central Government of Qing Dynasty. The time they stayed in Taiwan were decided by the Central government, and therefore they only contributed little to the development of Islamic affairs in Taiwan. The development of local Islamic in Taiwan also could be traced back to those Islamic located in Taiwan. Gladney in his book mentioned that the “Taiwanese Muslims” are those 12. According to Michael Dillon (1999), the Hui are ethnically similar to Han Chinese; the group has retained some Persian and Central Asian features, but their ethnicity and culture having been shaped profoundly by their position along the Silk Road trading route. While according to the official definition, the Hui are a people who have descended from foreign Muslims who married Chinese and other Chinese ethnic minorities, and were believed to form a minzu during the Ming period after several generations of interethnic relations in economic and cultural exchange (Fan, 2001a: 326).. 21.

(30) Hui descendants described by the Taiwan China Muslim Association as “20,000 Taiwanborn descendant of Chinese Muslims who came to this island 300 years ago with Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) (Gladney, 1991; p. 279). Before 1945, most Islamic located in Taiwan were the Guō (郭) and Dīng (丁) two families, which had strong relationship with Bǎi Qí Guō (百崎郭) in Quanzhou (泉州), and Chén Dài Dīng (陳埭丁). These “first generation” of Muslim migration to Taiwan mostly live in Taishi Township – Yunlin County (Ding family), Lukang Township – Changhua County (Guo family). There were more than 600 residences in Guō family who believed in Islam Lukang, Changhua (彰化). Guo family is descendants of Hui who came with Koxinga, but now no longer observe Islam. They follow traditional Chinese cultures, but still does not. 政治大. offer pork on Fridays nor offering it to their ancestral shrines. They also like to keep their heads covered during rituals.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. However, due to some factors, their identity as Muslim was faded. In January 1958, the leader of Chinese Islamic Youth went to Lukang for research. He found that there were. ‧. more than 300 Islamic families in Lukang, and the elderly people who were more than 60 ages knew they were all Muslim. In addition, few families had the Quran in their house.. sit. y. Nat. They still kept the tradition that if any Islamic member died in their family, and they couldn't eat pork for 40 days. From another research, "47 Years Record of Interviewing. io. n. al. er. Lukang", showed the evidence that the ancestor of the Guō family is Islamic. Still there's. i n U. v. another report, "the Lost Islamic in Lukang", which kept the reason of Chinese localization. Ch. engchi. of Islamic in Lukang and indicated their ancestors had certain relationship with " Bǎi Qí Guō " in Fujian. As the Islamic settled down, the Mosque appeared as well. After 1949 Chinese Islamic Association came back to Taiwan, the Guō family and Dīng family almost lost their religion and basically they no longer practice Islam anymore in their daily life. 2.1.3. Nationalist Period (1911 – 1949). After overthrew the Qing Empire, the nationalist established the first “People’s Republic”. Dr. Sun Yat-sen advocated the idea about wuzu gonghe, or “5 Peoples of China”; they are the Han, the Manchu (Man), Mongolian (Meng), Tibetan (Zang), and Hui (term for all Muslims in China). The recognition of the 5 Peoples of China was the main platform for Sun Yat-sen’s Nationalist Revolution (Gladney, 1991; p. 83).. 22.

(31) In 1939, Chiang Kai-shek promoted the assimilationist aspect of early Nationalist policy. In the 1st National Congress of the Chinese Hui People’s National Salvation Association in Chongqing, he declared that all non-Han groups within China are sub-varieties of an ancient Chinese race (p. 84). He stated, “The so-called Huijiaotu in present-day China, they are for the most part actually members of the Han clan who embraced Islam. Therefore, the difference between them with the Hans is only in religion and different habits of life”. Under this policy, the Hui were not considered a separate people or nationality, but a religious group with special characteristics. 2.1.4. Japanese Occupation Period (1895 – 1945). During the Japanese occupation in Taiwan, all foreign religions practices were forbidden,. 政治大 day of each month is the day to do the worship. Further, to cut the relationship between 立 Taiwanese people to their ancestors and their mother culture with China, Japanese forced. including for Islam. Instead, the Japanese built Japanese sacred sites and issued the first. ‧ 國. 學. each family to set Japanese shrines inside their house rather than worship their own ancestors. Moreover, Japanese government viewed the original tradition of Taiwan as. ‧. negative tradition, including the marriage and funeral, and therefore they broke these traditions. As a result, they became even more Chinese localization.. sit. y. Nat. Evacuation of KMT and Chinese Muslim to Taiwan (1949). io. er. 2.1.5. al. n. v i n C hgovernment (Kuo UMin Tang/ Nationalist engchi. In the year 1949 was the most crucial part in Taiwan history. After the Chinese Civil War in the 20th century,. KMT) evacuate from. mainland China to Taiwan, together with approx. 20,000 Muslim families. Most of them came from Yunnan, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Anhui and Gansu (mostly southern and western regions of China) in which have strong Islam and Muslim identity. After they settled in Taiwan, one of prominent Muslim figure, Bai Chongxi, who were also high rank military general in KMT, re-established Chinese Muslim Association in Taiwan and initiated Taiwan's first mosque; the Taipei Grand Mosque in Taipei. With these great numbers of Muslim migration to Taiwan, they spread to several cities and initiated to build another mosque and Muslim community, such as in Kaohsiung, and Taichung. The next wave was coming from Burma. In 1950s, due to warfare inside Burma, there was an agreement between Taipei and Rangoon to transported KMT’s soldiers and dependents 23.

(32) to Taiwan. Most of these soldiers were Muslim, and due to limitation of space in Taipei, they moved and settled in Longgang in Chungli. Then, they also build a mosque in 1964 and was completed three years later in 1967. There are around 200 Muslim families living around this area with most of them belongs to Ma family clans. 2.1.6. Chinese Muslim Migration from Burma and Thailand. Since the 1980s, a big number of Chinese Muslims from Burma/ Myanmar and Thailand have migrated to Taiwan for economic reasons. These migrants basically were descendants of Chinese Muslim (Hui) in Yunnan13. Then, when the Qing dynasty took over the Yunnan area, those Hui migrated to present Burma and northern Thailand. Nowadays, many of them settled in Burma Street at Zhonghe District in New Taipei, Chungli in Taoyuan County and some other towns.. 立. The Coming of Muslim Foreign Worker to Taiwan. 學. ‧ 國. 2.1.7. 政治大. Due to the growing economy of Taiwan, also because of the aging population and declining of birth rate, Taiwan open its labor market to foreigner. Most of them working as blue-. ‧. collar worker in informal sector. They are coming from Indonesia, Vietnam the Philippines,. sit. y. Nat. Pakistan, India, and elsewhere.. io. er. Currently there is approx. 200,000 Indonesian in Taiwan. Since 1994, the number of Indonesian workers in Taiwan growing rapidly. From only 6,000 people, into more than. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 190,000 people in 2014. They represent the majority of foreign workers in Taiwan. Why. engchi. there is such big number of Indonesian workers coming in Taiwan? From the research conducted by Rita Pawestri Setyaningsih (2011), there are some push and pull factors that attracted Indonesian workers to migrate to Taiwan (p. 33). For push factors, there is an increasing trend for Indonesian to work overseas and also the limited. 13. Within the Hui Yunnan, there is intersection of the Chinese, Islamic, and to some extent the Southeast Asian spheres. Rural Hui communities were clustered in the northwest and southwest of China. In Yunnan, in the far southwest of China, many Muslims became involved in farming and opening new agricultural land after the conquest of the region by the forces of Khubilai Khan in 1253. The towns of Kunming and Dali were the main urban centers with large Muslim communities. Michael Dillon (1999) mentioned that one of the important figures for the Muslim in Yunnan is Sayyid Ajall Shams ad-Din (1210-1279). He became the key actors for the movement of Central Asian Muslims into Yunnan, and he also became the one who celebrated for the sinicisation of Yunnan and its incorporation into the Chinese world. Sayyid Ajall was sent to govern Yunnan after serving his Mongol masters in northern and central China. Although Sayyid Ajall becomes the person who ensures social stability and integration in Yunnan, however it mentioned that his influence on the growth of the Muslim community in Yunnan was indirect (Jianping Wang, 1996 in Dillon, 1999). 24.