透過Quizlet應用程式學習字彙之個案研究：以台灣高中生為例

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master’s Thesis Department of English National Taiwan Normal University. 透過 Quizlet 應用程式學習字彙之個案研究：以臺灣高中生為例 A Case Study on Taiwanese Senior High School Students’ Learning of Vocabulary Through Quizlet. 指導教授：曾. 俊. 傑博士. Advisor: Dr. Jun-Jie Tseng 研究生：林淑芬 Gradute: Shu-Fen Lin. 中華民國一百零七年七月 July, 2018.

(2) 中文摘要本研究目的是以行動載具透過 Quizlet 的應用程式，在第二外語教室情境內評估成效以探討學習者動機、學習成效與感受。臺灣某高中兩個班級共七十二位十一年級學生參與本次研究，其中一班三十六位組成實驗組，實驗組透過手機 Quizlet 應用程式或 Quizlet 網站進行字彙學習並透過 Quizlet 測驗模式進行字彙測驗，每週一次；此外，另一班三十六位學生為對照組，上課時藉由紙本字彙卡做字彙學習，並做字彙測試，每週進行測驗時間與實驗組相同。實驗前，兩組先做字彙選擇題前測以了解兩組學生的先備知識與英文程度。字彙練習六週後即進行後測，藉以了解學生字彙學習的成效，後測結束後一週做延宕後測以了解兩組學生字彙學習的持久性。實驗組另外於延宕後測後進行問卷調查、反省報告與訪談，以深入了解學生對於使用 Quizlet 學習字彙的學習動機是否提升與學習後的學生感受如何。研究結果顯示出，實驗組與對照組在字彙習得皆有進步。並且，無論是後測與延宕後測，實驗組學生的進步分數皆高於對照組，且達到顯著差異。實驗組學生的問卷調查、反省報告與訪談中大部分學生對於運用 Quizlet 學習字彙持積極正面的態度；他們認為 Quizlet 當中的配對與拼字遊戲增加學習字彙的動機，並認為 Quizlet 的電子閃示卡中，圖片有助聯想字彙字義並延長記憶。Quizlet 中的即時回饋有助於增加學習信心，並可幫助學生即時修正錯誤。部分學生指出未來會繼續使用 Quizlet 學習字彙，少部分學生的回饋中指出使用 Quizlet 的缺點或未來可能不使用的原因，對於未來研究與教學上的啟示均在研究中討論。關鍵字：行動載具、學習動機、電子閃示卡. i.

(3) ABSTRACT This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of using the Quizlet app through mobile devices in an EFL classroom situation to investigate learners’ motivation, learning effects, and perceptions. Seventy-two eleventh grade students in a senior high school in Taiwan participated in the study. Thirty-six students in one class formed the experimental group. They were requested to use Quizlet through mobile phones or computers to learn target words and use the Test mode through Quizlet to test their vocabulary acquisition once a week. Thirty-six students in the other class were in the control group. They were requested to learn the target words through paper flashcards and taking vocabulary quizzes a week. The testing time was the same with the experimental group. Before the treatment, all participants took a vocabulary pretest to record their prior knowledge and English level. After six weeks of interventions, all participants took another test to determine how much progress they had made acquiring the target words. One week after the post-test, a delayed post-test was conducted to explore vocabulary retention. Afterwards, a motivation and perception questionnaire, a reflection report, and interviews were administered with the experimental group only to further explore whether the use of Quizlet motivated students’ vocabulary learning and what their perceptions were towards the use of Quizlet. The results showed that the participants in both groups made significant progress on vocabulary tests. Additionally, in terms of mean gain of vocabulary scores post-test and the delayed post-test, the experimental group significantly ii.

(4) outperformed the control group. From the questionnaire, the reflection report, and the interviews, most of the students expressed positive and favorable attitudes towards the use of Quizlet. They thought that the games in Quizlet increased their learning motivation, and the pictures provided by Quizlet helped prolong the retention of the target words. The instant feedback in Quizlet helped their vocabulary learning, enhanced their confidence, and corrected their mistakes immediately. Some participants stated that they would continue to use Quizlet in the future; others pointed out some of the drawbacks of the app. A small number of students described why they would not use Quizlet any more. The implications of this study on future research and teaching are also discussed in this study. Key words: mobile devices, learning motivation, digital flashcards. iii.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Professor Jun-Jie Tseng for his continuous support and patience. His guidance helped me during both the research and writing of this thesis. Without his supervision and constant help, this thesis would not have been possible. Besides my advisor, I would like to give my special and hearty thanks to my committee members, Professor Mei-Lan Lo and Professor Ping-Ju Chen for their encouragement, insightful comments, and professional guidance. I would like to express my appreciation to all those who made the completion of my thesis possible. Very special gratitude goes to my classmates Emma and Katrina, whose valuable feedback and constant encouragement helped me keep on writing my thesis, and Joanna and Tina for sharing their writing experiences and assistance. Moreover, I am grateful to my special friends Michael and Eleanor for providing me with many good ideas and suggestions. In addition, I give thanks to my colleagues Erin and Jay and my friends who have supported me along the way. I am also so thankful to my students who helped me accomplish my study. Last but not least, many thanks go to my family: my parents, siblings, my supportive husband Jason and my children Terry and Bella for their spiritual support.. iv.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHINESE ABSTRACT --------------------------------------------------------------------- i ENGLISH ABSTRACT --------------------------------------------------------------------- ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------- iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------- v LIST OF TABLES --------------------------------------------------------------------------- viii LIST OF FIGURES -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ----------------------------------------------------------- 1 1.2 Purpose of the Study ---------------------------------------------------------------- 3 1.3 Significance of the Study----------------------------------------------------------- 4 1.4 Research Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 6 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW --------------------------------------------- 7 2.1 Vocabulary Learning -------------------------------------------------------------- 7 2.1.1 The Significance of Vocabulary Learning -------------------------------- 8 2.1.2 Strategies of Vocabulary Learning ----------------------------------------- 8 2.2 Technology-Enhanced Vocabulary Teaching and Learning ------------------ 9 2.2.1 Vocabulary Gains With Paper and Digital Flashcards ------------------ 10 2.2.2 Gamification of Vocabulary Teaching and Learning -------------------- 14 2.2.3 Dual Coding Theory (recall) and the Concreteness Effect (retention) on Vocabulary Learning ---------------------------------------------------- 17 2.3 Students’ Motivation to Learn Vocabulary Through Mobile Devices ------- 19 2.4 Effectiveness (Retention) of Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Through Mobile Devices ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 2.5 Perceptions of Vocabulary Learning Through Mobile Devices -------------- 22 2.6 The Features of Quizlet------------------------------------------------------------- 24 2.6.1 Empirical Studies on Vocabulary Learning Through Quizlet ---------- 25 2.7 Summary ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY -------------------------------------------------- 32 3.1 Participants --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32 3.2 The Research Setting --------------------------------------------------------------- 32 3.3 Materials ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33 3.4 The Quizlet Interface --------------------------------------------------------------- 33 v.

(7) 3.5 Instruments --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41 3.5.1 Pretest/Post-test/Delayed Post-test ----------------------------------------- 41 3.5.2 Questionnaire ----------------------------------------------------------------- 43 3.5.3 Reflection Report ------------------------------------------------------------- 44 3.5.4 Interview ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 3.6 Data Collection Procedures -------------------------------------------------------- 45 3.7 Data Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS -------------------------------------------------------------- 49 4.1 Analysis of Students’ Motivation with Quizlet --------------------------------- 49 4.1.1 5-point Likert Scale Questionnaire about Students’ Motivation ------ 49 4.1.2 Results of Students’ Reflection Reports about Motivation ------------- 52 4.1.3 Results of the Interviews about Motivation ------------------------------- 55 4.1.4 Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------- 57 4.2 The Effects of Vocabulary Learning with Quizlet ------------------------------ 57 4.2.1 Results of the Pretest, Post-test, and Delayed Post-test ----------------- 57 4.2.1.1 Comparison of the Vocabulary Pretest Between the Two Groups ------------------------------------------------------------------- 59 4.2.1.2 Comparison of the Vocabulary Post-test Between the Two Groups ----------------------------------------------------------------- 59 4.2.1.3 Comparison of the Vocabulary Delayed Post-test Between the Two Groups -------------------------------------------------------- 60 4.2.2 Results of Students’ Reflection Reports about Effects ------------------ 61 4.2.3 Results of the Interviews about Effects ------------------------------------ 62 4.2.4 Summary----------------------------------------------------------------------- 64 4.3 Analysis of Perceptions of Vocabulary Learning with Quizlet --------------- 64 4.3.1 5-point Likert Scale Questions about Students’ Perceptions of Quizlet ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64 4.3.2 Results of Students’ Reflection Reports about Perceptions------------- 67 4.3.3 Results of the Interviews about Perceptions ------------------------------ 69 4.3.3.1 Results of Interview Questions 4, 5, and 6 ------------------------ 70 4.3.4 Summary----------------------------------------------------------------------- 72 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ------------------------------- 74 5.1 Summary of Major Findings ----------------------------------------------------- 74 5.1.1 Discussion of Research Question 1 ---------------------------------------- 74 vi.

(8) 5.1.2 Discussion of Research Question 2 ---------------------------------------- 76 5.1.3 Discussion of Research Question 3 ---------------------------------------- 77 5.2 Pedagogical Implications----------------------------------------------------------- 78 5.3 Limitations of the Research ------------------------------------------------------ 79 5.4 Recommendations for Future Research ------------------------------------------ 80 REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82 Appendix A: 128Words of Levels Three to Six From Lessons1-6 Long-Teng Textbook, Book 4 ------------------------------------------------------------ 90 Appendix B: Pretest ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 92 Appendix C: Post-test/Delayed Post-test-------------------------------------------------- 95 Appendix D: Questionnaire --------------------------------------------------------------- 98 Appendix E: Reflection Report ----------------------------------------------------------- 103 Appendix F: Interview Questions ---------------------------------------------------------- 105. vii.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32 Table 2 Number of the Target Words ----------------------------------------------------- 42 Table 3 Number of Words Available ------------------------------------------------------ 43 Table 4 Teaching Procedures Over Eight Weeks ---------------------------------------- 46 Table 5 Instruments and Data Analysis for the Three Research Questions ---------- 48 Table 6 Means and Percentages of Students’ Motivation Questionnaire with Quizlet ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51 Table 7 Descriptive Statistics of the Vocabulary Tests --------------------------------- 58 Table 8 Independent Sample t-Test of the Vocabulary Pretest ------------------------ 59 Table 9 Paired-Sample t-test of the Vocabulary Post-test ------------------------------ 60 Table 10 Paired-Sample t-Test of the Vocabulary Delayed Post-test ----------------- 61 Table 11 Means and Percentages of Students’ Perceptions Questionnaire With Quizlet ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66. viii.

(10) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The Arrangement of Quizlet Website with 7 Modes ------------------------ 34 Figure 2. Flashcard Mode: A Digital-Flashcard of a Picture and an Example Sentence -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 Figure 3. Flashcard Mode: a Digital-Flashcard of a New Word ----------------------- 35 Figure 4. Learn Mode: Typing the Correct Word ---------------------------------------- 36 Figure 5. Immediate Feedback from the Learn Mode ----------------------------------- 36 Figure 6. Speller Mode ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 37 Figure 7. Test Mode: Five Fill-in-the-Blank Questions --------------------------------- 37 Figure 8. Test Mode: Five Multiple Choice Questions --------------------------------- 38 Figure 9. Test Mode: Five True/False Questions ---------------------------------------- 38 Figure 10. Test Mode: Five Matching Questions ---------------------------------------- 38 Figure 11. Immediate Feedback from Test ----------------------------------------------- 39 Figure 12. Scatter Mode: A Matching Game --------------------------------------------- 39 Figure 13. Gravity Mode: A Typing Game ----------------------------------------------- 40 Figure 14. Live Mode: Only for Group Work -------------------------------------------- 41 Figure 15. Data Collection Procedures ---------------------------------------------------- 45 Figure 16. Mean Scores of Overall Vocabulary Test: Comparison Between Groups ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58. ix.

(11) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Senior high school students are often under pressure to memorize a considerable amount of vocabulary when preparing for the General Scholastic Ability Test (GSAT) and Advanced Subject Test (AST), the entrance exams for colleges in Taiwan. Vocabulary load is the most important predictor of text difficulty (Shen, 2009), and insufficient vocabulary knowledge is the largest obstacle for second language readers (Huckin & Bloch, 1993). Lack of vocabulary knowledge hinders reading comprehension, which influences students’ performance on the tests. Therefore, methods to help students increase their vocabulary effectively need to be further explored. Language learners tend to feel that learning vocabulary is not easy because they have difficulty memorizing a large number of words (Schmitt, 2008). Some learners work hard to memorize a significant amount of lexical items by using books that contain long lists of vocabulary items and exercises. For example, when senior high school students in Taiwan prepare for the college entrance exams, some of them simply memorize vocabulary words alphabetically from the approximately 6000-word list suggested by the College Entrance Examination Center (CEEC). However, they complain that such a large amount of vocabulary imposes a heavy burden on them. In particular, they quickly forget words they just learned (Chen & Chung, 2008; Hu & Deng, 2007; Mondria & Mondria-de Vries, 1994). It is obvious that memorizing many items is a daunting task to them. This problem motivated the researcher to 1.

(12) improve students’ vocabulary learning. With the development of technology-enhanced mobile devices, traditional vocabulary teaching and learning emphasizing rote memorization seems less interesting for the new generation of students. Due to the impact of technology and globalization, English education is no exception. The initial research on mobile learning in education demonstrated a number of drawbacks to or limits on the use of mobile devices. These disadvantages include having a small screen, inconvenient keypad, limited processing power, low resolution of the displays, limited memory capacity, the high cost of the Internet for mobile phones, and not having modern mobile phones for vocabulary learning (Azabdaftari & Mozaheb, 2012; Holzinger, Nischelwitzer,. &. Meisenberger,. 2005;. Stockwell,. 2007).. However,. with. developments in technology, these circumstances have improved. Small screen size has been solved with the advent of big touchscreen mobile phones, helping ESL learners to enjoy using mobile learning for vocabulary acquisition (Azabdaftari & Mozaheb, 2012). Moreover, it is believed that employing mobile learning in the L2 setting has many advantages (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009). For example, mobile phones have provided an opportunity to learn vocabulary outside of classroom walls anytime and anywhere with remarkable advantages, not only through communication, but also by adding entertainment to the learning process (Basoglu & Akdemir, 2010 ; Zengning, 2011). Burston (2015) stated that more sophisticated and affordable smartphones and tablet computers surmount technological economic restrictions, and attention has turned to use mobile devices as language teaching tools. Azabdaftari and Mozaheb (2012) noted that there are several advantages for using mobile phones in 2.

(13) vocabulary learning. First, students can use spare time to learn vocabulary anytime and anywhere. Second, learners can receive instant and immediate feedback when they submit their answers, which makes the use of mobile phones in vocabulary learning become enjoyable. Third, mobile learning can increase the interaction among learners. Regardless of the aforementioned benefits presented by researchers, little research has been conducted to investigate technology-enhanced vocabulary learning of English by senior high school students in Taiwan. The reasons are as follows. First, due to teachers’ tight teaching schedules, few teachers are willing to implement technology-enhanced vocabulary programs for English in their teaching curricula. Second, teachers are prone to rely on old-fashioned methods thinking that students need to learn from paper flashcards or word lists and to take vocabulary tests to memorize vocabulary instead of utilizing a more effective approach to increase students’ vocabulary size. Third, many teachers may feel it is inconvenient and time-consuming either to apply technology to their classes or to turn to their administrative staff for technological resources. In order to bridge the research gap, the present study aims to investigate how the use of an app called Quizlet can affect students’ vocabulary learning, especially regarding students’ motivation, effectiveness, perceptions, and their attitudes toward learning vocabulary via mobile devices. It is hoped that the findings of the research will shed light on English vocabulary education in Taiwan. 1.2 Purpose of the Study Traditional techniques such as presenting new vocabulary in class or requiring 3.

(14) students to memorize word lists seem out of date (Read, 2004). In order to enhance students’ motivation to increase their vocabulary sizes, the present study utilized the digital ﬂashcard application Quizlet to improve students’ retention when encountering new vocabulary in their textbooks or supplementary reading materials. Quizlet's features include providing teachers with target words, pictures, L1 glosses/ definitions/examples, and audio capabilities to teach pronunciation, and providing students with word games. Such games include digital flashcards and word games that can be used anywhere, including outside of the classroom. The purpose is to see whether using technology has a significant impact on vocabulary acquisition. 1.3 Significance of the Study The problems of learning vocabulary are indicated below, followed by the solutions offered in the present study. First, students’ low motivation to learn vocabulary impedes their second language learning. Motivation plays a vital role in learning a second language (Gardner, 2007). Teachers must come up with effective approaches to facilitate students’ learning. If teachers use effective ways to teach vocabulary, it boosts students’ motivation to learn it. To this end, the present study seeks to promote students’ motivation by utilizing digital flashcards featuring games which can add fun to students’ learning. Second, the online flash-card tool utilized in the present study could help students in a variety of ways, such as by recycling words, using pictorial vocabulary learning, playing word games, providing vocabulary examples, listening to the pronunciation of the target words and example sentences, completing fill-in 4.

(15) vocabulary tasks, and taking vocabulary tests. Some studies have evaluated the effectiveness of using Quizlet in learning vocabulary (Barr, 2016; Chien, 2013; Dizon, 2016; Dreyer; 2014; Özer & Koçoğlu, 2017). However, they have also pointed out shortcomings in their methodology, including a lack of quantitative data (Chien, 2013), no control group (Dizon, 2014), too small a sample size to show significant (Dreyer, 2014), and no qualitative research (Barr, 2016; Özer & Koçoğlu, 2017). Barr (2016) noted that there are several options available when considering the format of flashcards. Using second language definitions or synonyms on the reverse side of word cards may distract learners from understanding lexical items. Furthermore, repetition of isolated vocabulary is helpful for learning spelling and forms, but it is insufficient to help learners understand how to use words (de Groot, 2006). To bridge the gap, the present study employs example sentences on the second side of word cards, with pictures related to the target words or the example sentences to convey the definitions of the abstract target words. They should improve comprehension and should help learners how to use words. Third, with the development of new technologies, it has become unavoidable for every to accept the new digital world. In fact, research on Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has shown that the use of technology in learning vocabulary is an effective approach for EFL students (Altiner, 2011; Azabdaftari & Mozaheb, 2012; Dreyer, 2014; McLean, Hogg, & Rush, 2013). This field of research has mostly indicated that students using MALL outperformed nonusers and held positive attitudes toward MALL. Little is known about users’ perceptions of learning vocabulary. Some research has indicated that future studies of vocabulary learning 5.

(16) methods should not only examine long-term retention of new vocabulary, but also take the perspectives of learners into consideration (Hirschel & Fritz, 2013). Therefore, the present study aims to shed light on students’ perceptions of using Quizlet in order to provide language teachers and course designers with vocabulary teaching aids. 1.4 Research Questions There are three research goals the study aims to achieve: first, to determine how the element of fun in Quizlet increases students’ motivation in vocabulary learning; second, to examine the effectiveness of using Quizlet in vocabulary learning; and third, to analyze students’ perceptions and their attitudes toward learning vocabulary via mobile phones. The study addresses the following research questions: 1. Does using Quizlet make students feel more motivated? If so, how are the students motivated? 2. What is the effect of using Quizlet on students’ vocabulary learning? 3. What are students’ perceptions of learning vocabulary with Quizlet? In Chapter One, the background of the study related to the use of Quizlet was described, along with the purpose of the study and possible contributions. In Chapter Two, studies related to L2 vocabulary learning and teaching, as well as the application of mobile technology to vocabulary learning and teaching, are reviewed, with emphasis on Quizlet in particular.. 6.

(17) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The present study will review relevant literature as a theoretical reference. The chapter consists of six sections. The first section presents literature on vocabulary learning, including the significance of vocabulary learning and strategies of vocabulary learning. The second section reviews studies on technology-enhanced vocabulary teaching and learning, including vocabulary improvements with paper or digital flashcards, gamification of vocabulary teaching and learning, and the Dual Coding Theory and the effect of concreteness on vocabulary learning. The third section details studies on students’ motivation to learn vocabulary through mobile devices. The fourth section states studies on the effectiveness of vocabulary learning through mobile devices. The fifth section describes studies on students’ perceptions of vocabulary learning through mobile devices. The sixth section presents empirical studies on vocabulary learning through Quizlet. 2.1 Vocabulary Learning Stahl (2005) stated that “Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world” (p. 95). Vocabulary learning offers students opportunities to communicate with the world. Moreover, vocabulary plays an essential role in L2 learning and is a key factor to influence students’ learning. This section will review the significance of vocabulary learning and strategies of vocabulary teaching and learning.. 7.

(18) 2.1.1 The Significance of Vocabulary Learning "If language structure makes up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and flesh" (Hammer, 1991, p. 153). That is to say, vocabulary is the center of language and of greatest importance to language learners (Alqahtani, 2015; Gu, 2003; Maximo, 2003; Nation, 1990; Nation, 2001; Read, 2000; Zimmerman, 1997). It is considered an essential building block of language (Azabdaftari & Mozaheb, 2012; Schmitt, 2008; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001). Thornbury (2002) and Zengning (2011) quoted from linguist David Wilkins, saying that “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (as cited in Thornbuty, 2002, p. 13). Furthermore, learning vocabulary is essential in mastering a second language (Schmitt, 2008). Vocabulary knowledge has an impact on L2 learners’ language proficiency that is a prerequisite to master a language (Altiner, 2011). The size of a learner's vocabulary determines his language competence (Averianova, 2015). Vocabulary knowledge is often regarded as a crucial tool for second language learners because insufficient vocabulary in a second language hinders effective communication (Alqahtani, 2015). These notions highlight the importance of vocabulary and how it plays a vital role in language comprehension and communication. Therefore, how to teach and learn vocabulary effectively becomes indispensible, especially for EFL teachers and learners. The following subsections describe studies that detail effective vocabulary learning strategies. 2.1.2 Strategies of Vocabulary Learning Learning vocabulary involves understanding word meaning, connecting meaning with form, and developing productive and receptive skills (Nation, 2001). 8.

(19) Several researchers have provided strategies for teachers to overcome the difficulties that students have encountered. Examples include reviewing and recycling vocabulary regularly (Laufer, Meara, & Nation, 2005; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995), using word cards/flashcards (Joklová, 2009; Laufer et al., 2005; Mondria-de Vries, 1994; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995), providing vocabulary exercises and activities (Laufer et al., 2005; Nam, 2010), keeping vocabulary notebooks to increase vocabulary size (Laufer et al., 2005; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995), offering pictorial vocabulary teaching (Joklová, 2009; Nam, 2010), using multimedia (Hu & Deng, 2007; Yeh & Wang, 2003), playing vocabulary games (Hu & Deng, 2007), providing vocabulary examples (Sedita, 2005), completing controlled fill-in vocabulary tasks (Nam, 2010), and giving vocabulary tests (Laufer et al., 2005; Nation & Newton, 1997). These effective strategies of vocabulary learning are applied in Quizlet. Quizlet features reviewing vocabulary repeatedly, using digital flashcards with pictures, providing vocabulary exercises, games and activities, completing controlled fill-in vocabulary tasks, and giving vocabulary tests. The present study will employ the advantages that Quizlet possesses with the aim of facilitating students’ vocabulary learning. 2.2 Technology-Enhanced Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Mobile technologies have provided a number of convenient learning possibilities to support quick feedback or reinforcement (Zengning, 2011). There are several types of recent mobile technologies including laptop computers and electronic dictionaries. However, mobile phones have begun to gain particular attention from educators (Stockwell, 2010).. 9.

(20) Many studies pointed out that mobile devices could be utilized in language learning. For example, Song and Fox (2005) used mobile learning with task-based language learning (TBLL) in an ESL setting and found a huge improvement in students’ performance. Mobile devices can be employed to develop not only lexical skills (Lu, 2008; Talarposhti & Pourgharib, 2014), but also grammar (Baleghizadeh & Oladrostam, 2010; Wang & Smith, 2013), L2 writing (Sato, Murase, & Burden, 2015), listening and speaking skills (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008), vocabulary learning through video games (Baierschmidt, 2013), short messages services (SMS) (Alemi, Sarab, & Lari, 2012; Lu, 2008; Rau, Gao, & Wu, 2008), digital learning resource (ELT apps) (Hita, 2016), using apps to develop oral and written competences (Hita, 2016), mobile apps (Steel, 2012), listening comprehension (Read & Bárcena, 2016), mobile language learning and massive open online courses (MOOCs) (Read, Bárcena, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2016), and vocabulary learning through mobile phones (Başoğlu & Akdemir, 2010; Nikoopoura & Kazemib, 2014; Zhang, Song, & Burston, 2011). 2.2.1 Vocabulary Gains With Paper and Digital Flashcards Language acquisition needs recycling or repetition (Nation, 2001; Schmitt. 2008). From the perspective of vocabulary learning, the most important point in teaching and learning vocabulary is the number of times of the target words that learners have learned, which is a factor that teachers manipulate through classroom activities (Folse, 2004). That is to say, the number and type of exposures affect learners’ vocabulary learning. A teaching method that provides multiple exposures to a word has been shown to improve vocabulary learning (Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). 10.

(21) Flashcards are portable and easy to use in various locations. The importance of the use of flashcards in vocabulary learning has been recognized since the first half of the 19th century. With the rapid innovation of technology in recent years, the power and versatility of flashcards have increased (Gardner, 2013). Traditional flashcards/notecards are pieces of paper which have a term written on one side and a definition or translation on the other side. Learners usually look at one side and attempt to recall the contents of the other side. As a replacement for traditional paper flashcards for vocabulary learning, digital flashcards for vocabulary learning have rapidly emerged. Both paper and digital vocabulary flashcards have advantages and disadvantages. According to Haycraft (1978) and Cross (1991), the advantages of using flashcards are as follows: they can be utilized to strengthen vocabulary; they are motivating, eye-catching, effective, and inexpensive; they can be used everywhere, studied at anytime, and provide a visual link between L1 and the target language; and they can be used for practicing structure or for various games. The advantages of traditional paper flashcards/notecards in particular may be as follows. First, users can write definitions or translations on one side of the paper, which engages them in memorization; second, users depend on their own knowledge to create card sets. Diouri (2009) stated that the advantages of paper-based flashcards are kinesthetic and personalized. The former means that users can touch and interact with the flashcards with a kinesthetic learning method and the latter means users can design their cards in a personalized and autonomous learning way. Based on students’ feedback from Diouri (2009), the advantages of digital flashcards/e-flashcards are that they are 11.

(22) portable, audio-based, visual, interactive, self-assessed, flexible, friendly to use, and come in a wide variety of options. However, the disadvantages are lack of an audio recording, difficult to organize, search, and browse and the sets are predictable. Başoğlu and Akdemir (2010) conducted a study with sixty undergraduate students in Turkey. These participants were divided into two groups. During a six-week period, thirty students who used mobile phones with the vocabulary program ECTACO Flash Cards were placed in the experimental group, while the other 30 students who used traditional vocabulary flashcards (new words on paper) acted as a control group. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used as a mixed-method study. The results showed that using a vocabulary learning program on students' mobile phones was more effective and entertaining than using flashcards on paper. The participants showed positive attitudes toward the use of mobile phones for vocabulary learning. The results provided two implications for learning vocabulary. One is that English vocabulary programs on mobile phones can be used as an activity outside the class, which provides students’ opportunities to learn at anytime and anywhere. The other is that although the control group also improved in vocabulary scores when they employed flashcards on paper, the mobile phone group with the vocabulary program outperformed the control group in vocabulary learning. The study suggested that further studies should explore the effects of utilizing vocabulary programs that possess visually intriguing screens and multimedia (pictures and sound). Another study of Nikoopoura and Kazemib (2014) employed digitized and non-digitized flashcards as vocabulary learning tools to evaluate 109 university 12.

(23) students’ vocabulary gains during a ten-week program. Participants were divided into three groups, using mobiles, online, and paper flashcards. After a pretest, students were asked to use 70 flashcards in a week, undergo biweekly progress tests, and take a post-test. The results were drawn from the collected data and feedback from participants through the post-test, questionnaire, and interview. It was found that when two digitized tools (mobile and online flashcards) were used, a significant difference in vocabulary learning was found. Mobile group outperformed online group. The researchers stated that it seemed to be due to the portability and high accessibility of mobile phones. Moreover, comparing digitized tools (mobile and online flashcards) with non-digitized ones (traditional paper-based flashcards), no significant difference in vocabulary learning was found. Furthermore, when comparing portable tools (mobile phone and paper flashcards) to non-portable ones (online flashcards), there was a significant difference in vocabulary learning. The difference was not due to being digitized or paper, but rather to the portability of the materials; online participants could not take their flashcards with them anytime and anywhere. According to the questionnaire and interview, students demonstrated a significant difference in their attitude toward using mobile phones. After the study, use of the program on mobile phones increased. The findings in accordance with the following related studies (Abdollapour & Asadzadeh Maleki, 2012; Başoğlu & Akdemir, 2010; Zhang, Song, & Burston, 2011). The study indicated that language learners' preference in using mobile phones for vocabulary learning. Students tend to have a positive attitude towards learning vocabulary if they are able to use mobile phones. Availability, ubiquity, and accessibility of mobile phones seem to have been 13.

(24) decisive factors, which motivated students to use them as vocabulary learning tool. According to Hung (2015), word cards or flashcards come in different forms, ranging from printed to digital. Although flashcards have long been employed in language classes, use of digital vocabulary flashcards and their pedagogical implications in educational technology have more recently kindled the interest of language researchers. However, their effects have not been thoroughly investigated. The present study therefore aims to explore the use of digital flashcards through Quizlet. 2.2.2 Gamification of Vocabulary Teaching and Learning The present study involved “fun” and the so-called “gamification” element. Zichermann and Cunningham (2011) defined the term “gmification” as “The process of using game-thinking and Game mechanics to engage users and solve problems” (p. xiv). Kapp (2012) also described Gamification as “using game-based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems” (p. 10). Gamification is an informal umbrella term for using video game elements in non-gaming systems to improve users’ experiences and engagement (Deterding, Sicart, Nacke, O'Hara, & Dixon, 2011). According to Werbach and Hunter (2012), “there is not a universally accepted definition of Gamification” (p. 26). Gamification uses game elements and game design techniques in non-game contexts. The primary goal of Gamification is to encourage participation and to motivate users through game elements like points, badges, leaderboards, progress bars/progression charts, performance graphs, levels, avatars, social elements,. 14.

(25) rewards, and instant feedback. All of these can be applied to any business or educational environment, including L2 teaching and learning (Flores, 2015). There have been several studies on how gamification can be applied to vocabulary teaching and learning. Yip and Kwan’s (2006) paper describes research on 100 engineering freshmen at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Participants were arbitrarily placed into six groups; three of which (classes A, B, and C) were randomly chosen as the experimental group and three (classes D, E, and F) as the control group. The experimental group was required to learn words selected from certain vocabulary websites, while the control group was required to learn the same vocabulary through activity-based lessons. In the study, each of the three teachers took the responsibilities of teaching one class in the experimental group and one class in the control group. Due to the varying teaching styles of the different teachers, the arrangement helped reduce a potential influence on the participants’ learning outcomes. All participants were asked to take a pretest and a post-test. The experimental group was given survey questionnaires and five participants from the experimental group were arbitrarily chosen to attend a group interview. The results indicated that learning with vocabulary websites including games was more effective than activity-based learning. Statistics showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the post-test. About 80% of the respondents thought the interfaces of the selected websites were well designed. More than 70% of respondents found the games to be enjoyable and the resources helpful. They also considered the games to be effective in vocabulary building.. 15.

(26) The results from a focus group interview with five learners also showed positive reinforcement. The repetition of the words in the games on vocabulary websites helped them remember the words and the simplicity of the games enabled them to build confidence. However, the interviewees suggested that the games requiring sophisticated game skills or games that demanded players to provide a timely answer might distract from learning or frustrate the players. They also recommended that the games should offer a continuous challenge. In spite of the above disadvantages of games, the five informants preferred using online vocabulary games to activity-based lessons. They thought the former was more fun. In another study, Baierschmidt (2013) investigated the potential benefits and risks of using digital games in the language classroom. The research employed the use of digital games and showed results promising increases in learners’ motivation, interest, and retention of information. Additionally, digital games have been successfully employed aiding in learners’ vocabulary acquisition, causing an increased willingness to communicate, and raising learners’ awareness of the audience when writing. Nonetheless, the researcher stated that when using video games for language learning, care must be taken since in certain situations video games may interfere with learning instead of facilitating it. Some students may focus on playing games instead of learning vocabulary attentively. Finally, the researcher presented three principles to assist language teachers with maximizing the potential benefits of using digital games while avoiding potential pitfalls. These are: choosing a game that helps learners to achieve the desired learning outcomes, providing. 16.

(27) supplementary materials to help learners focus on the language and allowing for an opportunity for reflection or called “debriefing” after the game is over. The present study adopted a similar approach by using the Quizlet’s website and adopting concepts similar to the above three principles. The present study used gamified online resources to help learners to learn more vocabulary and attain the course goals when they were reflecting or “debriefing.” The aforementioned studies detailed many aspects of the use of online games for vocabulary teaching and learning. The findings can be summarized as follows: First, online games are considered to be effective learning tools by students and teachers; second, when compared with face-to-face activity-based lessons, students were likely to favor online games as a vocabulary learning tool; Third, in order to boost students’ interest and learning effectiveness, more games that motivate students’ learning and developed students’ confidence are needed. 2.2.3 Dual Coding Theory (recall) and the Concreteness Effect (retention) on Vocabulary Learning The Dual Coding Theory (DCT) was proposed by Canadian psychologist Allan Paivio in 1971. This suggests that learning occurs through verbal and non-verbal processing, and that processing both types of information is better than use of just one. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing), while at the same time serving a symbolic function 17.

(28) with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this functional duality” (p. 53). The Dual Coding Theory produced some significant impacts on education. One hypothesis is that nonverbal and verbal codes are functionally independent, having additive effects on recall (Clark & Paivio, 1991). The following study indicated how visual effects influenced learners’ recall and memory. Soylu and Yelken (2014) examined the effects of dual coding theory through multimedia and context-availability methods on vocabulary learning in English. Sixty-one university students at Nigde University participated in their study. Although the results indicated that no significant difference was found between the two groups regarding vocabulary learning in English on post-test scores, qualitative research provided positive suggestions. For example, the dual coding group thought that the visual effects of the method (interesting pictures) could be useful for recalling the learned words after internalizing them; pictorial associations enabled students to remember the words readily and permanently, and some students stated that dual coding theory was more effective for learning adjectives than verbs or adverbs, and the method can be applied to other techniques. As for the context-availability group, most of participants indicated that the method made it difficult for them to deduce unknown words. Eight of them considered the method boring, but one student thought that it enabled that students to remember vocabulary without looking through the text. Therefore, multimedia learning was found to be more effective.. 18.

(29) In conclusion, pictures have value for comprehension, which is related to the nonverbal concept of DCT. The pictures applied in Quizlet also contribute to the additive effects of enhancing users’ memory and recall capability. Another issue affecting vocabulary learning is concreteness. Concreteness effects mean that, in various cognitive tasks, concrete nouns are processed faster and more accurately than abstract nouns (Jessen, Heun, Erb, Granath, Klose, Papassotiropoulos, & Grodd, 2000). Concreteness and imagery are beneficial to memory (Clark & Paivio, 1991). Schwanenflugel and Stowe (1989) provided an explanation of these concreteness effects. They pointed out that concrete nouns activate associative information, giving rise to faster recognition of the items. However, if abstract nouns are presented in a meaningful context with enough verbal information, abstract nouns are processed as rapidly as concrete nouns. Based on the above studies, the use of fill-in-gap example sentences and pictures which are present in Quizlet and used in the present study aims to enrich students’ cognition of abstract words. The fill-in-gap example sentences provide a context for learners to recall the target words, and the attached pictures increase learners’ understanding and the possibility of retaining abstract target words. 2.3 Students’ Motivation to Learn Vocabulary Through Mobile Devices This section reviews literature about motivating students for vocabulary learning especially in second language acquisition. Second language (L2) motivation is one of the most crucial factors determining the success of L2 accomplishment; it also provides the main momentum to learn L2. 19.

(30) Without sufficient motivation, learners cannot accomplish long-term goals (Dörnyei & Csizér, 1998). Similarly, teachers’ use of motivating strategies is related to students’ motivation and English achievements (Bernaus, Wilson, & Gardner, 2009). In Dörnyei and Csizér’s (1998) ten commandments for motivating language learners, they stated the importance of creating a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom, increasing the learners’ linguistic self-confidence, making the language classroom interesting, promoting learner autonomy, and personalizing the learning process. Hu and Deng (2007) indicated that when teachers teach vocabulary in the classroom, it is difficult for them to teach to all vocabulary words explicitly due to the complexity of the learning task. Additionally, teachers need to encourage students to develop their own vocabulary learning strategies to improve and manage their learning outside the classroom. With more sophisticated technologies, the wider application of technology in and out of classroom enhances students’ potential motivation (Stockwell, 2013). The purpose of doing research on motivation of vocabulary teaching and learning through mobile devices aims to illustrate that motivation is an indispensible factor in second language acquisition. In the era of advanced technologies, it is convenient for teachers to apply mobile devices to enhance students’ motivation on language learning. When students are learning vocabulary, simply wanting to learn new words is no guarantee that words will be remembered. A strong motivation makes a big difference. Learners who are highly motivated are likely to spend more time on rehearsal and practice, which will lead to positive effects.. 20.

(31) 2.4 Effectiveness (Retention) of Vocabulary Teaching and Learning Through Mobile Devices Many studies have showed that learners using mobile phones to learn vocabulary perform better, and most learners regarded these technologies as positive. One study conducted by Lu (2008) utilized short message service (SMS) to examine the effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phones and showed that students held positive attitudes towards mobile phones. Azabdaftari and Mozaheb (2012) examined two approaches to vocabulary learning: mobile learning and flashcards. Eighty undergraduates studying English literature and translation at BA level in a university in Tehran, Iran participated in the study. Their passing scores on the Konkoor (an annual university entrance examination held nationwide in Iran) showed that they were homogenous. Their average age was 20.5 and English proficiency based on TOEFL (IBT) was 90. Forty out of the eighty students were selected as the experimental group (those who used mobile learning) while the other forty were chosen as the control group (using flashcards). Quantitative and qualitative methods were conducted to study the effectiveness of using the two different strategies after 7 weeks. The mobile software Spaced Repetition System (SRS), a vocabulary acquisition program, was employed in the study. Short Message Service (SMS) and the Internet were also utilized for vocabulary learning. Paper flashcards were given to the control group. 1200 new words were taught to the students during a 7-week period. The results demonstrated that using mobile phones for vocabulary learning was more effective than using paper-based flashcards, the paper-based learning of vocabulary.. 21.

(32) The contributions of the study indicated that mobile phones could be regarded as effective devices to learn languages. Lu’s (2008) study employing the use of short message service (SMS) showed that applying mobile devices to learning vocabulary was more effective than traditional vocabulary learning. However, the small screen and lack of instant feedback were the disadvantageous.. In addition, Azabdaftari and Mozaheb (2012). added that the high cost of Internet for mobile phones and lack of availability of modern mobile phones were also drawbacks. Over the past decade, we have seen the launch of many different types of devices, including smartphones, smart TVs, and tablets or other “smart” appliances. Some technologies fizzle out quickly, while others play a significant role in transforming the world. Nowadays technology plays an important role in facilitating language development. New perspectives of technologies especially in language acquisition should be embraced and applied by teachers in the digital world. Given the recent rise in state-of-the-art smartphones, tablets with big screens, the number of people owning a mobile phone, and the number of instant feedback apps and learning tools, as well as lower Internet costs, students’ language learning could be accelerated. The present study therefore intends to make use of the suggestions and advantages outlined in previous studies to investigate the effectiveness of vocabulary learning through a new vocabulary learning tool, Quizlet. 2.5 Perceptions of Vocabulary Learning Through Mobile Devices Hu (2013) conducted an empirical study of twenty-four part-time adult participants majoring in English. After a four-week period learning vocabulary via 22.

(33) mobile phones, a questionnaire was administered. The results showed that mobile phones provided a new way for adult participants to learn vocabulary anytime and anywhere, therefore expanding their vocabulary size. Most participants preferred to learn vocabulary during their commute or split up their learning time due to the portability and accessibility of mobile phones. In addition, participants’ attitudes toward vocabulary learning through mobile phones were highly positive. The findings also showed that they favor vocabulary learning assisted by mobile phones. First, they can take advantage of flexible time to learn vocabulary autonomously. Second vocabulary learning via mobile phones increases exposure to target words. Third the instructor dividing vocabulary units into small ones diminished participants’ cognitive and psychological burden. However, despite the convenience of mobile technology, the researcher indicated that human nature and factors must be top priorities. Hsu’s (2013) study involved forty-five international participants from seven different countries studying at three universities in central and southern Taiwan. The volunteers were required to have a mobile phone. With version 2.0 of the Android Operating System and 3G service for better access to the Internet. Their target course was Tourism English, which emphasized learners’ proficiency in English. They were randomly divided into three groups and were engaged in activities selected by their on-site instructor. The group that spent the least amount of time learning English with the most correct answers was the winner. The results indicated that when trying to integrate new technologies into traditional teaching practices, individuals’ acceptance or perception of technologies should be taken into consideration. Despite coming from different cultural backgrounds and receiving MALL differently, the participants 23.

(34) still displayed positive attitudes towards MALL. Moreover, the researcher suggested future studies could explore and compare users’ attitude towards MALL and further investigate EFL learners’ perceptions of MALL. Mobile devices have clearly changed our daily lives as well as the way we learn a foreign language. New applications for mobile devices emerge constantly and their unlimited possibilities provide opportunities to apply Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) or MALL to EFL learning. The above studies highlighted three points motivating the present study’s research on perceptions. First, Hu (2013) noted that human factors should be taken into account. Moreover, Hsu (2013) also suggested that the integration of new technologies into teaching and learning should be involved in personal perception and acceptance even though cultural backgrounds are different. Third, both studies of participants are college students, whereas many other students are still in high school. Therefore, the present study aims to explore more about how senior high school students’ (the same grades as researchers’ students) perceptions and attitude towards MALL or CALL. The present study aims to describe the actual mobile learning situation of senior high students in Taiwan, as well as their perceptions, in order to provide further reference. 2.6 The Features of Quizlet This section presents studies on the Quizlet application and describes some empirical cases. Quizlet (https://quizlet.com) is a free online learning tool created by Andrew Sutherland in October 2005 and released to the public in 2007. It trains. 24.

(35) learners via flashcards. In 2016, Quizlet was recognized by SimilarWeb as the fastest growing US Education site in 2015. A free online app version of Quizlet has also been made available for iOS and Android devices. This allows users to create or use previously generated online flashcards sets and also provides games and quizzes, making vocabulary learning convenient and fun. Gardner (2013) stated that online flashcard programs such as the freely accessible Quizlet possess the following features. Quizlet can create card sets, import photos, provide the pronunciation of written words, and give instant gaming for repetitive practice and instant testing of vocabulary knowledge. Moreover, such technologies (and their mobile application) have shared word-learning capabilities through Facebook, blogs, and other resources, and allow cards to be printed for manual use. Because of its easy registration process, the clear display, and the helpful materials, the user-friendly interface makes it easy to be used by students and teachers and can be operated both inside and outside the classroom; the platform emphasizes the point that students can develop basic learning abilities individually. Nowadays, Quizlet is widely used not only in the ESL field, but also in other contexts such as cooperative learning (Wang, 2017) and for those with learning disabilities (Vargas, 2011). 2.6.1 Empirical Studies on Vocabulary Learning Through Quizlet The following empirical studies describe the use of Quizlet and provide motivations for the present study.. 25.

(36) Chien (2013) explored seventy-six Taiwanese EFL freshmen’s perceptions and practices of making vocabulary flashcards on Quizlet. They met two hours per week for one semester from September to December 2012. Qualitative data were taken regarding learning records and self-reflection on making the flashcards. Participants chose one topic from a textbook and produced related words to the topic. They used three activities: “Speller” (listen and spell), “Learn” (read the definition and spell out the words), and “Test”, and two games, “Scatter” (match words with definitions) and “Space Race” (quick spelling). All participants read the flashcards made by other students in a Quizlet community created by their instructor. They could review vocabulary either on Quizlet or through their mobile phones. Qualitative data were divided into units of information including word selection, activities on Quizlet, challenges and problems when making Quizlet flashcards, and learning vocabulary through websites and mobile phones. The results indicated three findings. First, participants’ word selection was not by their content or majors, but based on not knowing the meanings of the words. Second, Space Race was viewed as the most helpful activity. Third, the biggest challenge was finding the appropriate definitions for words. Three suggestions were provided to make learning of vocabulary and content words through websites like Quizlet effective. First, integrate different elements of vocabulary knowledge along with online vocabulary activity designs. Second, use direct instructions on specific terms. Finally, raise learners’ awareness of word selection. The study pointed out that different websites offer different online tools for both teachers and students to make flashcards. A suggestion was made for further studies to compare and contrast different aspects of vocabulary learning tools 26.

(37) such as examining features of each and evaluating strengths and weaknesses of online and mobile apps. Another recommendation was to determine to what extent these online tools or mobile phone apps improve digital natives’ vocabulary learning. This is also the purpose of the present study. In another study, Dreyer (2014) aimed to explore the effectiveness of using the online vocabulary study tool Quizlet in an urban high school language arts class. The students were from a low socio-economic background; 100% of enrolled students qualified for free lunch. Ninety-five participants were involved in the study over a course of 14 weeks. They were tested and were requested to use the Quizlet program during their free time on a weekly basis. The results revealed a strong correlation between the use of an online vocabulary review program and short-term vocabulary retention. The study also indicated that students who spread out their study sessions at a steady rate outperformed those who only used the program at the last minute. The study showed that students who took advantage of learning tools outside the classroom could outperform their classmates. The researcher had drawn three conclusions from his research questions. First, using computer-based self-access vocabulary review is an effective strategy to learn vocabulary. For example, the games and challenges make memorizing and learning vocabulary enjoyable and the software can monitor students’ answers, which makes the website a customizable instructional tool. Second, the time of the week that students chose to study vocabulary has a significant impact. A midweek vocabulary review had the greatest influence on weekly test scores. Late review had a negative correlation with the test scores, which means that the more time students spent reviewing on the day of the test, 27.

(38) the worse scores they obtained. The final conclusion was that students who are instructed to use Quizlet in high school are likely to use it in college. Barr’s (2016) preliminary Quizlet-based study was inspired by the need to help low-proficiency English users to enhance their vocabulary knowledge. Thirty-two first year students in Tamagawa University took an English as a Lingua Franca program and were required to use Quizlet to prepare for tests recycling fill-in-the-blank contests from the flashcards available on the Web 2.0 application. The results showed that learners using Quizlet outperformed non-users on tests recycling contents from gap-filling flashcards. Quizlet users could perform better on tests with new contents. The researcher urged implementation of more strategies to motivate learners to do more spaced repetition activities with homogeneous groups. He also recommended to expand learners’ active vocabulary, lift their confidence, and indulge themselves in the enjoyment of learning and using the language. Dizon (2016) also examined the efficacy of using Quizlet to develop English vocabulary. Nine second-year Japanese university EFL students participated in the research. During the 15-week spring semester of 2015, all of them enrolled in a course instructed by the researcher. The results showed a significant difference between the pretest and the post-test after a paired t-test was conducted, suggesting that the students’ scores improved due to using Quizlet. These learners regarded Quizlet as a useful and easy program for learning vocabulary and they expressed their willingness to use it in the future. Moreover, there was an indication that learners preferred using smartphones, perhaps indicating the evolution of modern technology.. 28.

(39) Most of the learners spent a great deal of time employing Quizlet outside of class, manifesting the value of Quizlet as a second language tool. These findings revealed that Quizlet indeed enhances second language vocabulary learning. Although positive results were indicated in the study, the drawbacks of the methodology included a small sample size, lack of delayed post-test, and no control group. However, the researcher strongly recommended the use of Quizlet to learn vocabulary and suggested teachers should learn about the benefits of using Quizlet and other internet-based tools so that they could incorporate CALL or MALL into their teaching. Özer and Koçoğlu (2017) conducted a study to investigate the effect of two vocabulary learning approaches in high school EFL students’ textbook-based vocabulary learning. Quizlet was used by their experimental groups and vocabulary notebooks were used by the control groups. The study took place at a private vocational high school in Turkey. Four classes (two experimental and two control groups) with 89 participants participated in the study over a week period. The research was conducted with 9th graders aged between 15 and 16 years old. Pre, post and delayed post-tests of unannounced vocabulary tests were measured in vocabulary learning and recall. Participants studied the target words using Quizlet, which provided flashcards, definitions, typing exercises, matching, true & false and multiple choice tests. The result showed that both tools had an impact on vocabulary learning and retention, but that the Quizlet group in particular produced significant differences between pretest/post-test and pretest/delayed post-test. At first, the study supported the effect of intentional vocabulary learning. Second, multimedia learning and dual 29.

(40) coding theories drew attention to the significance of visual and verbal modalities, which could illustrate the efficient vocabulary learning. Third, the CALL made Quizlet group outperformed the control group with its technology-enhanced vocabulary practicing opportunities. The researcher cautioned that the teachers, material designers, and curriculum developers should not take vocabulary notebooks for granted as their ultimate vocabulary tool. 2.7 Summary This. chapter. has. reviewed. the. literature. on. vocabulary. learning,. technology-enhanced vocabulary teaching and learning, dual coding theory versus the concreteness effects on vocabulary learning, students’ motivation, effectiveness and perceptions of vocabulary teaching and learning through mobile devices and empirical studies on vocabulary learning through Quizlet. Despite the fact that the aforementioned empirical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of using Quizlet in learning vocabulary, they also indicated the weaknesses of their studies for further improvement. Chien (2013)’s study only conducted qualitative research without quantitative methods, and Dizon (2014)’s study indicated the lack of a control group. Although Dreyer’s (2014) and Özer and Koçoğlu’s (2017) participants were high school students, the former study showed that after one Quizlet treatment, many students went back to their old review methods without participating in the study. Many other students chose not to review their vocabulary, so the sample size was too small to show significance. The latter study only undertook their experiment for three weeks and is a quantitative study. Barr’s (2016) study is also quantitative research and does not mention students’ motivation 30.

(41) and perceptions about learning Quizlet. The present study consequently aims to bridge the research gap and contribute to the field of studies of vocabulary learning by using qualitative and quantitative methods and choosing a homogeneous group of high school students (one experimental group, one control group) as participants.. 31.

(42) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY. This chapter presents the background of the participants, the research setting, materials, the Quizlet interface, the instruments, the data collection procedures, and the data analysis. 3.1 Participants The participants are 72 eleventh graders recruited from two different classes in a senior high school in Taipei City. One class was chosen as the experimental group, and the other the control group. There were 36 students in the experimental group, 21 male (58.33%) and 15 female (41.67%) students. In the control group, there were also 21 (58.33%) male and 15 (41.67%) female students. Students’ age ranged from sixteen to seventeen years old (see Table 1).. Table 1 Experimental/Control Group’s Gender Gender. N. %. Male. 21. 58.33. Female. 15. 41.67. Total. 36. 100.00. 3.2 The Research Setting The study was conducted in a Taipei Municipal Senior High School located in the northern part of Taiwan. The school started enrolling students in the 2002 academic year. Each year, it recruits ten classes of senior high students with 40 32.

(43) students in each class, and 7 classes of junior high students with 30 students in each class. Overall there are nearly 2000 students in 51 classes. According to test scores, the senior high school students are considered high achievers in Taipei, Taiwan. The schools’ score on the Comprehensive Assessment Program for Junior High School for recruitment into senior high is 29 (the full score is 36). Most students are from middle-class backgrounds and almost every senior high school student owns a smartphone. Over 60% of the graduates from the high school enter national universities in Taiwan. The researcher in this study was the teacher of these participants and provided all of the teaching materials for each meeting. 3.3 Materials The vocabulary used in the study was based on Book Four of the English textbook of Long-Teng Cultural Company. The supplementary reading material was from All+ Interactive English Magazines (February and March issues). The paper-based textbook and supplementary materials mentioned above were used by the control group, while the experimental group was asked to learn the target vocabulary through Quizlet. The research was undertaken in a classroom equipped with one projector. 3.4 The Quizlet Interface The Quizlet Interface is described in the following passages with figures. The vocabulary of each lesson was designed as one unit (e.g., Lesson 1 Long-Teng Version, Book 4) and weekly vocabulary from the magazine was designed in another unit for students. All of the learning resources were created with the Quizlet website or app. The unit includes digital flashcards with English on one side and example 33.

(44) sentences and pictures on the other side. After the teacher completed the design of the weekly units, the students were able to study vocabulary by clicking the words they wanted to learn and listening to the pronunciation simultaneously. The students could also play games and receive instant feedback. Students in the experimental group were asked to log into the website and install the app to access and study the units regularly. After logging into the website and installing the app, students could choose four modes of study (Flashcard, Learn, Speller, and Test) and two modes for playing games (Scatter and Gravity) (see Figures 1 through 14).. Figure 1. The arrangement of Quizlet website with 7 modes.. 34.

(45) After selecting Flashcard mode, users start to learn vocabulary (see Figure 2).. Figure 2. Flashcard Mode: A Digital-Flashcard of a picture and an example sentence.. After clicking the example sentence, the target word appears (see Figure 3).. Figure 3. Flashcard Mode: a digital flashcard of a new word.. 35.

(46) Users click the Learn mode to learn vocabulary by typing the words and receiving immediate feedback (see Figure 4 and 5).. Figure 4. Learn Mode: typing the correct word.. Figure 5. Immediate feedback from the Learn Mode.. In the Speller mode, users spell the word when they hear its pronunciation, and 36.

(47) after users submit spelled words, they receive immediate feedback (see Figure 6).. Figure 6. Speller Mode.. In the Test mode, users are asked to answer four types of questions: five fill-in-the-blank questions, five multiple-choice questions, five True/False questions, and five matching questions. After answering these questions, users will receive immediate feedback (see Figures 7 to 11).. Figure 7. Test Mode: five fill-in-the-blank questions. 37.

(48) Figure 8. Test Mode: five multiple choice questions.. Figure 9. Test Mode: five true/false questions.. Figure 10. Test Mode: five matching questions. 38.

(49) Figure 11. Immediate feedback from Test Mode.. Quizlet has some effects that it is hoped will boost users’ motivation. For example, the matching game “Scatter” shows eight pairs of words and flashcards per game (see Figure 12). Users need to click the target words and drag them onto the flashcards to complete the sentences. If a target word corresponds with a flashcard, they both disappear. The sooner the words and flashcards disappear, the higher the score attained.. Figure 12. Scatter Mode: a matching game. 39.

(50) Users playing the typing game Gravity need to type the correct target words as quickly as possible before the asteroids drop to attack the planet. If a user fails to type the target word before the asteroids drop, the game will pause and the screen will show the right answer. To resume the game, the user needs to type the correct answer. If the user types the correct target word fast enough, s/he will enter the next level and the falling speed of the asteroids will increase to make the game more exciting (see Figure 13).. Figure 13. Gravity Mode: a typing game.. Finally, the “Live” game mode, which requires at least 4 students to play and which is therefore less suitable for self-learning (see Figure 14).. 40.

(51) Figure 14. Live Mode: only for group work.. 3.5 Instruments The following six instruments were employed to collect data: (1) one pretest, (2) one reflection report, (3) one post-test, (4) one delayed post-test, (5) one questionnaire, and (6) interviews. 3.5.1 Pretest/Post-test/Delayed Post-test Students’ skills were measured in a pretest involving 50 multiple choice questions based on the English Textbook Lesson one to Lesson six, Long-Teng Version, Book Four and supplementary reading materials from All+ Interactive English Magazine (February, and March issues) was administered in this study. The content of the 50 multiple choice vocabulary pretest items was chosen from a list of approximately 6480 words issued by the College Entrance Examination Center (CEEC) in Taiwan. This list contains six levels of words for high school students to follow. The word lists for levels 3 to 6 were chosen for the present study as these levels contain high frequency words found in the GSAT and the AST (see Appendix 41.