外籍助教對英語學習者的學習動機、聽力焦慮與聽力表現之影響

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 外籍助教對英語學習者的學習動機、聽力焦慮與聽力表現之影響 The Impact of Foreign Teaching Assistants on English Language Learners’ Motivation, Listening Anxiety, and Listening Performance. 指導教授：吳美貞博士 Advisor: Dr. Mei-Chen Wu. 研究生：黃詩涵 Student: Shih-Han Huang. 中華民國一百零六年六月 June, 2017.

(2) 摘要本篇研究旨在探討外籍助教(FTAs)對於台灣國中英語學習者學習動機和聽力焦慮之影響，以及在外籍助教的教導下學生從學年初到學年末的聽力表現變化。受試者為 105 位來自台灣北部二所國中的七年級國中生。受試者必須在學年初與學年末分別填寫一份相同的問卷(包含動機和聽力焦慮量表)與接受聽力測驗，用以測量學生的學習動機、聽力焦慮和聽力表現。針對受試者所填寫的問卷以及施測的聽力成績，研究者使用成對樣本 t 檢定檢測受試者在學年初及學年末的學習動機、聽力焦慮和聽力表現概況。此外，透過課室觀察、訪問和談話來提供更多資訊，以深入了解外藉助教如何影響學生的學習動機、聽力焦慮和聽力能力。本研究之主要發現摘述如下： 1. 學生的英語學習動機在學年末相較於學年初有些微的下降，可能的原因有：期末考試壓力、教室座位安排、逐漸習慣外籍助教的教學方法、課堂活動難易度的適切性、外籍助教講話速度太快、對外國人不夠了解、中西方教學風格的文化差異、複雜且多層面的文化學習。 2. 男學生比女學生在學年末的動機量表進步比較多的項目，外籍助教的出現可能是提升男學生語言學習動機的一種方式。 3. 學生的英語聽力焦慮在學年末相較於學年初下降，可能是在全英語授課下學生較常接觸口語英文、外籍助教提供有意義的溝通環境以及在以視覺化輔助教學。 4. 在質性的資料中發現單字是影響學生聽力焦慮的因素。 5. 學生的聽力成績在學年初和學年末有大幅進步，可推論在經過一年外籍助教提供大量真實的語言輸入(authentic input)之下而讓學生的聽力有所進展。最後，根據本研究結果，本研究針對研究理論、教學及未來研究，在探討. i.

(3) 外籍助教對台灣學生英語學習之影響提供進一步的建議。. 關鍵字：動機、聽力焦慮、聽力表現、英語為第二外語學習者、外籍助教、本國老師、英語協同教學. ii.

(4) ABSTRACT The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of foreign teaching assistants (FTAs) on EFL junior high learners’ language learning. Research questions were posed to explore young learners’ motivation towards English learning and listening anxiety at the initial and end of the school year, and how learners’ English listening performance changes while they are exposed to FTAs. One hundred and five seventh graders in two junior high schools in northern Taiwan participated in this study. Learners’ motivation toward English learning and listening anxiety were investigated in initial and later questionnaires (combining motivation and listening anxiety scales). Their listening performance was evaluated by the first and the second listening tests. The paired-sample t-test was used to analyze the learners’ questionnaires and listening performance at the beginning and end of the school year. In addition, classroom observations, interviews, and informal conversations were employed to gain more specific information toward learners’ English-learning motivation, listening anxiety and the influence of FTAs on learners’ listening abilities. The results can be summarized as follows: First, the learners’ learning motivation slightly decreased from the initial towards the end of the school year. When further analyzing the statements, the findings showed that the pressure of the final exam, the classroom seating arrangement, gradually getting used to FTAs’ teaching methods, the inappropriate level of challenge, FTAs speaking too fast, not being acquainted with foreigners well enough, cultural difference in teaching styles, and encountering much more intricate aspects of culture learning were the possible reasons for the students’ lower learning motivation in general. Second, boys had more improved items in the second motivation scale than girls at the end of the school year, which suggested that. iii.

(5) the presence of FTAs could be a way of improving male students’ English learning motivation. Third, learners’ reduced listening anxiety after the presence of FTAs for one year might attribute to more exposed to spoken English through English medium instruction. Moreover, FTAs also contribute to creating a meaningful communication environment as well as using visualization in instruction. Fourth, one issue related to vocabulary as a source of listening anxiety was identified in the qualitative data. Finally, long-term exposure to the authentic input of target language provided by FTAs could be the possible reason for learners’ improved listening performance at the end of the school year. In the end of the study, some theoretical and pedagogical implications were provided for the impact of foreign teaching assistants on young EFL learners’ in Taiwan.. Keywords: Motivation, Listening Anxiety, Listening Performance, EFL learners, foreign teaching assistants (FTAs), local English teachers (LETs), English co-teaching. iv.

(6) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who have supported me and assisted me throughout the writing of this paper. First of all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my dearest advisor, Dr. Mei-Chen Wu. Dr. Mei-Chen Wu always patiently responded to my questions and doubts about the graduate studies. Whenever I got confused with my research, Dr. Mei-Chen Wu pointed out my blind spot, guided me, and led me back to the right track immediately. I am thankful for her consistent encouragement that had made me feel energized, and able to deal with the challenge of the research paper writing. Without her kindness and devotion, I would not be able to complete this task I would also like to express my gratitude to my committee members, Dr. YiChien Lee and Dr. Shiau-Ping Tian, who carefully proofread my thesis and offered constructive advices. Their insightful remarks helped me to improve the quality of the research. Furthermore, many thanks are for those English teachers (ETAs and LETs) and students in the schools where I conducted this research. I am grateful to the teachers (ETAs and LETs) who allowed me to enter their professional lives and arranged classroom observations, listening tests as well as students’ interviews to make this research possible. Next, I would like to thank the professors in the Department of English who have taught me during the past three years. Their expertise, critical thinking and organizational logic added considerably to my graduate studies. Their instructions have also broadened my horizon and enabled me to be a more competent English teacher. I thank my NTNU TESOL friends, Amelia, Ignace, Wendy, Chloe, Amy, Sandy, v.

(7) Vivian, Abby, Joanne, Ming, Bragi, Linda, Double, Terri, Hanna, Donna, Ann and Tina for all the pleasant times spent inside and outside class. Special thanks to my friends, Cindy and Eric, for helping record the listening scripts. In addition, I would also like to thank my partner, Ruby, for giving me support and the enjoyable times we had together during classroom observations and interviews. Last but not least, I am heartily thankful of my dearest family members, including my parents and my younger sister, who constantly reassured me that this graduate study journey would reach a successful ending. They always cheered me up, which boosted my confidence to break through the difficult times. Without their love and support, nothing of this could be possible. This research is especially dedicated to them.. vi.

(8) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHINESE ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... i ENGLISH ABSTRACT........................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 1.1Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................ 5 1.3 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 7 1.4 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 8 2.1 Co-Teaching ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Motivation in Language Learning ...................................................................... 10 2.3Anxiety and Listening ......................................................................................... 12 2.3.1 Definitions and Manifestations of Language Anxiety................................. 12 2.3.2Foreign Language Listening Anxiety and Listening Performance ............... 15 2.4 Synthesis............................................................................................................. 19 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 20 3.1 Research Design ................................................................................................. 20 3.2 Participants ......................................................................................................... 21. vii.

(9) 3.3 Instruments ......................................................................................................... 22 3.3.1 Quantitative data .......................................................................................... 23 3.3.1.1 Questionnaire ........................................................................... 23 3.3.1.2 Listening test ............................................................................ 26 3.3.2 Qualitative approach .................................................................................... 26 3.3.2.1 Classroom Observations .......................................................... 26 3.3.2.2 Interviews and Informal Conversations ................................... 27 3.4 Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................ 29 3.5 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 31 3.5.1Analysis of Questionnaire ............................................................................ 31 3.5.2 Analysis of the Listening Test ..................................................................... 33 3.5.3 Analysis of Classroom Observations, Interviews, Informal Conversations, Field Notes, and Audio Recordings ...................................................................... 33 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 35 4.1 Influence of the FTAs’ Presence on Students’ English Learning Motivation ... 35 4.1.1 Increased Motivation ................................................................................... 36 4.1.2 Decreased motivation .................................................................................. 38 4.1.2.1 Attitude toward English ........................................................... 39 4.1.2.2 Foreign class ............................................................................ 43 4.1.2.3 Foreign culture ......................................................................... 53 4.1.3 Positive impact of FTA on male students’ perceptions ............................... 58 4.2 Influence of the FTAs’ Presence on Students’ English Listening Anxiety........ 60 4.2.1 Anxiety about English Spoken Language ................................................... 61. viii.

(10) 4.2.2 Anxiety about Vocabulary ........................................................................... 64 4.3 Influence of the FTAs’ Presence on Students’ English Listening Performance 66 4.4 Summary of Chapter Four .................................................................................. 68 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 70 5.1 Summary of the Findings ................................................................................... 70 5.1.1 English Learning Motivation ....................................................................... 70 5.1.2 English Listening Anxiety ........................................................................... 72 5.1.3 English Listening Performance ................................................................... 73 5.2 Implications of the Study ................................................................................... 73 5.2.1Theoretical Implications ............................................................................... 73 5.2.2Pedagogical Implications .............................................................................. 74 5.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Study ................................................... 76 REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................ 79 Chinese Reference .................................................................................................... 79 English Reference .................................................................................................... 80 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................... 94 Appendix A: Chinese Version of the Questionnaires .............................................. 94 Appendix B: Interview Questions ............................................................................ 96 Appendix C: Students’ Differences in the First and the Second Motivation Scale . 97 Appendix D: Differences between Genders in the First and the Second Motivation Scale ......................................................................................................................... 99. ix.

(11) Appendix E: Students’ Differences in the First and the Second Listening Anxiety Scale ....................................................................................................................... 100. x.

(12) LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Statement Types in the Listening Anxiety Scale ........................................... 25 Table 2. Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of the Adapted FLCAS & FLLAS Questionnaire in Pilot Study ........................................................................................ 29 Table 3. Students’ Overall Perceptions on the First and the Second Motivation Scale ...................................................................................................................................... 36 Table 4. Statements Shown Increased Motivation ....................................................... 36 Table 5. Statements Shown Decreased Motivation ..................................................... 38 Table 6. Classroom observations and Participants’ Reported Features of the Combination of a FTA and a LET ............................................................................... 51 Table 7. Students’ Overall Perceptions on the First and the Second Anxiety Scale ... 61 Table 8. Statements Shown Decreased Listening Anxiety .......................................... 61 Table 9. Learners’ Scores on the First and the Second Listening Test ........................ 67. xi.

(13) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The Diagram of the Research Design ........................................................... 21 Figure 2. Data Collection Procedures of This Study ................................................... 31. xii.

(14) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study In the era of globalization, English is used as a main communicative language in various fields, such as politics, finance, and business, around the world. The emergence of English as a global language (Crystal, 2012) also impacts the education system in many non-native English speaking countries. In Asia, English is regarded as the primary foreign language and introduced as a compulsory subject in school (Kamwangamalu, 2010; Nunan, 2003). Recently, these compulsory English courses have been implemented to younger children. In Japan and Vietnam, for instance, English was a required subject only for high school students before 2002 and 2011 respectively. Since then, however, it has become a compulsory subject even for primary school students. Likewise, Chinese students under the age 11 were not required to take any English course. Yet, nine-year-old children have had to study English since 2001. In addition, the governments in Asia have started to invest much money in order to improve their people’s English proficiency in the hope of fostering nations’ competitive edges in the world. In Korea huge financial investments have been made to train English teachers and to create an English-speaking environment such as English Villages for learners (Jung & Norton, 2002). Following the prevalent issue of cultivating citizens’ English abilities, Taiwan has also administered a variety of language policies to foster English education. For instance, the Ministry of Education (MOE) launched the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum (NYIC) guidelines, which implemented English education at primary school stage. In 2001, English was taught in the fifth grade and was further moved down to the third grade in 2005. Some cities even began English education in as early 1.

(15) as the first grade. Besides, the government ploughed in a large amount of money to create a simulated English speaking environment (e.g., English Villages and situated classroom) for the purpose of developing an international living environment and enhancing English proficiency (Chan, 2015). These efforts indicate that the significance of English has captured the government’s attention, which implicitly leads to a general awareness that learning English is necessary and indispensable. For example, due to “the value of learning language for children” and “the practical value of English job market”, parents in Taiwan favor the idea of learning English at a young age (Tsai, 2001). Moreover, in order to enhance their children’s future ability, they even send their children to English bushibans for extra English instruction (Wang, 2016). These phenomena, according to Chang (2006), reflect the fact that learning English has become a national sport in Taiwan. Krashen (2003) even termed such English-learning mania as “English Fever”. Nevertheless, despite the government’s emphasis on English learning at all levels of education, Chang (2006) found that Taiwanese students’ English abilities demonstrated a bimodel distribution. In order to resolve the issue, the authorities concerned at different levels have taken different initiatives. For example, believing that socio-economic status and learning motivation are the contributing factors to the m-shaped distribution, an education bureau of a city government in the northern Taiwan cooperated with a non-profit organization and launched an English coteaching program. Since 2013, it has annually invited young American college graduates as foreign teaching assistants (FTAs) to co-teach with Taiwanese or local English teachers (LETs) in junior high schools in the city. These schools have been chosen because of not only their size (with less than 15 classes and 400 students in each) but students’ nature: one third of them come from low social-economic background and have no chance to practice their communicative competence 2.

(16) (speaking and listening) after school. The program aims to create a language and culture learning environment which can raise students’ learning motivation and improve their English scholastic performance. As the co-teaching policy has been implemented in these schools, its effectiveness also becomes critical. For English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, co-teaching serves as an innovative instruction underlying the governmental policy guideline. However, the issues of whether there is a gap between government rhetoric and classroom realties and how co-teaching is practiced in order to meet the learners’ learning need to be addressed. So far, many empirical studies exploring coteaching program in Taiwan have shown that co-teaching fostered co-teachers’ teaching expertise and learners generally hold good perceptions of it. The results seem to imply that both co-teachers and learners benefit from co-teaching. Nevertheless, there is little research indicating the exact influence of such a co-teaching program on learners’ English learning. Specifically, questions regarding the impact of the FTAs on learners’ learning motivation towards English, on anxiety with respect to four skill domains (listening, speaking, reading and writing), and on scholastic performance of English learning remain unanswered. While the government is busy recruiting FTAs into the EFL classrooms, a researcher (Yen, 2016) in Taiwan is also curious about the influence of FTAs on Taiwanese learners’ English learning motivation. Although she has found that learners generally had a strong motivation to learn English, but her participants came from elementary school and junior high students. Her study fails to address the particular impact of FTAs on junior high students. Since motivation is viewed as a contributing factor to junior high students’ English learning achievement gap (Chen, 2006) and motivation is said to be an important predictor of successful second language (SL) or foreign language (FL) learning (Dornyei, 2010), how FTAs influence students’ 3.

(17) English learning motivation is worth of being examined. Therefore, the present study intends to examine the motivation of the junior high learners as they are being taught by FTAs. Besides motivation, anxiety is viewed as another affective factor influencing language learning (Krashen, 1982). According to Krashen’ s (1982) The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that affective variables, such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety, may inhibit language input from becoming an intake for learners. In other words, learners with high anxiety might have difficulties absorbing what they are learning, which in turn may influence their performance. Over the years, language anxiety, a situation-specific anxiety associated with L2 learning in language classrooms, has been extensively researched and predominantly found its negative effect on second language performance (Horwitz, 2001; MacIntyre, 1999). It indicates that learners would learn better in a low-anxiety classroom environment; thus, ways of lowering learners’ affective filter and counteracting effects of language anxiety seemed to be needed (Young, 1998). FTAs, according to Yen’s questionnaire results (2016), play a key role in this regard: learners believed that their anxiety decreased after having the opportunity to interact with FTAs. To further this idea, the study explores how students’ anxiety level changes while being exposed to native-speaking teachers in English. With the data, this study is hoped to provide more insights into how specifically FTAs influence Taiwanese learners’ learning of English. Moreover, listening, among the four English skills, is viewed as the major anxiety-provoking aspect for learners (Krashen, interviewed by in Young 1992). In other words, FL learners may worry about misunderstanding and fear embarrassing outcomes when listening in the target language (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994a). The feeling of anxiety that arises during the listening process is a negative “listening selfconcept,” (Joiner, 1986); that is, learners have low level of self-confidence regarding 4.

(18) their ability in listening. Also, learners may suffer from receiver anxiety, a type of FL anxiety proposed by Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986), which may impediment learners’ comprehension of their interlocutors’ spoken messages. As a result, nativespeaking English teachers in a FL classroom, on the one hand, can increase learners’ opportunities in the target language exposure. On the other hand, they may also become the major source of learners’ listening anxiety. To address the issue, the present study also focuses on learners’ listening anxiety when they interact with the FTAs.. 1.2 Purpose of the Study Since the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan incorporated English listening in the Comprehensive Assessment Program (CAP) in 2014, many people, including teachers and students, have concerned about the policy and discuss how to improve junior high learners’ listening performance (Chang, 2015). One possible way may be with the help of FTAs. With the co-teaching program that has placed FTAs in different junior high schools to help provide English instruction to junior high school learners, students are also expected to have their listening ability improved for the constant exposure to English. The researcher of this study, due to a research project, had opportunities to randomly observe the co-teaching classes implementing the English co-teaching program in junior high schools. In the class, the FTA is usually the main teacher in the English classes, and the LET serves as an assistant for the FTAs, helping them with classroom management, conducting the class, and translating when necessary. It indicates that the FTA plays an important role during the process of learners’ learning. As a result, the researcher is curious about how FTAs affect junior high school learners’ English learning in the co-teaching context. A previous study (Yen, 2016) pointed out that learners had generally felt more 5.

(19) motivated to learn English after listening to FTAs-led instructions in the co-teaching class for one year, while the aspect that had not been examined yet was the integrated influence of motivation and language anxiety. This is important because motivation and language anxiety has been found to be negatively correlated and both were significant predictors of academic success (Khodadady & Khajavy, 2013). In addition, the possible influence of FL listening anxiety on FL listening performance has drawn the interest of several researchers (e.g., Elkhafaifi, 2005; Tsai, 2010) and the results have predominantly shown a negative influence. Vogely (1998), on the one hand, recommended the presence of native-speakers of the target language in order to reduce the listening anxiety of FL learners and help the learners have better listening comprehension. On the other hand, Rardin (interviewed by Young in 1992) was concerned about the presence of a native-speaker in the FL learning classroom since it could make learners more stressed and anxious. Thus, it is still unclear if nativespeaking instructors serve as a variable in FL students’ listening. Particularly, the question of if and how FTAs influence Taiwanese learners’ listening anxiety level and listening performance after they have a long-term exposure with FTAs remains unstudied. The present study is thus motivated, attempting to specifically delve into the impact of FTAs on junior high learners in the co-teaching program from the perspectives of motivation, listening anxiety, and listening ability. Previously the key variables such as motivation, listening anxiety and listening performance in FL learners’ learning process are examined individually, rather than all together in single study. As these factors are correlated with each other (Brown et al, 2001; Liu & Huang, 2011), the impact of FTAs on motivation, listening anxiety, and listening proficiency will be explored so that insights into how FTAs influence language learning in Taiwan could be provided. 6.

(20) 1.3 Research Questions The present study aimed to address the following research questions: 1.. How does the presence of FTAs influence learners’ motivation towards English learning?. 2.. How does the presence of FTAs influence learners’ listening anxiety?. 3.. How is the learners’ listening performance influenced by the presence of FTAs?. 1.4 Significance of the Study The study might shed some light on the following aspects. First, this study might show a theoretical contribution to research by providing potential positive and negative effects that FTAs bring to EFL learners’ learning. Specifically, the results of this study could benefit relevant researchers from understanding how the FTA-led coteaching context like the current study impact the three factors (i.e., English learning motivation, English listening anxiety, and English listening performance). Secondly, this study might suggest some possible pedagogical implications for English teachers in Taiwan to help learners sustain motive force in the learning process and relieve from anxiety toward listening as well as the potential apprehension from the listening section in CAP. Thirdly, this study might help policy-makers, educational administrators, and language educators become aware of the implementation impact of FTAs on Taiwanese junior high students in the future.. 7.

(21) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews literature related to the stated research questions of this study. The first section offers the historical background of co-teaching programs and present implementation in Taiwan. The second section introduces the theoretical approaches regarding the complexity of L2 motivation and discusses the effect of teacher’s role on motivation toward language learning. In the last section, the concepts of anxiety in general and language anxiety are covered and followed by the specific focus on listening anxiety and its relationship to listening performance.. 2.1 Co-Teaching In contemporary English language teaching (ELT), the policy of importing native-speaking English teachers (NESTs) to co-teach with non-native Englishspeaking teachers (NNESTs) is prevalent in Asian countries in the 1990’s. The governments launched a variety of co-teaching programs for enhancing learners’ English competence and promoting cultural exchange, such as the English Program in Korea (EPIK), the Primary Native-Speaking English Teacher Scheme (PNET) in Hong Kong, and Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) program. Following the trend in these countries, a co-teaching program in Taiwan has also been established by the MOE since 2001, aiming to solve the problem of insufficient qualified teachers at the primary school level in rural and remote areas due to the education reform in 2005 (the shift of English policy from Grade 5 to Grade 3). Since 2005, county or city governments have been permitted to introduce native-speaking English teachers by themselves (MOE Website, 2016) with various language learning objectives. For example, a city government in the southern Taiwan, employing FTAs from the United States to co-teach English with LETs, aims to provide opportunities for learners to use 8.

(22) English and to promote LETs’ teaching instruction. According to all kinds of co-teaching program objectives, co-teachers and learners seem to benefit from the co-teaching (Liao, 2017). With regard to co-teachers in the Taiwan context, the evidence has proved that co-teaching could help foster both teachers’ professional development (Chen & Cheng, 2014; Chen, 2008). Investigating co-teachers’ professional growth in co-teaching context, Tsai (2007) found that coteachers benefit from six aspects: linguistic knowledge and skills, cultural knowledge, teaching skills, understanding of students and schools, development of partnerships, and development of professional identity. Huang (2011) has expressed a similar view that co-teachers share both teaching experiences and resources, overcome the teaching challenges, fulfill the teaching content, and enhance both teaching skills. As for learners, much research has discussed the influences of co-teaching on learners’ English learning (Chiang, 2014; Huang, 2011; Pai, 2008; Wu, 2015). In Chiang’s study (2014), for example, the findings show that the combination of both FTAs and LETs increases students’ English learning attitude and motivation after one semester. Chuang (2011) finds that co-teaching results in learners’ improved perceptions of their English ability in listening and speaking, the decreased perceptions of speaking anxiety, and the increased understanding of foreign cultures after six months. Examining the effect of co-teaching on learners’ language learning, Herbert’s (2010) study reveals that learners display a positive attitude and motivation toward English learning and that their reading and listening proficiency are also improved after a year. The above general findings suggest that the policy of having native-speaking English teachers co-teach with local teachers in the language classroom may promote co-teachers’ profession and students’ English learning, while the literature on the specific impact that native-speaking teachers have on learners in the co-teaching 9.

(23) context is still scarce. The role of native-speaking teachers in language classes cannot be ignored since researchers in the past have found EFL learners felt native-speaking teachers’ classes were much more interactive (e.g., Chai, 2007; Sidrys & JakStaite, 1994). One implication of these studies is that learners seemed to be benefited from native-speakers’ teachings. However, none of studies in co-teaching have been particularly investigated how native-speaking English teachers affect EFL learners’ motivation and the change of anxiety level together in a longitude study since they are considered two of the most important factors of learning achievement (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Cheng et al., 1999; MacIntyre, 2002).. 2.2 Motivation in Language Learning Motivation is thought of as one of the main influential variables associated with an individual’s success in SL/FL acquisition. According to Dörnyei (1998, p.117), “motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process”. Since motivation plays an important role in the learning process, many scholars have discussed the nature of motivation and its relationship to language learning from manifold perspectives for the last decades (e.g., MacIntyre, 2002; Dornyei, 2010). For example, the social–psychological constructs in the work of Gardner and Lambert (1972), integrative and instrumental motivational orientations, have been used widely to explain why people learn languages. They propose that learners who possess integrative motivation will have a strong desire to communicate with a L2 group and learn about their culture and language. As for learners with an instrumental motivation, language becomes a tool that allows them to achieve some practical goals, such as passing language exams or getting a job promotion. In addition to the socialpsychological concept of L2 motivation, Deci and Ryan (1985, 2002), from the cognitive-situated aspect, views on motivation as a more dynamic factor, more 10.

(24) cognitive in nature, and more situated-specific in language classrooms where most L2 learning happens. They propose the self-determination theory, focusing on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their relevance for classroom applications. Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivation coming from inside and deriving from individuals’ desire to accomplish something for their own pleasure. Learners with extrinsic motivation are motivated to learn a language by external factors, such as reward and penalty. Furthermore, interested in fluctuating motivational change over time during a L2 class, Dörnyei and Otto (1998) develops a process-orientated model. The model describes a predominant continuum of motivational features, from learners’ initial wishes and desires to final goal accomplishment. As a whole, taken by the proponents of the socio-psychological, cognitive-situated or process-orientated approach of L2 motivation, a key tenet of these analyses has demonstrated that motivation is a complex construct with several perspectives that boosts SL/FL learning and maintains learners’ efforts to learn the language. In addition to capturing the multifaceted construct of motivation, a large amount of research has been conducted to explore the influence of motivation on L2 learners’ mastery in learning language and to focus on the factors affecting L2 learners’ learning motivation, such as age, second language proficiency, and language tasks (Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Dörnyei & Otto, 1998). The role of teacher, has been viewed as one of the influential factors of L2 learners’ motivation (Dörnyei, 1994; Tanaka, 2005). Since the teacher plays a vital role in influencing the learners’ motivational quality and promoting learners’ motivation in language classrooms (Dornyei, 2010, p.115), some studies on L2 motivation have set out to investigate how teacher-related components affect learners’ motivational change, including the teacher’s personality, behavior, teaching styles, teaching materials and methodology, feedback, reward/punishment, teacher-learner interaction (Al Kaboody, 2013; 11.

(25) Dörnyei, 1994;, Dornyei & Csizer, 1998; Ranjbar & Narafshan, 2016). The implication from these studies suggests that teachers are a complex and prime figure who affect L2 learners’ motivation. As for the role of FTAs in the EFL context, in Taiwan Yen (2016) has shed some light on the impact of FTAs on Taiwanese learners’ motivational change toward English learning in the context of co-teaching. Involving 4056 young learners from six areas in Taiwan, ranging from elementary school and junior high school level, Yen (2016) finds that scores on the measure of English-learning motivation tend to increase after students are taught by FTAs for one year. Meanwhile, according to the data from classroom observation and interview, she points out that the FTAs significantly raise the learners’ motivation by creating interactive and participative classroom climate, exchanging cultural knowledge, and broadening the world view. Nevertheless, her study fails to particularly examine the impact of FTAs on the relationship between junior high students’ learning motivation and language achievement although motivation is viewed as a contributing factor to the students’ English learning achievement gap (Chen, 2006). In addition, her study does not investigate the combined effect of motivation and listening anxiety since comprehension-related anxiety could weaken learning motivation and inhibit the listening comprehension skill (Gardner et al, 1987).. 2.3 Anxiety and Listening 2.3.1 Definitions and Manifestations of Language Anxiety Generally speaking, the nature of anxiety is intricate and multifaceted. From a psychological point of view, Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1971 as cited in Scovel 1978, p.134) defines anxiety as “a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only directly associated with an object”. Spielberger (1983 as cited in Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1991, p.27) describes anxiety from a neurobiological perspective, defining 12.

(26) anxiety as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of autonomic nervous system” (p. 15). When experiencing anxiety, a person may generate psycho-physiological characteristics. In the work of Onwuegbuzie, Bailey and Daley (1999), participants were found to display “perspiration, dry mouth, wet hands, general tension, muscle contraction and increased heartbeat” under stress. With regards to the presence of language anxiety, the pioneers, Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986), propose a situation-specific anxiety construct called foreign language anxiety, and define it as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (p.128). Based on their clinical data and anecdotal evidence, they argue that FL anxiety is distinct from general anxiety but a variable related to L2 only. Maclntyre (1999) has expressed a similar view, indicating that language anxiety involves the “the feeling of worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when learning or using a second language (p.27).” In this sense, language anxiety is seen as a complex and L2-specific construct in the situations of language learning. In a FL learning context, there are a number of multidimensional phenomena manifested by learners that may have resulted from language anxiety. Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) propose three main components that cause learners’ language anxiety. Communication apprehension, the first component, is a type of shyness due to fear or anxiety in communication. Learners with communication apprehension have problems speaking in groups (oral communication anxiety), and in public (“stage fright”) as well as in listening to a spoken message (receiver anxiety). In language classes, learners are usually asked to express their opinions on their own or through group discussion. If they feel nervous or stressed in that situation, it is 13.

(27) possible that the learners will face oral communication anxiety. In addition, when learners feel uneasy while presenting in public, they may be experiencing a stage fright. As for the reaction of receiver anxiety, it may take place when learners feel nervous about the new-gained or immediate aural information. The second type of language anxiety, test anxiety, stems from a fear of failure or underperforming in tests. Learners suffering from test anxiety often set unrealistic goals and consider that getting a perfect grade is prioritized. The third component is fear of negative evaluation, which is defined as “apprehension about others’ evaluation, avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively” (p.128). When experiencing fear of negative evaluation, learners may attempt to keep silent most of the time and refuse to participate in language classroom activities since they feel that teachers or peers may negatively evaluate their language ability, Moreover, Radin (1993 as cited in Young, 1991, p.430) found learners might display physiological reactions associated with anxiety in their language classes, such as “sweating palms, nervous stomachs, accelerated heartbeat and pulse rates”, leading to “distortion of sounds, inability to reproduce the intonation and rhythm of the language, ‘freezing up’ when called on to perform, and forgetting words or phrases just learned or simply refusing to speak and remaining silent” (p.430). Furthermore, there are other symptoms manifesting learners’ anxiety. Anxious learners may “have nervous laughter, look the other ways, make jokes, try to turn into clowns, and get away with the shortest answer responses” (Young, 1992, p.164). Through examining the nonverbal behaviors of anxious and non-anxious foreign language learners from facial expressions, gazing behavior, body movement and gesture, Gregersen (2005) points out that anxious learners show more frequent blinking behavior and gazing down, less eye contact to the teacher, more rigid with their posture, and fewer positive 14.

(28) head nods, etc. These anxiety-related behaviors and reactions suggest that language anxiety is a complex phenomenon evoked in a FL classroom setting and impacting learners physiologically, psychologically, and behaviorally all at the same time. In this sense, it is critical to study the complexity, especially when the learners are required to interact with a native-speaking teacher for an entire year. 2.3.2 Foreign Language Listening Anxiety and Listening Performance Ever since the presence of language anxiety was recognized, a growing body of researchers and theorists has been working on the impact of anxiety on language learning process in the FL learning context (Bailey et al, 2000; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994b). According to Tobias (1977), anxiety can lead to interference at one or more stages of language learning process (i.e., input, processing, and output). At the input stage, anxiety may hinder the amount and quality of intake due to the attention deficits. Anxiety experienced at this stage may reduce the effectiveness of input presented by the instructor, which can in turn decrease the amount of registered input internally. Anxiety at the processing stage impairs students’ efficiency of message processing. At this stage, the more difficult the task is, the more anxious students will become. The rising anxiety can thus abate their ability to process information. Likewise, anxiety, at the output stage, may impede the retrieval of existent information. Anxious learners may fail to demonstrate what they have learned when required. Anxiety, as illustrated above, can play a key role of students’ process of language acquisition, retention, and production. In the past few years, the potentially detrimental influence of language anxiety on FL learners’ language performance has drawn researchers’ attention (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986; Maclntyre & Gardner, 1991). As MacIntyre (1994b) and Cheng et al. (1999) emphasize the importance to understand the profound effect of 15.

(29) anxiety on foreign learners’ language performance, much of the research has been conducted to examine language anxiety across four language skills, including speaking (Phillips, 1992; Aida, 1994; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002; Cheng, 2005; Woodrow, 2006; Liu, 2007; Subasi, 2010; Hewitt & Stephenson, 2012; Ekström, 2013; Ö ztürk & Gürbüz, 2014), listening (Elkhafaifi, 2005; Cheng, 2007; Golchi, 2012; Tsai, 2010; Chen, 2011; Yang, 2012, Zhang, 2013; Chou, 2017), reading (Saito et al, 1999; Brantmeir, 2005; Tsai & Li, 2012; Yao & Jingna, 2011; Cabansag, 2013) as well as writing (Cheng, 2004; Lin & Ho, 2009). Although the majority of research mentioned above has focused on anxiety associated with L2 oral production, the discussion of listening anxiety is indispensable. Krashen (interviewed by in Young 1992) acknowledged that listening was “highly anxiety-provoking if it [the discourse] is incomprehensible” (p.168). As a listener in L2, it is crucial to understand what the interlocutor says in the target language to conduct successful communication. When listening to spoken language, a listener has to segment and analyze speech accurately and automatically into appropriate morpheme and syntactic units (Samuels, 1984). To appropriately and effectively process the input, the listener needs to invest additional effort and attention to recall and decode the message. Due to the fact that information processing with auditory stimuli at any moment is usually too limited for learners to consciously control what they access to (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), FL learners may be overloaded with unprocessed aural FL message, which can provoke frustration or anxious reactions. For example, FL learners may worry about misunderstanding and embarrassing outcomes when listening in the target language (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994a). The type of anxiety arising during the listening process is termed as a negative “listening self-concept,” (Joiner, 1986), that is, learners’ low level of selfconfidence regarding their ability in listening. 16.

(30) Recently, researchers have been interested in the anxiety associated with listening in FL learning context. Vogely (1999) highlights that listening anxiety, or listening comprehension anxiety, is a potentially debilitating type of anxiety accompanying listening comprehension. Learners who are anxious about listening may try to avoid engaging in the listening tasks that can lead to listening anxiety. On the basis of the foreign language reading anxiety scale (FFRAS) that Saito et al (1999) develop, Elkhafaifi (2005) pioneers and constructs the foreign language listening anxiety scale (FLLAS) to assess 233 postsecondary students learning Arabic as a FL in American universities. The FLLAS, consisted of 20-items, has an estimated internal reliability of .96 (Crobach’s alpha). Elkhafaifi aims at finding out whether FL listening anxiety affects FL learners’ listening performance. The result shows that FL listening anxiety has an adverse effect on listening achievement, indicating that learners with higher FL listening anxiety perform more poorly than those with lower FL listening anxiety. Zhang’s (2013) study also focuses on FL listening anxiety level of 300 first year English majors in a university in China. All the participants filled in the modified version of FLLAS and took the IELTS listening test twice. The result shows a negative correlation between the participants’ FL listening anxiety level and their’ listening achievement. Specifically, his finding further demonstrates a causal relationship between FL listening anxiety and listening performance, showing that L2 listening comprehension was affected by FL listening anxiety but not vice versa. Likewise, research in Taiwan’s context also demonstrates a similar result that FL listening anxiety was in a negative relationship with listening achievement. Tsai (2010), in order to examine how FL listening anxiety are related to English listening comprehension performance, administers the listening test and FLLAS to a total of 292 non-English major college students from two universities in northern Taiwan. The results show that listening performance is significantly negatively correlated with 17.

(31) FL listening anxiety. Similarly, Yang (2012) conducts a study to investigate the relationship among FL listening anxiety, listening strategy employment, and listening performance of adolescent EFL learners in junior high schools in the Taipei area. The researcher recruits a total of 211 students and implements the FLLAS, a listening strategy questionnaire, and a listening comprehension test. The results show not only the existence of FL listening anxiety in the Taipei area but also a negative correlation between FL listening anxiety and listening performance. Therefore, based on these above findings, listening anxiety could thus be regarded as a predictor for his/her listening performance. As indicated above, previous studies show that FL listening anxiety has a negative influence on FL learners’ listening comprehension. Another implication is that the learners would learn better in a low-anxiety classroom environment. As a result, ways of lowering learners’ affective filter and counteracting effects of listening anxiety are needed (Young, 1998). One possible solution suggested by Vogly’s (1998) study is to bring native speakers of the target language into the classroom. To identify learners’ listening anxiety source and explore the measures against their listening anxiety, Vogly (1998) administers a questionnaire to 140 American university students who took Spanish as their FL. According to the participants’ self-report, “having opportunities to listen to native speakers” (p.73) is a way to ease their FL listening anxiety. Nevertheless, the role of a native speaker in the FL learning classroom can make FL learners stressful and anxious in learning process. Rardin (interviewed by Young in 1992) mentions that “the teacher, a native-speaker of a second language as an extremely bright light” (p.162) leads to a boost of FL learners’ tenseness state. The learners might lack self-confidence and be overwhelmed by the holistic and perfect target language knowledge the native-speaking teacher possesses. The concern about native speakers in language teaching indicates that they will have either a positive or a 18.

(32) negative impact on the SL/FL learners’ listening anxiety.. 2.4 Synthesis To summarize, this study incorporated three different aspects of co-teaching which in past literature has not been conducted. Although the presence of FTAs has been studied individually (Yen, 2016), motivation towards language learning as a single aspect has been researched (Ushioda, 1996), listening anxiety and listening performance has been examined on its own (Elkhafaifi, 2005), rarely does a study include all three aspects. Furthermore, most of these studies have not been examined longitudinally. Due to the research gap identified above, a study that included all aspects of the motivation, listening anxiety, and listening performance of junior high students in a native-teacher-led co-teaching context would be important, which was the intent of the present study. More specifically, the study firstly examined the differences in the levels of English-learning motivation and listening anxiety after a year. Then, it focused on how learners’ English listening performance changes while they are exposed to FTAs.. 19.

(33) CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY This chapter comprises five parts, each of which elaborated different aspects concerning the research. The first section introduces the design of the study. The second section describes the background information of the participants. In the third section, the instruments used in this study are presented. The fourth section outlines the procedures of this study. The final section illustrates the measures used to analyze data.. 3.1 Research Design This study employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches to answer the research questions. According to Cresswell (2013), research combing quantitative and qualitative approaches can facilitate a better understanding of the phenomena under study than one using a single approach. Qualitative method was used as a supplementary approach to support the quantitative analysis. In this study, a questionnaire adapted from The Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), and Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (FLLAS) were served as the main quantitative instrument to examine participants’ motivation towards English learning and listening anxiety with the presence of FTAs in the co-teaching context. The participants were also required to take a listening test designed by the researcher to further investigate the listening performance. To gain more specific information toward learners’ English-learning motivation, listening anxiety and the influence of FTAs on learners, qualitative methods like classroom observation, interviews, and informal conversations were also employed. These qualitative methods were hoped to acquire more in-depth information from the participants’ questionnaire, such as learners’ learning situation 20.

(34) influenced by the FTA, classroom interactions with the FTA and peers, and learners’ motivation and listening anxiety towards different lessons or particular topics etc. (Please see Figure 1.). The Impact of Foreign Teaching Assistants on English Language Learners’ Motivation, Listening Anxiety, and Listening Performance. Quantitative approach. Questionnaire. Listening test. Qualitative approach. Classroom observations. Interviews. Informal conversations. Field notes & Recordings Figure 1: The Diagram of the Research Design. 3.2 Participants The study involved 105 seventh graders (ranging from 12~13 years old) selected from four classes of two junior high schools in the northern Taiwan which attended the English co-teaching program in 2015. The participants were novice learners with low English proficiency in a FTA-led co-teaching context. They had only one coteaching class period (40-45 minutes) once a week. Learners were required to fill in a questionnaire (combining motivation and listening anxiety scales) with a total of 26 items at the beginning and end of the school year. To avoid any misunderstandings or language barriers, the questionnaire was translated into learners’ native language. The questionnaire aimed to capture learners’ perceptions on not only learning motivation 21.

(35) but also listening anxiety with the presence of FTAs in the co-teaching classes. Moreover, all the participants were required to take a listening test at the beginning and end of the school year, aiming to keep track of their learning progress in listening after being exposed to native speaking teachers in English in classes. However, only 83 participants did return valid questionnaires and take listening tests at the beginning and end of the school year. A total of 83 reliable data received from these participants was further used in quantitative analysis. They included 35 (42.2%) male students and 48 (57.8%) female students. To further investigate the learners’ motivation and listening anxiety change, classroom observations and formal interviews were done to explore the specific impact FTAs have on learner motivation and listening anxiety. Informal conversations immediately before and after the class were conducted to learn more about learners’ perceptions. Lastly, a total number of twelve students were chosen for interview. They were four students of the active group, four students of the quiet group, and four students of the asking for teachers’ help group. More detailed information about the selection of the three groups of students was presented in the section below. These interviewees were coded as pseudo names. Anna, Alex, Ben, and Bonnie were students of the active group. Cathy, Colin, Dave and Doris were students of the quiet group. Elsa, Edward, Felix and Flora were students of the asking for help group.. 3.3 Instruments In response to the quantitative and qualitative design of the study, three distinct instruments were adopted. For quantitative data, questionnaire, on the motivation and listening anxiety, and listening test were utilized. Qualitative data were obtained through classroom observations, interviews, and informal conversations. Diverse instruments allowed the researcher to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data so that the impact of FTAs on English learning was more specifically investigated. 22.

(36) 3.3.1 Quantitative data 3.3.1.1 Questionnaire Combining the two sections adapted from The AMTB and FLCAS as well as FLLAS, the questionnaire was designed to probe into learners’ perceptions of learning motivation and listening anxiety with the presence of the FTAs in co-teaching context. The formal questionnaire (see Appendix A) contained three parts: (a) background information, (b) motivation scale (from No.1 to No.20 items), and (c) listening anxiety scale (from No.21 to No.26 items). The background information was designed to indicate their demographic data (e.g., class, number, name, gender) and relevant language learning history, such as years of learning English and previous learning experience with native-speaking English teachers. The motivation scale used in this study consisted of an adapted The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) established by Gardner (1985). The AMTB, originally composed in English and made up of over 130 items, has been adapted for many learning contexts all over the world (Dornyei, 2010). One modification of the Chinese version of The AMTB was done by Yen (2016) for the purpose of investigating the impact of FTAs on Taiwanese learners’ motivational changes toward English learning. The motivation scale in her study consisted of 20items and had an estimated internal reliability of .894 (Crobach’s Alpha), which shows a high level of internal consistency among the 20 items. As the motivation scale in Yen’s (2016) study fitted the context of this study, the researcher used it as a tool to examine the motivation of the learners as they were taught by FTAs. In addition, to elicit the participants’ anxiety toward listening, this study adapted from two commonly used listening anxiety questionnaires and the statements were generally taken from each of the questionnaire in order to form the listening anxiety scale employed in this study. One was from Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’ (1986) 23.

(37) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), consisting of 33 items. The FLCAS is considered the most prestigious questionnaire measuring learners’ perceptions of language anxiety in foreign classroom setting and is modified by various researchers (Phillips, 1992; Saito et al, 1999; Cheng et al., 1999). Because the participants in this study usually listened to FTAs’ English-medium instruction, out of 33 items, only one item in the FLCAS was chosen which directly measuring whether the participants suffered from listening anxiety toward the spoken target language messages. Another questionnaire was from Elkhafafi’s (2005) Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (FLLAS), consisting of 20 items. The FLLAS is recognized as a reliable questionnaire to specifically measure the FL learners’ perceptions of listening anxiety and have been used by many researchers (Cheng, 2007; Gonen, 2009; Xu, 2013; Zhang. 2013). Out of 20 items, 4 items in the FLLAS were adopted because they matched the participants’ learning situation that being exposed to the spoken language provided by FTAs and usually receiving a lot of input. To meet the needs of the participants in this study, five items selected from FLCAS and FLLAS were modified. Modifications were as follows: (a) One item (i.e., statement 4) in the FLCAS was adapted in this study. For this study, the words “the teacher” and “foreign language” were replaced by “FTA” and “English” respectively. That is, statement 4: “It frightens me when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language”, was altered as “It frightens me when I don’t understand what the FTA is saying in English.” (b) As for the four items (i.e., item 2, 3, 14, 15) in the FLLAS, the words “Arabic” and “the speaker” were replaced by “English” and “the FTA” respectively. For example, statement 2: “When I listen to Arabic, I often 24.

(38) understand the words but still can't quite understand what the speaker is saying”, was altered as “When I listen to English, I often understand the words but still can't quite understand what the FTA is saying.” In addition, since the aim of this study was to explore students’ own perception of listening anxiety, the word “you” was replaced by “I.” Statement 14, for instance, “Once you get used to it, listening to Arabic is not so difficult” was changed into “Once I get used to it, listening to English is not so difficult.” Furthermore, the researcher of this study added one statement related to listening test anxiety in the scale, that is, “I am usually at ease during listening tests in my English class.” Because the participants needed to take the listening section in CAP in the future and taking listening tests is recognized as a source of listening anxiety for FL learners (Chang, 2008), it would be worthwhile to examine whether the learners’ anxiety level at listening test would be reduced after being exposed to FTAs in English for a long term. Last but not least, the researcher of this study classified the total of 6 items into two categories: anxiety level while listening to English spoken language and selfperception of English listening, as presented in Table 1. To ensure that the participants Table 1 Statement Types in the Listening Anxiety Scale Category. Example. Statement number. Anxiety level while listening to English. The hardest part of learning English is learning to understand spoken English.. No.21, 23, 25. Once I get used to it, listening to English is not so difficult.. No.22, 24, 26. spoken language Self-perception of English listening. 25.

(39) could understand listening anxiety scale with a total of 6 items, it was translated into Chinese. A pilot study was held to ensure the consistency and the reliability of 6 items on the listening anxiety scale used in the current study. The pilot study involved sixtyone students, who have attended an English class with the presence of an FTA. No statements were needed to be revised and the reliability was acceptable. More detailed elaboration of the pilot study is presented in the section below. 3.3.1.2 Listening test Since this study was also interested in how FTAs contributed to learners’ performance in listening, a listening test to identify their ability was needed. In the academic assessment field, validity is defined as the extent to which an assessment accurately measures what intends to measure (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). It was also the criteria for the researcher to choose a valid listening test that could appropriately measure what learners have learned, that is, daily spoken English taught by FTAs. The listening test in this study was modified by standardized tests as references, such TOEFL Junior tests and Cambridge English: Young Learners (YLE) tests, with the aim of measuring the progression of the learners on listening performance so that the impact of FTAs on listening ability could be more specifically examined. The thirty-minute listening test was served as the first and the second test in this study. It was a tape-based aural test composed of thirty questions. For example, one of the questions, students were required to draw a line to match the conversation heard to the correct picture. The scripts were recorded in advance by one male and one female graduate student who majored in TESOL. All the instructions in the test were given in both English and Chinese. Questions were written and spoken in English. The 30 questions were stated twice. 3.3.2 Qualitative approach 3.3.2.1 Classroom Observations 26.

(40) In order to understand how learners’ motivation and listening anxiety would change over time with the presence of FTAs in the co-teaching context, classroom observations were carried out at least once every month for every school and for one period of class (i.e., 45 minutes). Classroom observations could give the researcher more insights into quantitative results. For example, the participants reported they enjoyed FTAs’ classes in the questionnaire (Statement 12: I feel that classes with foreign teachers are more interesting and fun.). The phenomena found from classroom observations, such as a relaxing classroom atmosphere through using authentic materials and the students’ intentional opposite responses or jokes to the FTA, were the possible reasons for the students’ positive perception of the FTAs’ class to the questionnaire. In addition, in response to the research questions, the researcher paid more attention on interaction between the FTAs and learners, learners’ motivation towards English learning, learners’ reactions towards topic lessons, learners’ listening anxiety, and kinds of the support or assistance the FTAs provided to learners, etc. The classroom observations were audio-recorded. The recordings were transcribed after class. 3.3.2.2 Interviews and Informal Conversations In order to clarify questions found in classroom observations, and to obtain further information on learners’ English-learning motivation and listening anxiety, semi-structured interviews, in which the interviewer prepared a list of questions in advance with the flexibility of adding more questions when needed (Weiss, 1995), were also used in this study. The list of interview questions is in Appendix B. The interviewee’s selection was based on separating students into each of the three categories. The reason was that during the classroom observations students in each school could be broadly dived into three types of behaviors: active, quiet, and asking 27.

(41) for teachers’ help. The active students were often talkative and voluntarily responded to FTA’s questions. Those who were shy and often not involved in the class were considered to be the quiet type. The students who often asked FTAs to check his/her answers during the activity were grouped as the third type of students labeled asking for teachers’ help. Based on the behaviors, students were put into one of the three groups according to the researcher’s own field work. Out of each group, students were selected based on FTAs’ recommendation of the person to be interviewed and the balance of gender. Finally, six students, who were active, quiet and often asking for teachers’ help in the class from each school were interviewed formally and informally outside the classroom. The researcher recorded all the interviews and analyzed the interview data in a coding process. First, the recordings were transcribed. Next, they were grouped together based on different questions. Then, content analysis was done to find out certain patterns. Besides, the researcher made use of informal conversations before and after class. Informal conversations before the class were used to know learners’ English learning process in daily lives and their feelings of FTAs’ instruction. As for the informative conversations after the class, they were utilized to understand learners’ perceptions toward an incident at specific moments. Learners were asked to reflect upon what they were thinking and why they reacted that way. Since speech was quite transient, informal conversation were recorded and transcribed afterwards. 3.3.2.1.1 Field Notes and Audio Recordings Field notes were taken during classroom observations, interviews, and informal conversations for the purpose of having a more detailed and rich description of learners’ learning context, such as the FTA’s instructional practices and classroom atmosphere. Learners’ interaction with FTAs and peers as well as nonverbal reactions such as facial expression, and gestures were also recorded in the field notes. Field 28.

(42) notes were not only served as a reminder of topics that could be discussed with learners after class but also provided more insight into what have had an impact on learners’ motivation towards English learning and listening anxiety. The researcher used a digital recorder. All classroom observations, interviews, and informal conversations were recorded once the participants’ permission was granted.. 3.4 Data Collection Procedures Quantitative data were collected through the first and the second questionnaires and listening tests, while qualitative data were gathered through classroom observation, interviews, informal conversations, field notes, and audio recordings. At the preparation stage, original Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) developed by Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’ (1986) and Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (FLLAS) designed by Elkhafaifi (2005) were generally adapted considering the focus of the study and the learners’ background. In order to ensure the reliability and validity of the modified listening anxiety scale, a pilot test was administered to sixty-one students, who have attended an English class with the presence of an FTA. The modified listening anxiety scale using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reveals high internal consistency (α=.705). Please refer to Table 2. Table 2 Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of the Adapted FLCAS & FLLAS Questionnaire in Pilot Study Questionnaire. No. of items. Cronbach’s α coefficient (No. of responses). Adapted FLCAS & FLLAS. 6. .705 (61). The result showed that a high level of internal consistency among the 6 items and 29.

(43) confirmed that this adapted FLCAS and FLLAS scale was reliable. The listening test was also completed at this stage. The listening test and CD were compiled at the same time. At the beginning of the school year, the first questionnaire (motivation and listening anxiety scale) for the learners was given to the two designated schools, where co-teaching program was implemented. FTAs helped to distribute the questionnaire in the four co-teaching classes and the questionnaire took learners approximately ten minutes to finish. In the same month, the participants would have to take the first listening test so as to investigate their listening performance with the presence of FTAs. Learners would not be allowed to read the content of the listening test until the initiation of the test. The listening test were conducted in the whole class and lasted approximately 30 minutes. During the test, the students were asked to follow the instructions given by the speakers from the CD. During the school year, the researcher did periodic classroom observations, took field notes, and audio-recorded the class with the permission of teachers (both FTA and LET) and school administration. Also, informal conversations with learners would be done before and after class. The former was used to get information about learners’ daily English learning situation and their perceptions of FTAs’ instruction; the latter was used to clarify anything interesting or confusing incidents in the class and to avoid researcher’s over-interpretations of students’ in-class responses or reactions At the end of the school year, the participants would be required to complete the same questionnaire and listening test, which also served as the second questionnaire and the second listening test of the study. In addition, six students, who were active, quiet and often asking for teachers’ help in the class, from every school observed by the researcher, were invited to have several ongoing formal and informal interviews 30.