美食外交: 以韓國為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. 美食外交: 以韓國為例 Gastrodiplomacy: the Case of South Korea. io. sit. y. Nat. n. er. Student: Aika Ramayu 賴玫郁 al i v 魏玫娟 n Ch Advisor: Mei-chuan Wei, Ph.D U. engchi. 中華民國108年11月 November 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(2) 美食外交: 以韓國為例 Gastrodiplomacy: the Case of South Korea. 研究生: Aika Ramayu 賴玫郁指導教授: Mei-chuan Wei, Ph.D 魏玫娟. 立. 政治大國立政治大學. ‧ 國. 學. 亞太研究英語碩士學位學程. ‧. 碩士論文. er. io. sit. y. Nat. a. A Thesis. n. v Submitted to International Master’s Program l n iin Asia-Pacific Studies Ch. U. e nChengchi g c h i University National. In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master in Asia-Pacific Studies. 中華民國108年11月 November 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(3) Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to say ‘Alhamdulillah’, praise be to Allah. My thesis is finally done. I would like to thank all of my thesis committee members for being willing to supervise my thesis writing. I thank professor Tsai Chung-min, whose feedback has helped me to narrow down the focus of my research. I thank professor Tsai Chi-ting for reminding me to direct my research findings to be useful knowledge in the future. I especially thank professor Wei Mei-chuan, who kindly agreed to be my adviser and patiently helped me write a better thesis and assisted me when I faced difficulties during the writing process.. 政治大. 立. I appreciate all the interviewees for their time and consideration. Thank you, Mr.. ‧ 國. 學. Park Seungkyu, Public Relations team, and Management Planning team of KFPI, Marketing Promoter of Our Home food service company, whose names remain unknown,. ‧. and Mr. Zaini from University of Indonesia for answering my interview questions through email amid their busy schedules. The answers given were very useful in. sit. y. Nat. validating my research findings.. io. er. I would like to thank my beloved husband whose support, encouragement, and help has kept me going to finish my thesis and my master’s since the first time I arrived. n. al. i n U. v. in Taiwan. I just want to say that at this point, I’ve realized that I would never thank you. Ch. engchi. enough for everything, especially for teaching me how to embrace my weaknesses and be at my side every time I need you. I love you very much. Of course, for all of my family and friends in Indonesia, Mom and Dad, Sani, Rima, Oza, Dinda, and Mia, thanks for all of your prayers and support. For Thesis Club members, thank you for all the help, moral support, and friendship. I thank Caroline for being so helpful with everything, Stephanie for being such a joyful friend (thanks for making Thesis Club happen, by the way), and Phil for all the new insights he. i. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(4) shared. I thank Theo for all meaningful conversation. I would love to meet y’all again sometime outside campus and of course, for different reasons than thesis. I thank Marina for teaching me how to hike and see beautiful spots around Taipei, and I thank Chloe for being such a supportive dear friend, gym buddy, and eating buddy. Both of you have been coloring most of my days in Taiwan. Of course, I wont forget to mention Xinrong, my dear roommate and friend, for her care and kindness. Without her, I would have never gone to a Chinese doctor or hospital, and my Chinese wouldn’t have improved so much. I would like to appreciate all my friends from the IMAS program whose names I can’t mention one by one. I am glad to conclude that I’ve made a lot of. 政治大. good friends, knowledge, and experiences in Taiwan. At last, I want to thank myself to. 立. never give up on trying, bearing, and learning until my thesis is finally done.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(5) Abstract The utilization of soft power has been important in public diplomacy going beyond conventional diplomacy. The use of food in the realm of public diplomacy is known as gastrodiplomacy. Gastrodiplomacy as the new development of public diplomacy plays as a medium to increase cultural influence by highlighting the cultural traits of culinary culture. In order to deepen our understanding of gastrodiplomacy, this research studies gastrodiplomacy using South Korea as a case. In particular, it analyzes how South Korea has implemented gastrodiplomacy through the promotion of the. 政治大 impacts of its success on the country. The topic is analyzed within the concept of soft 立 country’s national cuisine, namely the Global Hansik Campaign. Further, it explores the. power, public diplomacy, and cultural diplomacy, as well as gastrodiplomacy. This. ‧ 國. 學. research found that, in the case of South Korea: 1) through strategic communication in its implementation, gastrodiplomacy helps South Korea foster cultural influence abroad as. ‧. Hansik gains global popularity; 2) the impacts of which are proven quantitatively in the. y. Nat. following points: the increase of foreign people's attention on Korean food as well as its. sit. image, the rise of foreign people's satisfaction with Korean food, an improvement of the. er. io. National Brand Index (NBI), the rise of international cooperation established in the food. al. n. iv n C h e n gforcvisiting developed food as a major consideration h i USouth Korea.. industry with overseas Korean restaurants, and the growth of a tourism sector that. Keywords: Gastrodiplomacy, Soft Power, Cultural Diplomacy, Global Hansik Campaign, Non-State Actors, Korean Wave, Global Popularity. iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(6) 軟實力在不同於傳統外交的公眾外交上佔有重要地位；在公眾外交領域中，以食物做為媒介的外交模式被稱為「美食外交」。這種透過美食進而分享一國文化遺產的新型外交模式，不僅能增加文化影響力，同時也提升提升外國民眾對本國文化的認識。本研究以韓國為例，透過文獻資料分析與深度訪談，試圖分析韓國如何透過推廣「韓食」，即「全球韓食運動」，來達到其以提升外國民眾對韓國文化的認識進而帶動觀光旅遊發展為主的外交目的。此外，本論文透過外國民眾對韓食的滿意杜、國家品牌指數、海外韓食餐廳數目增加、飲食產業上國際合作的提升等指標，來探討了「全球韓食運動」的成功對該國的影響。本研究發現：1. 隨著韓食在在全球範圍內的普及，美食外交中關鍵的戰略溝通作用幫助韓國推展其文化影響力；2.. 政治大. 其影響可由以下幾項數據證實，如外國民眾對韓食的關注增加以及對韓食的滿意度. 立. 提升、韓國國家品牌指數上揚、海外韓國餐廳數目增加、韓食成為赴韓觀光旅遊的. ‧ 國. 學. 重要原因、以及韓國在飲食產業上有越來越多的國際合作。. 關鍵詞：美食外交、軟實力、文化外交、全球韓食運動、韓流。. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(7) Table of Contents Acknowledgement. i. Abstract. iii. Table of Contents. v. List of Figures. vii. Chapter 1. Introduction. 1. 1.1.. Research Background. 1. 1.2.. Motivation and Purpose. 3. 1.3.. Research Questions. 4. 1.5.. Chapter 2. Literature Review. Public Diplomacy Gastrodiplomacy. 2.3.2.. Gastrodiplomacy Practices by Other Countries. n. al. 14. y. Evaluation of Gastrodiplomacy. i n C Gastrodiplomacy: Making hHansik e n gPopular chi U. Chapter 3. Strategies and Efforts of South Korea’s. 12. 17. sit. 2.3.1.. io. 3.. 10. Nat. 2.3.. Soft Power. ‧. 2.2.. 10. 20. er. 2.1.. 8. 學. 2.. 5. Chapter Outlines. ‧ 國. 1.4.. 政治大 Research Method and Framework 立. v. 26. 3.1.. Implementation of South Korea’s Gastrodiplomacy. 25. 3.2.. The Utilization of Hallyu Contents and Citizens as Tools. 37. 3.2.1.. 3.2.2.. The Utilization of Hallyu Contents: Drama, Celebrities, and TV Program. 38. Citizens on Social Networking: Mukbang. 40. 3.3.. Fostering Cultural Influence. 45. 3.4.. Challenges. 47. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(8) 4.Chapter 4. Success of South Korea’s Gastrodiplomacy: the Increasing Global Popularity 4.1.. 51. Raise International Awareness Toward South Korea’s Culinary Culture. 51. 4.2.. Increase Cross-cultural Collaboration. 56. 4.3.. Spur Growth in Tourism. 58. 5.Chapter 5. Conclusion. 61. References. 64. Appendix. 立. 72. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(9) List of Figures Figure 1: Information of in-depth interview. 6. Figure 2: Research framework. 8. Figure 3: KFPI’s logo structure. 30. Figure 4: Bibimbap. 31. Figure 5: Gochujang pasta (left) and chicken stuffed spinach and kimchi (right). 34. 治政 meatballs (left) and jeyuk-bokkeum stuffed 大 cannelloni (right) 立 Figure 7: Mukbang BJ ‘Diva’ is eating the Samgyupsal Figure 6: David Lee poses with his gochujang chicken. 35. ‧ 國. 學. (Pork belly Wraps) (left) and Josh ‘Korean Englishman’ is introducing Korean Makgeolli (Korean Rice Wine) and. who play the Marvel’s character ‘Deadpool’) (right). al. n. Ch. engchi U. Figure 10: The 2018 Global Food Consumer Survey:. y. 44. er. io. Mas-issneun Nyeoseogdeul) and its cast members Figure 9: The 2018 Global Food Consumer Survey. 41. sit. Nat. Figure 8: The poster of Delicious Guys (맛있는 녀석들,. ‧. Jeon (Korean Pancake) to Ryan Reynolds (Hollywood actors. 53. v ni. Trends of Korean Food Awareness in 10 Existing Cities by Year. 54. Figure 11: The 2018 Global Food Consumer Survey: Global Korean Food Satisfaction 2018. 55. Figure 12: Bibigo restaurants at the arrival gate area in Incheon Airport, South Korea. 58. Figure 13: Considerations for deciding to visit Korea. 60. vii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(10) [. 1.. gs. Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1.. Research Background Globalization has expanded space between nations that allows the transnational. movement of goods, ideas, values, and people around the world. The common features of this process of globalization increase integration, interdependence, and convergence of many aspects such as economic, social, and cultural practices across different countries. Strategies of marketing and promotion are therefore considerably important for a country. 政治大 brands, and attract tourists and foreign investments (Lee, 2016). 立 In such a globalized world, the utilization of soft power has been important in to adopt in order to communicate with foreign publics, raise awareness of a country’s. ‧ 國. 學. public diplomacy going beyond conventional diplomacy. Food is part of human culture and has a great potential to be utilized as national soft power. Gastrodiplomacy as a new. ‧. development of public diplomacy plays as a medium to share cultural heritage through food with the hope to increase cultural influence among foreign publics. Many countries. y. Nat. sit. have invested capital resources to develop the practice of gastrodiplomacy in order to. er. io. enhance the awareness of the country, culture, national cuisine, as well as to develop. al. iv n C success as will be discussed laterhin this thesis. engchi U Over the past two decades, South Korea has become famous for its popular n. diplomacy. South Korea has been considered to be one country that has achieved great. culture, also known as ‘Korean Wave’ or Hallyu. Hallyu has been seen as South Korea’s national brand in the realm of popular culture. The rising popularity of Hallyu abroad has started to increase the awareness of foreigners toward the country and generate awareness toward other aspects, especially food. Thanks to TV dramas, reality shows, and Mukbang (eating broadcast) on social media platforms, people from outside of South Korea are attracted to try the taste of Korean food at Korean restaurants in their home countries or directly visit South Korea for a genuine food experience. 1. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(11) The increased recognition of Korean food globally is an innovation for South Korea’s public diplomacy strategy (MOFA, 2017). The diplomatic use of food by South Korea actually started decades ago. The so-called Kimchi War between Korea and Japan presents the role of Kimchi in diplomatic relations (Cwiertka, 2014). Kimchi is one of the authentic culinary brands of South Korea and represents Korean food culture to the extent that many call such a diplomatic practice as ‘Kimchi diplomacy’ (Pham, 2013). The government has officially included Hansik (derived from the phrase Hanguk Eumsik, meaning Korean food) as one of the main tools of public diplomacy since 2008. South Korea has eagerly promoted Hansik through the constitutive management run by. 治政 Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MFAFF) since 大 the start of Lee Myung-bak’s 立This has been seen as a state-based promotional activity of presidential term in 2009. Global Hansik Campaign under the Ministry of Food,. the government called the. ‧ 國. 學. South Korea in making Korean food popular. Their main programs include quadrupling the number of Korean restaurants abroad as well as running consultations with existing. ‧. Korean restaurants abroad to raise national culinary brand awareness globally. The South Korean government has been investing in fruitful sectors to promote its cuisine abroad,. Nat. sit. y. such as by promoting Korean restaurants abroad, hosting food festivals, and utilizing the. er. io. entertainment industries.. On the other hand, with the advancement of information technology and the rise. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. of Hallyu, the role of citizens in South Korea’s food promotion programs is also a. engchi. phenomena that deserves attention by academics or policy practitioners as their roles contribute enormously to South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy. All of these efforts are performed by considering that the globalization of national cuisines is believed to benefit a country in many ways. In particular, this can help a country achieve certain cultural diplomatic gains and outreach. This research explores gastrodiplomacy through the global promotion of a country’s national cuisine, using South Korea as a case. In particular, it examines South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy institutions, goals, tools, actors, and methods employed to implement gastrodiplomacy by linking it to South Korea's ability to spread cultural 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(12) influence to the international community through its national cuisine. Furthermore, it analyzes achievements and challenges brought to the country in conducting gastrodiplomacy.. 1.2.. Motivation and Purpose Studying other cultures can be started by experiencing their food culture. As a. master degree candidate in the IMAS program, this particular way of thinking inspires me to study the ways in which food can impact cross-cultural understanding, especially considering the explosion of international travel as a global trend in the 21st century.. 治政 on food studies call gastrodiplomacy. As the term is大 relatively new, this thesis attempts 立 to study gastrodiplomacy by providing a deeper discussion on the topic’s concept and The significance of food’s role in international relations can be seen in what academics. ‧ 國. 學. implementation. To do so, this thesis explores the types of strategies employed in implementing gastrodiplomacy and how those strategies are associated with the. ‧. practices in cultural diplomacy that expand the use of soft power. This research also further discusses the benefits of implementing gastrodiplomacy for a country in. y. Nat. sit. achieving impactful national objectives.. er. io. This thesis uses the case of South Korea. South Korea is one notable case to. al. discuss gastrodiplomacy. First, South Korea is a middle power country whose status. n. iv n C regarding public diplomacy, which h e n g c h i U is associated. affects policies. with the idea of. promoting a positive image abroad or enhancing a national brand. Second, regarding the K-Wave abroad, Korean food culture is rising in popularity and can be an entry level to let others know South Korea better. Third, related to the second point, there has been a considerable growth of instances in which South Korea is used for related content in online network communities inside and outside the country. Regarding this, Paul Rockower, who coined the term himself, states that track 3 diplomacy or people-to-people diplomacy is additional yet potential in the future practice of gastrodiplomacy. In the case of South Korea, what impressed me the most is the growing popularity of Mukbang, or 'eating-broadcast', content as one of South Korea's 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(13) culinary brands. This motivated me to learn more about how South Korea would transform such chances into activities to use food as soft power for positive diplomatic gains.. 1.3.. Research Questions This research addresses two questions: first, how does South Korea conduct. gastrodiplomacy through the promotion of Hansik to the global community? Second, what are the impacts of South Korea’s success in gastrodiplomacy for the country? Within the context of cultural diplomacy, the first question is addressed through. 治政大 Campaign. The analysis proves analysis of its food promotion activity, the Global Hansik 立 that South Korea has eagerly sought to globalize Korean food, a process that is aligned the examination of South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy strategy and goal, namely through the. ‧ 國. 學. with the attempt to spread cultural influence and raise national brand awareness on the global stage by introducing and making Korean food appealing to global audiences. Such. ‧. a goal is being realized not only through state-sponsored food promotion activities such. y. Nat. as the Global Hansik Campaign but also by an enormous support, directly or indirectly,. sit. from nonstate-based resources such as its citizens: the use of online media and live. er. io. promotion activities such as food festivals, celebrities, TV programs, and social media. al. are contributing to providing culinary contact zones for foreign publics. With. n. iv n C globalization effects and the advances of information h e n g c h i U technology causing the increasing global recognition toward South Korea recently, this in turn makes the constitutive use of Hallyu content prominent. The second question is addressed through an evaluation based on gastrodiplomacy indicators: communicating culinary culture to target publics, fostering cultural influence, and impacting other related sectors. By defining success as global popularity, this thesis further assesses gastrodiplomacy achievements in some key areas, namely national brands, cross-cultural collaboration, and tourism. The outcomes of this analysis show that the increasing global popularity of Hansik can raise international awareness of South Korea’s culinary brand, increase cross-cultural collaboration, and help to improve the 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(14) country’s tourism sector. The findings also reveal some challenges in conducting gastrodiplomacy that have appeared because of South Korea’s current situation in this matter.. 1.4.. Research Method and Framework This study involves qualitative research. Qualitative research is a method that. focuses its observation on nonnumerical data, namely, qualitative data. Qualitative data captures ‘meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things’ rather than ‘counts and measures of things,’ as in quantitative. 治政 answers to questions by examining various social 大 settings and individuals who inhabit 立 these settings’. As South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy is chosen to be studied, this research can also be categorized as a qualitative case study.. 學. ‧ 國. data. (Berg, 2001). As has been elaborated by Berg, a qualitative study ‘properly seeks. The sources to be analyzed are secondary data that were retrieved from Korean. ‧. Food Promotion Institute (KFPI) under the MFAFF as well as from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) and the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism (MCST).. y. Nat. sit. These data include documents such as white papers, official reports, and surveys.. er. io. Library research was also required for this research, which includes books, journals,. al. academic papers, and articles on organizational websites. As Merriam has pointed out,. n. iv n ‘documents of all help the researcher uncover meaning, develop engchi U understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research problem’ (Bowen, 2009). types Ccan h. The focus is placed on data that shows any notion of the implementation of South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy. As such, for the analytic process, I employ a document analysis to analyze those selected relevant data. According to Bowen (2009), document analysis refers to a qualitative analysis method focusing on reviewing and evaluating documents and involves a process of skimming, reading, and interpretation. This type of analysis method is exceptionally useful for qualitative case studies.. 5. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(15) An in-depth interview was also conducted to support the research analysis process. An in-depth interview is necessary for this research to validate findings and provide updated information related to South Korean gastrodiplomacy. Because of the peak season of companies and busy schedules in KFPI at the time I asked for an interview, the intended interviewees preferred to answer questions through email. I interviewed four individuals for this research. The interviewees come from two places: the KFPI and the food service company, Our Home. KFPI plays a major role in running the Global Hansik Campaign as is discussed in detail in the main chapters of this thesis. Likewise, food service companies such as Our Home provide Korean food product. 治政 The KFPI appointed Park Seung-kyu, the 大 auditor at KFPI to answer all the questions. The Public 立 Relations team and Management Planning team of KFPI also chains in the Global Hansik Campaign.. ‧ 國. 學. joined the process by answering further questions. Another interviewee was the international marketing promoter of Our Home (see Figure. 1). Her responsibility in this. ‧. position has been managing the overseas promotion plan for the company mainly in the United States, China, and Taiwan.. Nat. sit. y. The last interviewee is Mr. Zaini. He is a lecturer in the degree program of. er. io. Korean Language and Culture of the Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, and had previously served as the director of the program. His areas of expertise include. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Korean studies in the fields of culture, history, literature, society, tourism, and language.. engchi. With this background of studies, his thoughts on specific topics such as Korean food and its cultural identity help to enrich the information in this thesis.. No.. 1. Interviewee. Place. Medium. Time of Interview. 1.. Park Seung-kyu. KFPI. Email1. Friday, May 10, 2019. 2.. International. Our Home. Email. Wednesday, August 21,. Interview answers are attached in the appendix section. 6. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(16) 3.. Marketing Promoter. Company. Public Relations. KFPI. 2019 Email. Thursday, September. Team 4.. 19, 2019. Management. KFPI. Email. Thursday, September. Planning Team 5.. 19, 2019. Zaini. University of. Email. Thursday, October 24,. Indonesia. 2019. 治政大 interview Figure 1. Information of in-depth 立 ‧ 國. 學. The analysis in this research is mainly based on Paul Rockower’s theory of gastrodiplomacy, a concept that he has built upon, and the issue has become a major. ‧. reference used by many scholars such as Mary Jo Pham, Juyan Zhang, Suntikul. Nat. Wantanee, Anna Lipscomb, and others. In Rockower’s writing The State of. sit. y. Gastrodiplomacy, background, definition, implementation, potential impacts, as well as. al. er. io. the role of gastrodiplomacy are explained. To give the reader a preview of this research. n. direction, a research framework is presented in Figure 1 and further explanation is. Ch. i n U. discussed in the following sections (see subsection 2.3).. engchi. v. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(17) 政治大. 立. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. Chapter Outlines. sit. 1.5.. Figure 2. Research framework. n. al. er. io. This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter provides an. iv n C h e nmethod questions, i Uframework, as well as the chapter g c hand. introduction of conducting this research. The content includes the research background, motivation and purpose, outline.. The second chapter of this research is the literature review. This section elaborates upon the relevant terminologies used in this research, which include sections on soft power, public diplomacy, and gastrodiplomacy. The evaluation of gastrodiplomacy as well as the examples of gastrodiplomacy practices by other five countries are also discussed specifically in the subsections of the literature review. The third chapter begins the main analysis of this research. To do so, this chapter focuses on the Global Hansik Campaign and South Korea’s efforts to globalize 8. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(18) Korean cuisines abroad. This section first explains the role of state-based food promotion activities, namely the Global Hansik Campaign, in South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy, covering its structures and programs in the realm of public and cultural diplomacy. Further, this chapter also touches upon the utilization of K-Wave and Mukbang to discuss the role of citizens as gastrodiplomats or ambassadors and outreach. Following the analysis in the previous chapter, the fourth chapter analyzes the impacts of South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy on the country. Based on the concept of evaluating gastrodiplomacy and the example of practices applied by other countries, the impacts are discussed in three main key areas of South Korea’s sectors: international. 治政 The fifth chapter concludes all findings and 大 their implications on the topic. 立 the findings of the research, this section also includes Apart from summarizing awareness, cross-cultural collaboration, and tourism.. ‧ 國. 學. challenges to South Korea’s gastrodiplomacy as well as research limitations. The references included in this thesis were collected through various sources,. ‧. including books, research journals, government websites, and articles as well as. io. y. sit. Hjh. n. al. er. 2.. Nat. magazines. Finally, all of the interview records are presented in the appendix. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 9. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(19) Chapter 2. Literature Review Before one talks about gastrodiplomacy, it is necessary to know what elements constitute gastrodiplomacy in order to better understand its concept, position, role, and function before applying it to the analysis of this research. Gastrodiplomacy is a form of diplomatic practice that wield food culture as its tool. In international relations study, gastrodiplomacy is strongly related to two terms: soft power and public diplomacy. Discussion on related terms as well as its relations to one another is elaborated in sections below. A subsection on evaluating gastrodiplomacy is also included in the following section. This is important considering that it helps to direct the analysis on the. 政治大. effectiveness of gastrodiplomacy.. 立. Soft Power. 學. ‧ 國. 2.1.. Unlike hard power, in which a country uses coercion and payment to obtain desired outcomes, soft power uses co-optive methods such as persuasion and attracting. ‧. attention. According to Joseph Nye, the father of soft power, the significance of soft. y. Nat. power can be seen in the ability to shape the preferences of others (Nye, 2008). However,. sit. understanding that soft power is not only about influence in imperative because influence. er. io. can also be obtained through hard power. Soft power also emphasizes the persuasion and. al. n. iv n C power as ‘the power to construct U images of self and others through h the e npreferences g c h i and. ability to move the masses with arguments (Vuving, 2009). Geun Lee (2009) defines soft. ideational or symbolic resources that lead to behavioral changes of others’.. Nye argues that a country’s soft power rests on three main resources: culture, political values, and foreign policies (Nye, 2008), and the effective use of soft power resources depends on how those resources are perceived as credible and legitimate by the target audience. Culture works when it upholds the potential of attractiveness to others; political values only impact perceptions abroad if the nation itself is living up to them; foreign policies must be ‘legitimate and having moral authorities’ (Nye, 2008). All of these resources are measured based on how far they produce positive attraction. 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(20) Positive attraction depends on three factors: benignity, which involves favorable attitudes that ‘generate soft power through the production of gratitude and sympathy’; brilliance or competence, involving excellent performance that ‘generates soft power through the production of admiration’; and beauty or charisma, which is attractive representation that ‘generates soft power through the production of inspiration’ (Vuving, 2009; Nye, 2011). When soft power is used for public diplomacy, its implementation works by affecting the targets in two forms, directly and indirectly. Direct effects refer to when the positive attraction of the soft power affects the leader, networks, or elites of the country,. 治政 affecting the leaders of the country. The latter effects 大 are seen as the most important 立 environment for decisions’ (Nye, 2011). because they create an ‘enabling whereas indirect effects refer to when it influences the public or third parties and in turn. ‧ 國. 學. Soft power is increasingly drawing attention from policy practitioners and academics in Asian countries. It has been seen as an alternative strategy to obtain. ‧. national objectives. Japan, for instance, has attempted to improve the external security. Nat. environment by projecting peaceful and attractive images of the country through the. sit. y. utilization of its cultural content such as habits and traditions, anime, fashion, food, and. er. io. others. South Korea is one of the Asian countries that recognized the importance of soft power as a national diplomatic strategy. The experience of successful democratization. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. and the rising popularity of the Korean Wave has recently offered South Korea the. engchi. opportunity to spread the use of its soft power (Lee, 2009). In addition, its active involvement in international activities such as the G20, Winter Olympics, and Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) has boosted a positive image of South Korea. These qualifications essentially offer South Korea the opportunity to ‘be free from being influenced by the agenda set by the major powers and set its own diplomatic goals and discuss diversified policies and creative strategies’ (Cho, 2012). When compared with its economic development and military power, South Korea remains relatively weak in diplomacy (Lee, 2011) and poor in nation branding (Anholt, 2011). Moreover, as a middle power country among great powers such as 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(21) China, Japan, and the United States, South Korea has not been impactful enough to compete with those great powers’ hard power (Lee, 2011). Therefore, soft power is an alternative strategy South Korea can use to obtain diplomatic gains and enhance the promotion of South Korea to the world. In relation to that, Korean food has been seen as a useful resource for South Korea to exercise soft power in the form of cultural diplomacy.. 2.2.. Public Diplomacy Public diplomacy largely involves contact between a government and the foreign. 治政大The outcome of having positive new public diplomacy concerning image cultivation. 立 image abroad is believed to help a country implement foreign policies, achieve national. public (Cull, 2009). The 9/11 attacks in the United States initiated the emergence of a. ‧ 國. 學. interests, and maintain national security (Nirwandi & Awang, 2014). According to Hans N. Tuch, public diplomacy is ‘a government’s process of. ‧. communicating with foreign publics in attempt to bring about understanding for its nation’s ideas and ideals, its institutions and culture, as well as its national goals and. y. Nat. sit. current policies’ (Melissen, 2005). Paul Sharp further defines public diplomacy as ‘the. er. io. process by which direct relations with people in a country are pursued to advance the. al. interests and extend the values of those being represented’ (Ibid). Therefore, maintaining. n. iv n C legitimacy and credibility among the public is aU h e n g c h i core goal of public diplomacy. To differentiate it from propaganda, public diplomacy is not merely the top-down communication between a government and the public but also a two-way street of communication that is more comprehensive and persuasive (McClellan, 2004; Cho, 2012). Furthermore, currently, globalization and advances in information technology have opened a more advanced environment for conducting international relations activities. Public diplomacy within the new paradigm is one in which actors, methods, approaches, and topics are all adjusted (Melissen, 2005). As activities in international affairs are expanding and being placed in more complex situations, cultural diplomacy is another instrument the government can use to 12. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(22) implement its foreign policy. According to Warsito and Sari (2007), cultural diplomacy is a practice of public diplomacy that conducts the use of cultural aspects as the tool to achieve national objectives. In cultural diplomacy, national traits and cultures are the best resources to wield as tangible national power (Rockower, 2014). Because such resources carry messages and communicate to the audience abroad, this creates an emotional connection among the givers and the receivers, thus opening a channel to transmit knowledge. In sum, the main nature of cultural diplomacy is to ‘facilitate the export of examples of its culture’ (Cull, 2009) in an ‘exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples to foster cultural understanding’. 治政 Any activities that relate to cultural acts are大 available to be used for diplomatic 立 instruments of cultural diplomacy are various and gains (Black, 2010). Moreover, (Cummings, 2003).. ‧ 國. 學. wide-ranging, such as tourism, social media, arts, highly-regarded national heroes and celebrities, language, and others (Hurn, 2016). However, its effectiveness depends on the. ‧. matter of how the government selects the right targets with the right messages to avoid misleading interpretation (Wimbush, 2009). In the case of South Korea, as has been. Nat. sit. y. mentioned before, the country is encouraged to develop its diplomacy. South Korean. er. io. public diplomacy has been mainly aimed at branding South Korea and fostering positive images abroad (Ayhan, 2017) since president Lee Myung-bak launched the Presidential. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Council on Nation Branding (PNCB) in January 2009. To do so, one of the prevalent. engchi. ways to increase the awareness of the country is by fostering cultural influence abroad. Hallyu has been a relatively successful tool of South Korea’s cultural diplomacy in this matter (Jang & Won, 2012). The positive impacts that Hallyu has on the country include, for instance, are contributing to building positive images of South Korea in Taiwan, increasing cross-cultural ties with Japan and China, and generating preferential and behavioural changes in Malaysia in terms of number of Korean goods purchased (Ibid; Vandenberghe; 2017). The other instrument that can be used for the same purpose and message is food. ‘Twenty first century nations are now becoming more aware of the impact of cultural 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(23) industries and are cultivating traditional food culture as one of their key strategies’ (Choi, 2012). Food is a commodity that can carry meanings that are shared through generations and across places. It is a symbolic form of human culture that represents the values, ideas, and identity of a society or a nation. In semiotic studies, food is categorized as a nonverbal language that communicate certain ideas to its consumers that are shared through taste, visual representation, ingredients, or the way the food is prepared and consumed. Roland Barthes contends the idea that food is something that ‘shapes us, our identities, our cultures and in the end, our society’ (Stajcic, 2013). As such, food contributes to ‘the construction of individual and collective identities, highlight[s]. 治政 With that, food comes in a form of national cuisine 大which embodies the identity of a 立 national cuisines are an entry level to learn the differences nation. From this perspective,. hierarchies and allegiances and help[s] foster social norms and links’ (De Iulio, 2015).. ‧ 國. 學. or commonalities of one's own culture with another (Cwiertka, 2014; Spence, 2016). Paul Rockower (2014) mentions that, as much as music, ‘food work[s] to create. ‧. an emotional and transcendent connection that can be felt even across language barriers’. In international relations, it means that South Korea’s national cuisines can be used as a. Nat. sit. y. medium for transmitting messages or information through cross-cultural connections. er. io. among people from different communities that are created (Pham, 2013). In fact, food involves anything that relates to human culture. It is one of three main soft power. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. resources (political values and foreign policy being the others).. 2.3.. engchi. Gastrodiplomacy Food is indeed not only meant for survival. Food is categorized as a nonverbal. language that communicates certain ideas to its consumer. In international relations, food can be used as a medium for transmitting messages or information. The credibility it offers rests on its cultural traits which are traditional and pure. This potential of food thus can be an attractive way to reach foreign publics. As such, a country can utilize its food or national cuisine to be wielded as soft power and diplomacy.. 14. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(24) The politicization of food typically comes in the form of diplomacy. This is what scholars on food studies call culinary diplomacy, food diplomacy, and gastrodiplomacy. Although the three diplomacies use the same resource, food, gastrodiplomacy is different from the other two mainly in goals and communication strategy. Gastrodiplomacy is a bit different in that it is aimed at wide-ranging publics, not only for formal diplomatic government-to-government. dialogue. as. in. culinary. diplomacy.. Furthermore,. gastrodiplomacy is exercised to deliver specific messages and purposes not only for solving hunger in poor countries or other means of aid as in food diplomacy but rather far-reaching information (Rockower, 2014). As such, gastrodiplomacy is more similar to. 治政 a nation to broad foreign publics through indirect diplomatic 大 practices. 立 In general, gastrodiplomacy is a term which describes a government’s attempt to. public diplomacy in the realm of food-use diplomacy. It connects the cultural contents of. ‧ 國. 學. conduct cultural diplomacy through the promotion of national cuisines globally. Paul Rockower (2014) sought more explanation on this matter and defined gastrodiplomacy as. ‧. a matter of ‘winning hearts and minds through stomachs’. The impact of gastrodiplomacy is considered to be a popular strategy to promote foreign policy through public diplomacy. Nat. sit. y. and nation branding (Rockower, 2012).. er. io. Globalization has expanded space between nations that allows the movement of goods, ideas, values, and people around the world. The common features of this process. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. of globalization increase integration, interdependence, and convergence in many aspects. engchi. such as economic, social, and cultural practices across different countries. National food promotion is aimed to be beneficial in a country’s development sectors. Strategies of marketing and promotion, therefore, considerably important for a country to adopt to obtain recognition from foreign publics, raise awareness of a country’s brands, and attract tourists and foreign investments (Lee, 2016). Every country’s gastrodiplomacy involves employing strategy with a goal to attract consumers and make national food popular (Zhang, 2015). Paul Rockower describes these processes as a way of using culinary attractiveness to appeal to the global public’s palate (Rockower, 2014; Wilson, 2013). 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(25) As mentioned before, gastrodiplomacy activities begin by promoting the attractiveness of a nation’s cuisine to a global foreign public. Rockower further suggested that as gastrodiplomacy ‘takes a wider focus to influence the broader public audience rather than high-level elites… [it] transcends the realm of state-to-public communication, and can also be found in forms of citizen diplomacy’ (Rockower, 2014). In other words, gastrodiplomacy and public relations are converged in terms of strategic communications (Zhang, 2015). Therefore, this research borrows the approach of public relations campaign strategies from Robbitt, Sullivan, Theaker, Yaxley, and Zhang (2015), who categorized gastrodiplomacy strategic communication campaigns into three elements:. 治政 Branding themes can be seen in gastrodiplomacy 大 campaign slogans and logos 立and meaningfulness of products, the ability to differentiate which represent the value branding themes, messages, as well as strategies and tactics.. ‧ 國. 學. from products of competitors, and memorability of the slogans. For instance, ‘Malaysian Kitchen to the world’, ‘Gourmet Taiwan’, and Thailand’s ‘Kitchen of the World’ are. ‧. slogans. Messages are the key ideas of a gastrodiplomacy campaign or its promotional activity for the audience to remember. The target of gastrodiplomacy is public, thus the. Nat. sit. y. messages are formulated based on how they can reach and penetrate target publics and to. er. io. be appealing to them (Zhang, 2015). For instance, to be well accepted in foreign countries, in Serbia, a sushi restaurant created a menu called Serbian sushi to create. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. familiarity among the consumers. Instead of using tuna or salmon, Serbian sushi uses. engchi. local ingredients such as freshwater fish, prosciutto, or beef steak. The messages that are appealing to target publics are mostly in categories such as healthiness, diversity, exoticism, naturalness, and beauty presentation. Strategies and tactics involve the approach of a gastrodiplomacy campaign to achieve goals or missions. Strategies may include a product marketing strategy, such as extending restaurant chains abroad and building international partnership, whereas tactics are the tools utilized to implement the strategies, such as events, leaders opinion, media, and education (Ibid). Because everyone eats and engages, the main actors of gastrodiplomacy are not limited. Gastrodiplomacy can encompass actors from the state as well as from the 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(26) substate and nonstate levels. Those actors who represent the country in introducing and promoting national cuisine to the world are called gastrodiplomats (Rockower, 2012). Paul Rockower conveys three tracks in accordance to gastrodiplomacy trends. He states that we can expect two prevalent trends and one additional trend in conducting gastrodiplomacy. The first two trends are known as polylateralism and paradiplomacy. The former refers to collaboration between states and nonstate actors, such as establishing a partnership, while the latter refers to substate actors conducting international diplomatic practices on their own. The last trend is described as ‘gastrodiplomacy by nonstate actors as a means to conduct public diplomacy and. 治政 globalization and the advances of mass media communication that provide a more 大 convenient environment立 to promote food and gastrodiplomacy activities. The bottom line people-to-people diplomacy’ (Rockower, 2014). This is due to the impacts brought by. ‧ 國. 學. is, in this complex environment, the involvement of nonstate actors in diplomatic practices is an impactful matter because state actors are not the only ‘vocal actor’ (Lee &. ‧. Ayhan, 2015).. Nat. sit. y. 2.3.1. Evaluation of Gastrodiplomacy. al. er. io. No global standard has been established on evaluating gastrodiplomacy in general. n. (Pham, 2013; Lipscomb, 2019). One reason could be due to the growth of. Ch. i n U. v. gastrodiplomacy in the diplomatic realm that remains regarded as relatively recent. In. engchi. fact, evaluating the effectiveness of diplomacy itself is already considered difficult and complicated. Evaluating gastrodiplomacy is even more difficult because of a complex set of interrelated factors such as goals, the terms of reaching them, as well as the situation of the country and its government (Ruddy, 2014). However, some scholars mostly use some key areas to measure the impact gastrodiplomacy can have on the country to evaluate its effectiveness or its success. These key areas mainly include national branding, including overall branding and specifically culinary branding, national images, trade and exports, international partnerships or collaboration, and tourism. Nonetheless, according to Mary Jo Pham (2013), gastrodiplomacy is 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(27) ‘the government’s practice of exporting its national culinary heritage as part of a public diplomacy effort to raise national brand awareness, encourage economic investment and trade, and engage on a cultural and personal level with everyday diners.’. Food itself represents a nation's culture and connects people. Thus, ‘it does have the potential to change public perceptions of national image, and can also be a gateway to the consumption of a country's other cultural exports, such as music, literature, sports, as. 治政 Ruddy, published in 2014 by Public Diplomacy Magazine 大 with the title Hearts, Minds, 立 and the Potential of National Cuisines in Changing and Stomachs: Gastrodiplomacy well as increase tourism to that country’ (Ruddy, 2014). A study performed by Braden. ‧ 國. 學. Public Perceptions of National Image conducted a survey on people from different ethnicities in the US. Ruddy aimed to find the correlation between a country’s national. ‧. cuisine and its national image. He found that, among 140 people, two-thirds of them changed their preference toward a country after eating its national cuisine. He further. Nat. sit. y. concluded that gastrodiplomacy is a prominent way to promote the image of a state.. er. io. Gastrodiplomacy is meant to foster awareness and understanding of a nation's culture and identity, and thus raise the country’s brand awareness among its diners (Rockower,. n. al. 2014).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The continuation of the impact of gastrodiplomacy on people’s perspective does resonate to other sectors such as tourism because ‘the potential to increase tourism was the most pronounced and tangible for countries’ that practiced gastrodiplomacy (Ruddy, 2014). One of the main reasons is that gastrodiplomacy campaigns provide so-called culinary contact zones. Farrer (2015) argues that as culinary contact zones, interactions made within spaces to increase cross-cultural understanding are significant factors of increasing the spread of national cuisine globally in addition to other factors: the institutionalization of cuisine, culinary politics, and the intrinsic value of food itself. The so-called contact 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(28) zones include restaurants, chef trainings, TV programs, and shows, events, and expos where people make contact with anything that relates to food. For instance, he mentioned that Japanese restaurants in big cities such as New York and London providing cooking training for chefs with different ethnic background serve as important contact zones in disseminating cultural knowledge about Japanese cooking style and techniques. In tourism, gastrodiplomacy sites such as overseas restaurants are where people’s impression of the country’s culture is influenced by the food that is served and contribute to the potential amount of interest built toward the country, thus opening a potential will to visit the country and genuinely experience the food itself (Suntikul, 2017). For. 治政 national food brand communicated through in-flight food 大 experiences’ (Ibid). Therefore, every立 gastrodiplomacy campaign commonly includes establishing and instance, ‘in airplanes, the destination culinary experience can be foreshadowed and the. ‧ 國. 學. supporting its overseas restaurants abroad in its agenda to increase the number of culinary contact zones. Likewise, aligned with that agenda, the support toward international. ‧. cross-collaboration and partnership is necessary and important for maintaining and expanding national food supply chains. The role of the government here is to provide. Nat. sit. y. convenient conditions for food service industries to perform activities under. er. io. comprehensive policies and laws.. Overall, gastrodiplomacy extends the cultural influence of one country to another.. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Its impact emerges from building impressions and changing diners’ preferences to. engchi. continue from one sector to others. Examples of the practice of gastrodiplomacy by some countries as well as its impacts are given below to elaborate upon the aforementioned evaluation of gastrodiplomacy. However, gastrodiplomacy cannot be seen as a diplomacy that brings quick implications to a country (Solleh, 2015). It is a type of diplomacy that touches and moves others tastes and preferences. The implementation requires continuous and persistent, yet up-to-date, strategies in realizing its mission, even if it takes years to accomplish.. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(29) 2.3.2. Gastrodiplomacy Practices by Other Countries Globalization has opened a diversity of food culture and allows people from around the world to experience and learn about foreign food culture much more easily. Gastrodiplomacy is one alternative strategy a country can use to be better known and receive more sympathy from the international community. Several countries have practiced cultural diplomacy by sharing their national cuisine with the world. The following are some examples of countries that practice gastrodiplomacy.. 治政 The official practice of gastrodiplomacy can大 be traced back to when the Thai 立 government launched the ‘Global Thai’ program in 2002. This was seen as a form of Thailand. ‧ 國. 學. Thailand’s attempt to expand their cultural diplomacy by using soft power, food. The program aimed to increase global awareness of Thailand by boosting the number of Thai. ‧. restaurants around the world from 5,500 in 2002 to 8,000 restaurants by 2003. The program continues with an additional campaign, namely ‘Thailand: Kitchen. y. Nat. sit. of the World’ to educate the foreign public about Thai delicacies and sustain. al. er. io. competitiveness in food industries. One of the primary programs is chef training and. n. sending chefs from Thailand abroad to promote the authenticity of their cuisine. As a. Ch. i n U. v. result, the number of Thai restaurants overseas had expanded to 13,000 in 2008. The. engchi. government believed that the increased number of restaurants abroad can be a contact space where foreign customers can learn and appreciate Thai culture better through cuisine (Suntikul, 2017). Furthermore, according to a survey of brand recognition and brand perception conducted by the Kellogg School of Management and Sasin Institute, Thai food was ranked fourth in the ethnic cuisines category (after Italian, French, and Chinese) and sixth in favorite food category (after Italian, French, Japanese, Chinese, and Indian) (Solleh, 2015). By considering the successful case of Thailand, the trend of using food as a cultural ambassador has become increasingly popular among neighbouring countries. 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(30) Malaysia In 2008, Malaysia officially launched its gastrodiplomacy program. With the slogan ‘Malaysia Kitchen for the World’ or Malaysia Kitchen Program (MKP), Malaysian gastrodiplomacy aims to improve Malaysian restaurants overseas and increase the interest of foreign customers toward Malaysian dishes, food products, and tourism. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry cooperated with the Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation (MATRADE) to achieve these goals. MKP’s main programs help Malaysian restaurateurs open and improve their restaurants abroad with. 治政大in 2010 to 647 in 2012 (Ibid). Malaysian restaurants overseas increased from 465 立 Malaysia has also been eagerly promoting Malaysian food in several activities such as financial support provided by the Ministry of Finance (Nahar, 2016). The number of. ‧ 國. 學. opening ‘Malaysian Night Market’ in the United Kingdom, providing food trucks across the United States, inviting chefs from abroad to Malaysia to learn Malaysian cooking. ‧. methods and recipes, as well as sending Malaysian chefs overseas to promote authentic Malaysian food abroad (Rockower, 2012). Through this, Malaysia eagerly advertises. y. Nat. al. er. io. of the country.. sit. peranakan cuisine which represents Malay and Chinese flavors to showcase the diversity. n. Awareness of Malaysian food is increasing. Malaysian restaurants have received. Ch. i n U. v. Michelin awards in New York, and acknowledgement as well as the number of corporate. engchi. collaboration projects with Asian countries are increasing (Nahar, 2016). Malaysia’s gastrodiplomacy program is a continuous program and has been implemented primarily to raise brand awareness of the country.. Japan The transnational spread of Japanese cuisine abroad has been ongoing for decades; however, state-based promotion activities started in 2005 (Zhang, 2015). Japanese gastrodiplomacy does not have an official slogan or a campaign name, but the 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(31) Japanese government created the nonprofit Organization to Promote Japanese Restaurant Abroad (JRO) associated with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) to promote Japanese restaurants abroad with the mission of raising the interest of foreign customers in Japanese restaurants, the use of Japanese ingredients, and Japanese cooking methods (Ibid). As such, restaurants have been considered to be vital culinary contact zones to disseminate Japanese food culture overseas (Farrer, 2015). Sushi has been the main representation of Japanese food culture that was once exotic and has become a trendy food currently. The global popularity of sushi is undeniable. Another food that the Japanese government utilized as a national cuisine is. 治政 abroad. The Japanese government highlighted the image 大 of healthiness, simplicity, and 立 that are appealing to global dietary trends. This raises the exoticism of sushi and washoku washoku, a full-course traditional Japanese meal, to promote Japanese dietary culture. ‧ 國. 學. acceptance of Japanese culture and lifestyle abroad. In December 2013, washoku was ranked 4th in the world on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural. ‧. Heritage of Humanity as a food culture following French, Mediterranean, and Mexican cuisine. This particular achievement of Japan’s gastrodiplomacy has been widely used for. Nat. sit. y. its nation branding since then (Cwiertka, 2017) and resonates to other sectors, such as the. er. io. promotion of its soft power and its content industries including manga, anime, and fashion. This also benefits other industries such as agriculture, exports, and tourism.. n. al. Peru. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Peru has been a representative of South American countries in gastrodiplomacy activities since 2006. The Peruvian Ministry of Cultures and Foreign Relations has collaborated with the Peruvian Society of Gastronomy (APEGA) and several private agencies to create gastrodiplomacy projects. Peru’s gastrodiplomacy campaign, Cocina Peruana Para El Mundo (Peruvian Cuisine for the World) is aimed to increase ‘global reputation and the familiarity with Peruvian cuisine’ abroad (Wilson, 2013). In fact, the campaign emphasized the goal of placing Peruvian cuisine on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage to establish Peruvian cultural and 22. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(32) historical heritage as the identity of Peruvians. The gastrodiplomacy projects are diverse, including the creation of Cocina Peruana Para El Mundo as a web-based campaign, directing the documentary film De Ollas y Sueños or Cooking Dreams, and employing celebrity chef Gastón Acurio as the gastronomic ambassador of the Peruvian people. Wilson noted that Peru’s gastrodiplomacy is an effort to not only promote Peruvian cuisine globally but also increase Peru’s national brand (2013). Although Peru has not made it far enough to be included on UNESCO’s list, awareness toward Peruvian cuisine has increased in regard to interest in Peruvian culinary tourism, which also offers opportunities to other sectors such as trade and. 治政 was awarded in Lima, the capital of Peru. In the same 大year, Peru was also named as the 立Destination for the past five years by the World Travel Award World’s Leading Culinary exchange in food products and restaurants. In 2016, 3 of the world’s top 30 restaurants. ‧ 國. 學. and has been entrusted to host a United Nations World Tourism Association (UNWTO) Gastronomy and Tourism Forum (Suntikul, 2017).. ‧. Taiwan. Nat. sit. y. Gastrodiplomacy for Taiwan is believed to expand Taiwan’s cultural diplomacy. al. er. io. that plays as a voice to promote identity amidst the current political constraints by. n. highlighting culinary attractiveness (Rockower, 2011). The increasing popularity of. Ch. i n U. v. Xiaolongbao, pearl bubble milk tea or boba, and Taiwan’s coffee store 85°C has. engchi. encouraged the Ministry of Economic Affairs to invest NT $1,1 billion (US $35,8 million) in gastrodiplomacy activities to ‘internationalize local and localize international Taiwanese food’ (Lipscomb, 2019). Taiwan’s gastrodiplomacy is used as another strategy to distinguish its culinary identity from mainland China and to brand Taiwan cuisine ‘as a healthy, light alternative to heavy Westem versions of Chinese food’ (Rockower, 2011). In addition, this gastrodiplomacy plan is aimed to boost Taiwanese tourism, attract foreign investment to Taiwan, and expand other market opportunities. The programs include hosting international gourmet festivals overseas, establishing Taiwanese food foundations at home to consult food chains abroad, and 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(33) sending local chefs to join international competitions. The Taiwanese Tourism Bureau has also been actively sponsoring the plan by promoting Taiwanese night markets. In addition, similar to Malaysia and Peru, Taiwan has employed the entertainment industries to execute gastrodiplomacy. The government agreed to support Taiwan film and TV industries by providing ‘subsidies, giv[ing] credit guarantees, and establish[ing] an investment framework for public-private sector investment’ (Lipscomb, 2019). This strategy is seen to be impactful in promoting Taiwanese culinary reputation among local and foreign audiences (Ibid). As a result, Taiwan’s gastrodiplomacy has drawn global awareness to the extent. 治政 Visitors Expenditure and Trends in Taiwan by the 大 Taiwan Tourism Bureau stated that 立as night markets were voted as part of the main reasons for Taiwanese cuisine as well. that it is frequently addressed as ‘dumpling diplomacy’. In 2017, the Survey Report on. ‧ 國. 學. tourists to visit Taiwan (Lipscomb, 2019).. ‧. The examples of countries reveals that the attempt to spread cultural awareness as well as establish positive images or nation brands can be performed through the exercise. Nat. sit. y. of gastrodiplomacy, the impact of which resonates with other sectors mainly in trade and. er. io. exports, investments, and tourism. These examples also reveal a pattern which indicates that a successful gastrodiplomacy begins with a particular major factor: the increased. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. awareness of national cuisines, or to larger extent, global popularity.. engchi. In sum, gastrodiplomacy is concluded in the following points: First, gastrodiplomacy begins with food promotion programs and activities. Efforts to globalize national culinary products and culture is a significant factor of gastrodiplomacy implementation. Second, gastrodiplomacy derived from the practice of wielding soft power resource namely food culture, to achieve cultural diplomatic gains that is exercised through the practice of public diplomacy. Third, gastrodiplomacy and public relations converge in terms of strategic communication. Every gastrodiplomacy campaign employs elements such as branding themes and message appeal as well as strategies and tactics. Considering globalization effects toward public communication 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(34) strategies, a national food culture and promotion activities can encompass state actors, nonstate actors, or both simultaneously. Fourth, as a form of public diplomacy, as gastrodiplomacy helps a country spread cultural influence, it enhances its national brand (Rockower, 2014). Finding any food promotion activities without a history or cultural background introduction of the food is unlikely. Activities such as events, digital content, TV programs and shows, chef training, cooking competitions, and other activities as a means of food promotion act as culinary contact zones within which the knowledge transmitted through such activities can help consumers or foreigners learn about a country’s food culture (Farrer, 2015). In. 治政 which represents a tied relation between a nation and 大their dietary history, culture, and 立 habits.. the case of food, the referred knowledge comes in the form of national culinary identity,. ‧ 國. 學. Fifth, apart from the function of achieving cultural diplomatic gains, the implications of gastrodiplomacy activities can also resonate to other related sectors such. ‧. as tourism, advocation of healthy and clean dietary culture, agricultural exports, foreign investment, and other market opportunities (Rockower, 2012; Reynolds, 2012; Pham,. Nat. sit. y. 2013; Lee, 2016).. er. io. By building on those notions, this thesis analyses gastrodiplomacy with South Korea as the case. The official food promotional activities of South Korea occur through. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. the Global Hansik Campaign. In addition to the governmental strategy, nonstate actors. engchi. have also greatly contributed to this matter through media and live activities, especially following the rise of Hallyu globally. In addition, the globalization of Korean food can potentially create positive effects on the country, such as enhancing South Korea’s national brand, increasing the number of cross-cultural collaboration activities, and spurring growth in tourism.. 3.. Gjlhlkh. 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(35) Chapter. 3.. Strategies. and. Efforts. of South. Korea’s. Gastrodiplomacy: Making Hansik Popular 3.1.. Implementation of South Korea’s Gastrodiplomacy WWhen we talk about South Korean gastrodiplomacy, we need to know about. the Global Hansik Campaign. The Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MFAFF, changed its name to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. 治政 Global Hansik Campaign in April 2008 during Lee大 Myung-bak’s presidency with the 立Korean cuisine to the world. In 2009, the Korean Food objective of promoting. [MAFRA] in 2013) officially launched the Korean Food Globalization campaign or. ‧ 國. 學. Globalization Committee meetings discussed the establishment of the institution for the first time. Particularly in May 2009, the promotional plans were finalized under the. ‧. Hansik Foundation Act and the Hansik Globalization Development Agency, which comprises 36 members from governments, academic institutions, and food industry. Nat. sit. y. CEOs (Pham, 2013), with the MAAFF and the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. al. er. io. being the primary ministries supporting the plans (Lipscomb, 2019).. n. The campaign is seen to be aligned with another political goals of president Lee. Ch. i n U. v. Myung-bak program, namely the ‘Global Korea’ (Lipscomb, 2019). Aware that South. engchi. Korea’s national brand among the international community was not as strong as the capacity of a developed economy, the president was eager to raise ‘Korea’s global image and make it a more respected country’ (Markessinis, 2009). The National Branding Committee was then established in 2009 with an annual budget of 8 billion won ($5.8 million) designated to manage the development of international cooperation, information technology and corporate, culture and tourism, international community, and coordination (Ibid). Such branding strategy can be seen as one way of helping the country build up its national strength by expanding soft power.. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(36) The Global Hansik Campaign (hereafter GHC) was designated as the state-sponsored food promotion of South Korea under the Korean Food Foundation (KFF) established in March 2010. KFF was recognized as a nongovernmental foundation aimed at globalizing Korean food through promotional programs and activities. Yang Il-sun, the first chairwoman of KFF, further stated, ‘the Korean Food Foundation aims to foster appreciation for Korean food culture around the world and spur growth in related industries, such as agriculture, food service, and tourism’ (KFPI News, 2013). The improvements made through these sectors aim to help to boost the image of South Korea. The Ministry announced the vision to realize this agenda by. 治政 consultations with existing Korean restaurants abroad. 大A plan to enhance the quality of Korean food and make立 it one of the five most popular cuisines in the world was also increasing the number of Korean restaurants overseas to 20,000 by 2017 and running. ‧ 國. 學. included at first, but the MAFRA replaced it with make Hansik ‘an internationally beloved cuisine’ (Oh, 2010). The MAFRA invested $77 million in the campaign to. ‧. accomplish these goals until 2017 (Pham, 2013).. In October 2017, the foundation developed its role and was renamed Korean. Nat. sit. y. Food Promotion Institute (KFPI). According to their website, www.hansik.or.kr, KFPI is. er. io. further designated ‘to match the growth of global food market and produce more tangible results, including agricultural exports, overseas market entry of foodservice. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. companies, and job creation’ (KFPI News, 2017). To promote their product globally, ‘as. engchi. a public institution, KFPI promotes Korean food (Hansik) through various projects such as overseas promotion activities and support for local Hansik promotion projects using Foreign Korean restaurant’s Consultative Groups in major regions’ (Park Seung-kyu). KFPI has concluded the three purposes of its establishment, which are divided into three groups of responsibilities. First, KFPI generates Korean food’s legitimacy. The task requires research on the historical and cultural aspects of Korean food as well as discovering, recovering, sustaining, and developing its authentic form. Second, KFPI organizes Korean food industry promotion. The task concentrates on sustaining and developing the 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(37) competitiveness of Korean food and restaurants in the global market and developing the basis for commercialization. Third, KFPI aims to spread the trend of striving for the globalization of Korean food. The activities included are aimed at making Korean food appealing to global palates and making Korean products globally recognized. To realize such purposes the core primary role of the organization is divided into four groups of tasks: A. Sophistication of Korean food infrastructure. This task includes programs such as improving the accessibility and utilization of contents, developing the contents and the creation of databases, supporting research on. 治政 food statistics system. 大立 of competitiveness of Korean restaurants. This task handles B. Strengthening domestic and overseas Korean food, as well as establishing the Korean. ‧ 國. 學. the activities of overseas restaurant consulting groups, manages the certification system for Korean restaurants, provides training programs for. ‧. employees of overseas restaurants, provides private group support systems, and supports food ingredients for overseas export.. Nat. sit. y. C. Cultivation of specialists. This task supports educational institutions in. er. io. regards to Korean food, educate domestic and overseas food specialists, and advance job creation.. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. D. Spreading of Korean food domestically and internationally. This task is. engchi. designated for establishing online promotional programs, supporting the industrialization of culinary tourism, vitalizing international exchange programs in relation to food, and expanding the infrastructure of Korean food culture. Particularly toward foreigners, online promotional activities are strengthened through the establishment of The Korean Healthy Food Supporter, as well as KFPI’s own websites and multilingual social media services (KFPI News, 2017).. 28. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(38) As such, GHC is the state-sponsored food promotional program of South Korea. The increasing global popularity of Korean food is hoped to enhance South Korean tangible brands in the international community, such as agriculture, tourism, and export, through which the positive image of the country can improve. Park Seung-kyu, the auditor of KFPI (2019), said, ‘KFPI strives to enhance the national brand by enhancing the status of Korean cuisine in the global market and securing its competitiveness by promoting Hansik among Korean culture’. South Korea is aware that all initiatives to globalize national cuisines require concrete objectives based on analysis of research, markets, and policy. First, a contact. 治政 KFPI’s active days, Kim Yoon-ok, the wife of president 大 Lee Myung-bak who also 立 of KFPI, served Pajeon (Korean Pancake filled mainly served as the first chairwoman with foreign diners and building impression are necessary moves. In the beginning of. ‧ 國. 學. with green onion) to Korean War veterans in the United States. She did this to share a positive and delicious experience with the veterans for their memories as an introduction. ‧. to ‘a new taste of Korea’ compared to the poorly served food in the war era (Moskin, 2009). Since then, the official practice of serving Hansik to the global palate started.. Nat. sit. y. The following are six strategies South Korea has employed in its. er. io. gastrodiplomacy implementation.. The first is embedding a culinary identity to raise awareness of national identity. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. by highlighting culinary characteristics. In its practice through GCH, the government. engchi. initiated an approach to globalize Korean food by embedding Korean cultural elements in its promotional activities. ‘Localizing Korean food to promote it in the global market and associating Korean cuisine with Korean culture to a sufficient degree’ are the major key factors of GHC (Suk Hoo-yoon, KFPI News, 2012). Every food has a story, and so does Korean food, and every Korean food represents authentic cultural elements in its story. KFPI publishes a series of guide books, brochures, and videos as well as live activities in the associated restaurants, media, and the website. In addition to recipes and nutritional facts, all these media act as tools to spread information about Korean food and its connection to Korean history and culture. 29. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(39) KFPI refers to Korean food or Hansik as the food indigenous to Korea that was passed down by Korean ancestors through generations, and traditional Korean food has ingredients that are different and unique to Korean food. GHC embeds a message of ‘harmony and balance’ in all the food that it promotes. The government decided to introduce Korean food as the representation of a healthy dietary culture. These characteristics of Korean food are visualized in the KFPI logo, shown in Figure 3 below. The trigrams in the logo represents the image of ‘harmony and balance’ relationship between human and nature (the balanced elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth). The warm colors for the logo itself are designed to symbolize Korean food as. 治政 also imply a message that Korean food is in harmony 大 with beautiful colors and in 立 ingredients (KFPI News, 2017). balance with highly nutritious food made of healthy products whose ingredients are harvested from nature. The colors. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 3. KFPI’s logo structure. Bibimbap, for instance, is promoted abroad. The name bibimbap (비빔밥 bibim-bab) is derived from the verb bibim, which means ‘mixing all the ingredients’, and bab, which means rice. Bibimbap is one of the most famous Korean foods abroad that combines ingredients such as rice, various vegetables, kimchi, meat, egg, gochujang (Korean chili paste), sesame seeds, and sesame oil in a hot stone bowl and is eaten using a spoon or chopsticks. 30. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.

(40) Figure 4. Bibimbap. 政治大 A bowl of bibimbap 立 is proven to provide a balanced combination of nutrients. ‧ 國. 學. such as carbohydrates, protein, and fiber, which are derived from the elements of Korean. food culture of fermented food such as jang (sauces) as well as kimchi and seasonal Korean vegetables. Corresponding with GHC’s promotional goals, bibimbap symbolizes. ‧. harmonious colors and balanced nutrition (Bibigo, 2015). The same goes for kimchi.. io. y. sit. News, 2017).. Nat. kimchi is well known and branded as a healthy food that ‘makes you stay young’ (KFPI. er. These efforts indicate how the South Korean government attempts to standardize. al. n. iv n C U gochujang (Korean red pepper other activities. For instance, h theegovernment n g c h i added. the characteristics of Hansik. An effort to standardize Hansik abroad is also shown in paste), doenjang (soybean paste) and ginseng to the international list of food-related standards and guidelines under Codex Alimentarius in 2009 (Oh, 2010). Moreover, the government launched standardized English names for Hansik menus and distributed them to Korean restaurants in several countries such as the United States, Japan, and China (Ibid). Creating impressions by using a distinctive slogan is also seen as an important plan in GHC. Unlike Malaysia, Thailand, and Peru, who use the phrases ‘to the world’ or ‘of the world’ in their slogan, South Korea uses ‘Taste of Korea’ as its 31. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901257.