• 沒有找到結果。

影響海地中等學校教師壓力因素之研究

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "影響海地中等學校教師壓力因素之研究"

Copied!
97
0
0

加載中.... (立即查看全文)

全文

(1)CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION The introduction chapter provides a clear understanding of the study. It examines the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, significance of the study, delimitation and limitation of the study, and definition of terms which is related to the study.. Background of the Study Haiti, whose population is almost entirely descended from African slaves, won independence from France in 1804, making it the second country in the Americas, after the United States, to free itself from colonial rule. However, over the centuries economic, political, and social problems have transformed Haiti into the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere. Ever since Haiti achieved his independence, Haitian government never struggle to change the life style of people politically, economically, socially. Thus, there is a need for people all over the country to take a new direction for a new change of life in Haiti. The condition of life style is, however, one of the principal causes of inefficient school education on the national territory. Haiti, the largely slave population won their freedom by defeating the French colonial system including armies from France, Great Britain and Spain. Despite their early history of freedom from colonial rule, the political history of Haiti is fragmented and inconsistent. It has been marked with numerous changes of government, a 19 year (1915-1934) military intervention by the United States and was run through terror and intimidation for 29 years by the Duvalier family from 1957-1986. Despite Aristide winning of the presidential elections with 67% of the popular vote, promising social and economic reforms in 1990, the current political problems intensified in 1991 with a “coup d’etat” resulting in a brutal military dictatorship for the next three years. During this period of military rule the human rights violations within the nation were numerous. Politically, there are always fight between leaders with a group of opposing people in Haiti. The economic problems confronting Haiti, is extremely pitiful. The deterioration of Haiti' s economy is rooted in the predatory policies of past Haitian governments and the misguided efforts of foreign donors. One of the main reasons of facing economical problem is. 1.

(2) because the past presidents never work in the interest of the population, thus, they prefer to keep the governance in their proper interest. Socially, the condition of life of Haiti is getting worse since the Duvalier regime was reversed by the Haitian people. The cost of living is higher and higher; furthermore, the unemployment of a large sector of the population intensified day by day. To ameliorate the style life, the current government should take into consideration all kind of problems which has devastated the social Haitian life more than two decades. Since the political, economical and social problems are the main causes of all kind of problems that human can face, since those problems devastate the majority of the Haitian population, including teachers. Those problems have obviously affected secondary teachers in the workplace. For the past decade, many researchers (Bryne, 1992; Campbell, 1992: Cooper, 1993; Goss, 2001; Hall, 2000) found that school education problems are the lack of training of teachers, the leadership style, the style of management of classroom, and the inefficient curriculum applied by the Ministry of Education whose duty is to promote school education system in a high standard. By doing those researches, any relevant shows that one is the basis of teachers’ problems at work. And also, they have never had real research to show that teachers have the same problems. Hence, this current study focused on the factors of stress of secondary school teachers in Haiti and the difference between the demographic variables based on current theories of cognitive behavioral, psychoanalytic, reality therapy, and person-centered. Each of these theories comes up with their own style and own way to use in the case of teachers’ stress.. 2.

(3) Statement of the Research Problem Teacher stress is one of the most important issue to take into consideration and perhaps the most challenging issue for principals of schools and supervisors. In everyday life a set of things such as student behavior, emotional problems, mental illness, discrimination in workplace, obesity, financial and family problems, low salary, work conditions, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, excessive absenteeism, low productivity, poor employee morale, interpersonal difficulties, job dissatisfaction or burnout, drugs alcohol, parents who don’t involve in students work, the conditions of work applied by principals etc. can affect teacher’s behavior at work. Because teachers can be affected by those problems, they are, in fact, not performing well and also satisfying with their duty. Such problems that they face in the workplace, however, may affect also instantly students’ performance in classroom. Further, teachers don’t even know how to resolve their problems, how to deal with, how to prevent them, and in addition, how to avoid them. Such problems cause students within the classroom spending their time not focusing on school work. Wasting time and joking with classmates, as consequences, become the most important thing that they focus on. Such behavior, however, leads students to a serious consequence in the future. Further, when they realize that their teacher is unable to manage the class, some of them are accustomed to listen to the radio in the classroom or leaving the classroom to spend their time in the yard. To make the matters worse, when they failed, parents obviously believe a lack of the teacher’s competence is the basis of the failure of their children. In order to avoid such consequence which can be sometimes difficult to deal, the Administrator of school should be interested in helping teachers dealing with stress. If not, this may lead to deficiencies in performance. Based upon these reasons, how to handle stress this researcher believes this is the most important issues to take into account because too many problems decreased the performance of teachers at workplace and the researcher believes also disciplinary actions that focus on problemsolving are needed to help teachers to strengthen work performance and achieve success.. 3.

(4) Purpose of the Study The purpose of this present study is: 1. To investigate the main factors (Students behavior, teacher burnout, parent involvement, salary, work conditions, communication) that may cause stress in secondary school teachers in Haiti. 2. To investigate the difference between those main factors and the demographic variables. 3. To provide suggestions to the Ministry of Education and principals for assisting secondary school teachers in Haiti.. Research Questions Based upon the purposes, this study will investigate the following questions: 1. What is the level of stress among secondary school teachers in Haiti? 2. What are the significant factors that may cause stress in secondary school teachers in Haiti? 3. What’s the difference of stress level between the main factors of stress affecting secondary school teachers in Haiti and the demographic data?. Hypotheses of the Study Hypothesis 1: Secondary school teachers in Haiti are not stressed because of student behavior, teacher burnout, parent involvement, salary, work conditions and communication. Hypothesis 2: There is no difference in opinion of stress between male and female secondary school teachers in Haiti Hypothesis 3: There is no difference in opinion of stress among the degrees of secondary school teachers in Haiti. 4.

(5) Hypothesis 4: There is no difference in opinion of stress among the age of secondary school teachers in Haiti. Hypothesis 5: There is no difference in opinion of stress among the marital status of secondary school teachers in Haiti. Hypothesis 6: There is no difference in opinion of stress among the subjects taught of secondary school teachers in Haiti. Hypothesis 7: There is no difference in opinion of stress among the tenure of secondary school teachers in Haiti.. 5.

(6) Significance of the Study The strategies for helping secondary school teachers to deal with stress at work in Haiti are not established by the Ministry of Education and administrators of schools. However, principals are never focused on the strategy to help teachers handle with stress while they are working in class. The principals and other affiliated authorities never consider that the teachers are going through emotional and psychological problems that may have been developed for various reasons and those are the one that may impact or affect their classroom activities. The study will in itself provide the significance of why it is important for principals to adjust the issue of stress that the secondary school teachers are faced. It will also develop the significance of why principals and other personnel working at the schools to develop some techniques to assist. their. teachers.. Furthermore,. the. researcher. will. provide. some. suggestions. recommendations to the authorities how there is a need to assist secondary school teachers in Haiti to deal with stress which will make them more competent as well as how they can improve the motivation level of teachers when they face different types of problems in the workplace.. Delimitation and Limitation of the Study Delimitation of the study This study was delimitated to the factors of stress affecting secondary school teachers in Haiti. This study was delimited to exercise, relaxation training, biofeedback, cognitivebehavioral training, psychoanalytic training, reality therapy training, and person-centered theory. It is also delimited to the assessment of secondary school teachers who have been hired. It is important to notice that the data collected are specifically concerned secondary school teachers. Limitation of the Study The result of this study was not concerned to teachers who employ in Kindergarten and also teachers in primary schools. The reason why is because different teachers face different types of problems in the workplace. It was only limited to Haiti region. Further, the data 6.

(7) collected from the sample are not generalized to any kind of organizations within Haiti or to other educational school teachers in other country. All the data which are collected are used specifically to develop some ways to help teachers to cope with difficult situations in Haiti. Indeed, the data collected from the sample are not generalized to other school counseling for teachers since each secondary school teachers may face different types of problems in the workplace and different theories may be used in different situations.. Definition of Terms In this study the following terms were defined: Stress Stress is a negative emotion, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, depression, resulting from some aspects.. Student behavior It refers to the fact that students don’t pay attention in learning, not doing their school work or using rude manner to interact with teachers or classmates. Teacher burnout Physical or emotional exhaustion especially as a result of long-term stress or dissipation Parent involvement It is the fact that parents don’t engage in student school work while they are at home. When parents don’t show any interest in activities that schools plan for students, they don’t involve. Salary Fixed compensation for services, paid to a person on a regular basis.. 7.

(8) Cognitive-behavioral training Cognitive-behavioral therapy is an action-oriented form of psychosocial therapy that assumes that maladaptive, or faulty, thinking patterns cause maladaptive behavior and "negative" emotions. (Maladaptive behavior is behavior that is counter-productive or interferes with everyday living.) The treatment focuses on changing an individual' s thoughts (cognitive patterns) in order to change his or her behavior and emotional state ( Dobson & Dozois, 2001).. Psychotherapy Psychotherapy: The treatment of a behavior disorder, mental illness, or any other condition by psychological means. Psychotherapy may utilize insight, persuasion, suggestion, reassurance, and instruction so that patients may see themselves and their problems more realistically and have the desire to cope effectively with them (Wolberg, 1977).. Psychodynamic psychotherapy A method of verbal communication used to help a person find relief from emotional pain. It is based on the theories and techniques of psychoanalysis. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is similar to psychoanalysis in that it attributes emotional problems to the patient' s unconscious motives and conflicts. It differs from classical psychoanalysis, however, in that psychodynamic psychotherapists do not necessarily accept Freud' s (1937) view that these unconscious motives and conflicts are ultimately sexual in nature (Wolberg 1977).. Psychoanalysis: As a form of therapy, is based on the understanding that human beings are largely unaware of the mental processes that determine their thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and that psychological suffering can be alleviated by making those processes known to the individual.. 8.

(9) Reality therapy In this study reality therapy is a type of counseling suggests that all psychiatric subjects have the same basic underlying problem, namely an inability to fulfill their essential needs. Specific problems, like alcoholism or misbehavior in school, are the symptoms and not the problem. Troublesome symptoms occur when a person cannot or will not meet their needs (Glasser, 1972).. Person-centered therapy Person-centered therapy, which is also known as client-centered, non-directive, or Rogerian therapy, is an approach to counseling and psychotherapy that places much of the responsibility for the treatment process on the client, with the therapist taking a nondirective role (Roger 1976). 9.

(10) 10.

(11) CHAPTER II. LITTERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to provide literature that reviewed problems that teachers face in Haiti. The researcher will emphasize the factors of stress of secondary school teachers in Haiti. He will also present a comprehensive overview of the following theories: exercise, relaxation training, biofeedback, cognitive-behavioral training, psychoanalytic training, reality therapy training, and person-centered theory.. Brief Introduction of the Republic of Haiti The nation of Haiti comprises the western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, west of the Dominican Republic and between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Haiti' s geographic coordinate are at a longitude of 72° 25′ west and latitude of 19° 00′ north. The total area is 27,750km² of which 27,560km² is land and 190km² is water. This makes Haiti slightly smaller than the state of Maryland in US. Haiti has 1,771km of coastline and a 360km-border with the Dominican Republic Haiti' s lowest elevation is at sea level; its highest point is Pic la Selle at 2,680 m. Except the part of Haiti' s longest river, the Artibonite, there are no navigable rivers; the largest lake is Etang Saumatre, a salt-water body located in the southern region Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti, is a country that speaks French and Creole located in the Greater Antilles Archipelago the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti includes many smaller islands such as La Gonave, La Tortue (Tortuga), les Cayemites, Île de Anacaona, and La Grande Caye. The uninhabited island of Navasse is claimed by both Haiti and the United States. Haiti was the indigenous Taino or Amerindian name for the island (Government of Haiti). A former French Colony, Haiti bears several historical feats: Haiti became the first independent black republic and the only nation ever to form from a successful slave rebellion. Haiti is also the second non-native country in the Americas (after the United States) as well as the first (and therefore the oldest) nation in Latin America to declare its independence, on January 1, 1804 (Wikipedia, 2006).. 11.

(12) History and Development of Secondary School Education in Haiti In this section a brief overview of educational system, history of secondary school education in Haiti and the education reform of secondary school in Haiti will be explained. Education historical context of secondary school in Haiti Haiti' s first schools were established shortly after the Constitution of 1805, which mandated free and compulsory primary education. The Education Act of 1848 created rural primary schools with a limited, mostly agricultural curriculum. But while education has been promoted, at least in principle, by Haiti' s post-colonial leaders, a comprehensive, accessible school system never developed. Even today, the majority of Haitians receive no formal education, and only small minorities are educated beyond primary school. The signing of the Concordat with the Vatican in 1860 brought much of the education in Haiti under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. French religious orders were assigned the responsibility of establishing and maintaining Catholic schools, which became non-secular public. General secondary education consisted of a three-year basic cycle and a four-year upper cycle that led to a baccalaureate and possible university matriculation. The curriculum emphasized the classics and the arts to the detriment of the sciences. Despite these limitations, general secondary education was often of high quality. Secondary-school graduates usually qualified for admission to the University of Haiti or to institutions of higher learning abroad. In 1981 there were 248 secondary-level schools in Haiti; 205 of them were private. From 1974 to 1981, the number of private secondary schools almost tripled, while only two new public lycées were built. About 100,000 students attended these secondary schools, which employed 4,400 teachers. In addition to general secondary schools, several vocational and business schools existed, most of them in metropolitan Port-au-Prince (U.S. Library of Congress, 1982). In December 1999, the current government created the National Partnership Commission, a forum for stakeholders to work together to develop and implement joint public-private sector activities to meet the goals of the country’s national education plan and better coordinate and regulate Haiti’s divided education system, ensuring greater consistency in school administration and management. Through interviews with USAID/Haiti, the Ministry of Education, Youth, and 12.

(13) Sports, and other key stakeholders, the Basic Education and Policy Support Activity (BEPS) team sought to identify means by which USAID could assist the National Partnership Commission in carrying out its action plan to increase public-private collaboration in support of education. An action plan was designed to strengthen the capacity of the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports to improve access to quality primary education for all Haitian children. The action plan also focused on maximizing resources to ensure equitable distribution to rural and urban children, and on helping build an education system to serve as a foundation for democratic governance (Government of Haiti).. Overview of educational system in Haiti Modeled on the French system, the Haitian education system followed a classical curriculum, emphasizing literature (later rural schools, while maintaining elements of a classical curriculum, focused on vocational education and agronomy). This curriculum remained basically unchanged until the education reform in 1978. As in France, the school cycle consisted of 14 years of education: seven at the elementary level and seven at the secondary level. Elementary, or primary, education began with kindergarten and continued through preparatory, elementary, and intermediate cycles, each of which lasted two years. Upon completion of the six years, a student received a Primary Education Certificate (CEP). The student could then take examinations for admission to secondary school, and upon passing the exam, enter either a lycée (a public school) or a college (a private school). Secondary education consisted of seven years of instruction: a three-year lower cycle and a four-year upper cycle. Even though students at the lower secondary level had to select specialization humanity, sciences, or a combination the upper curriculum stressed the classics and the arts. Education at the secondary level was rigorous and usually of high quality. During the first few years students averaged 20–24 hours per week of instruction; this increased to a total of 30–35 hours in the last two years. Successful completion of secondary school led to the baccalaureate; however, only successful completion of the second part of the baccalaureate qualified the student for admission to university. 13.

(14) Education reform in Haiti In recent years, there have been efforts to reform Haiti' s educational system to make education more accessible to the poor and more relevant to their needs. The reforms, however, have been only partly successful at best, and much of the old system remains in place throughout the country. Efforts to change the system began in the late 1970s. In 1978, primary schools, both urban and rural, were merged under the auspices of the National Department of Education (DEN). According to the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Haiti, the education system (1970) was then restructured: ten years of basic education, consisting of three cycles (4-3-3 years), and three years of secondary education. Curriculum and materials were also changed. By 1981, primary school enrollment in urban areas had more than doubled from 1970 figures. School nutrition programs and support from private development agencies contributed to the increased enrollment, but rural enrollments continued to be low. Moreover, dropout rates remained high: 50% in urban areas, and as high as 80% in rural areas. Despite the reforms, obtaining an education in Haiti remains an elusive goal for most. Though education is highly valued, the majority of Haitians do not have access to it. As of 1982, more than 65% of the population over the age of ten had received non formal education at all, and only 8% of the population had received more than a primary education. Even though education is technically free in Haiti, it remains beyond the means of most Haitians, who cannot afford the supplemental fees, school supplies, and uniforms required. Reform measures, especially the use of Haitian Creole, have met resistance. Thus, education remains a privilege of the upper and middle classes, with fluency in French a marker of success. Although plans for further implementation of reforms have not been abandoned, the current economic and political crises in Haiti have overshadowed educational concerns.. Secondary School Teachers’ Education Education is a vital and yet often overlooked aspect of development in Haiti. Teachers in Haiti must graduate from either the traditional primary or reform fundamental cycle and take a competitive entrance examination for entry into the Normal School of Institutors for a three-year 14.

(15) course culminating in the diploma. Student with a Baccalaureate I may also take an entrance examination and take a one-year teacher training course. Students with a Baccalaureate II can take an entrance examination for a three-year course at the Superior Normal School in order to teach secondary school. It is also important to mention that most of private secondary school nowadays employ students who get only a Baccalaureate II certification as teachers. (UNICEF June 14, 2004). Average salary of secondary public and private school teachers It is mentioned that teachers in secondary school in Haiti work from 10 to 40 hours per week (morning/afternoon). And the average monthly salary is about 250 Gourdes in public school teachers and 150 Gourdes or less in private school teachers (Ministry of Education, 2007). It may not surprise readers to learn the average salaries per hour for public and private secondary school teachers in Haiti. All over the country researchers found that teachers pay a low salary in secondary school education. Each school applies its own policy to pay employees. Teachers who employ for teaching math, physics science, chemistry, and philosophy in private school are paid more than those who are teaching social science, geography, and languages like French, English and Spanish. Table 2.1 provides more details.. Table 2.1. Average salaries of secondary schools in Haiti Subjects. Public School Average Salary. Private School Average Salary. Math. Gourdes. 250 = $ 8 per hour. Gdes.150 = $ 4 per hour. Chemistry. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. 150 = $ 4. Philosophy. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. 150 = $ 4. Physics. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. 150 = $ 3. Social Science. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. Less 150 = $ 3. Literature. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. Less 150 = $ 3. Languages. Gourdes 250 = $ 8. Less 150 = $ 3. Source: Ministry of Education (2007). 15.

(16) Secondary School Teachers’ Problems in Haiti. An overwhelming majority of researchers agree that teachers face at work so many problems (e.g., Borg & Riding, 1991; Brown, et al., 2002; Farber, 1991; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978; Mearns & Cain, 2003; Naylor,2001) such as student behavior, parent involvement, low salary, instructional stress, work conditions, communication stress, financial stress, family stress etc… When those problems occur, the majority of teachers decreased in productivity. Stress, however, as the biggest problem that teachers face at work in Haiti, affect secondary school teachers while they are working in classroom. Definitions of teacher stress Stress can be felt by everyone but it is most notable in the experience of teachers who are charged with the education of the populace. In general terms, stress is defined as a process in which external forces threaten an individual well-being (Abel & Sewell, 1999). Stress is defined as an adaptive response by the body to an external action that places physical or psychological demands on an individual (Adams, Heath-Camp, & Camp, 1999). Teacher stress is further defines as a condition where negative effects, such as frustration and anxiety, result from aspect inherent to teaching which are perceive by teachers to threaten their psychological or physical well-being (Abel & Sewell, 1999). Johnstone (1993) pointed out that stress has been construed in different ways. Originally it was defined in neutral terms as the human body’s non-specific physiological response to any demand (Selye, 1956). However, increasingly it has acquired negative overtones implying excessive pressure, perceived threat or overload and inability to cope. In the mid-1950s, Selye (1956), an endocrinologist, perceived stress to be a neutral physiological phenomenon. More specifically he defined it as a general adaptive syndrome or non-specific response to demands placed upon the human body. These demands could either stimulate or threaten the individual. In later work, Selye (1974) distinguishes between ‘stress’ and ‘distress’. In modern usage, however, stress has come to imply the subjection of a person to. 16.

(17) force or compulsion, especially mental pressure or by overwork, which leads to strain or mental fatigue. Kyriacou (2001) defined teacher stress as: the experience by teachers of unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, depression, resulting from some aspect of their work as a teacher (p. 28). As Selye (1974) explained, humans require sufficient pressure to. encourage them to perform creatively but excessive pressure can lead to distress and attendant feelings of oppression, harassment or collapse. Nor can it be assumed that everyone will react uniformly to the same demands: what may be perceived as a stimulus by some may reduce others to distress. In earlier research, Lazarus (1976) proposed that ‘stress occurs when there are demands on a person which tax or exceed his resources’ (p. 67). Factors of secondary school teachers stress What causes teachers’ stress? There are so many factors that can affect secondary school teachers worldwide. More recently Briner (2002) has found more than fourteen factors were associated with occupational stress. These are: • Workload. • Communication. • Parent involvement. • Home-work balance. • Team working. • Salary. • Performance feedback. • Role ambiguity. • Teacher burnout. • Training and development. • Job insecurity. • Student behavior. • Job design. • Management support. • Skill under-utilization. • Effort-reward imbalance. • Tools and equipment. • Hours of work.. Turning specifically to teachers’ stress, Johnstone (1989) argued that many researchers (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1977; Kyriacou, 1980) all attributed the major causes of teachers’ stress to: • Pupils’ failure to work or behave • Poor working conditions, generally in terms of relations with colleagues • Workload, in terms of overload, or routine work. Other factors have also been implicated. Poor school conditions were cited by (Schonfield, 1990). The two main sources of teachers’ stress were work ‘overload’ and ‘handling 17.

(18) relationships with staff. However, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2000) report states the following job conditions that may lead to teachers’ stress: a. The design of tasks as heavy workload, infrequent rest breaks, long hours, and routine task that do not utilize workers’ skill. b. Management style as poor communication in the organization and a lack of family friendly policies. c. Interpersonal relationships as an unsupportive social environment. d. Work roles as conflicting or uncertain job expectations, too much responsibility e. Career concerns as job insecurity, lack of opportunity for advancement or promotion. f. Environmental conditions as unpleasant or dangerous physical conditions such as crowding, noise, air pollution”. Student behavior and secondary teacher stress in Haiti Student behavior has always been one of the largest contributors to secondary teacher stress in Haiti. Though many studies have revealed that student behaviors, student discipline is general contributors to teacher stress, little research has focused more specifically on the types of student behaviors that teachers regard as stress inducing. Categories of student behaviors that have been shown to be related to teacher stress are: indolence, disrespect for the teacher, poor student motivation and noisiness. Behaviors reflecting student indolence or lack of effort are often regarded by teachers as stressful. Blasé (1986) revealed student indolence to be the contributor to teacher stress. In addition to student indolence, student behaviors reflecting a lack of respect for the teacher are likely to contribute strongly to teacher stress. So many teachers in Haiti are often complained about this kind of behavior that students apply in classroom. When students do not focus on school work, teachers have a lack of motivation which makes them stress in the workplace. Therefore, there is a need for administrator of school and the Ministry of Education to take into consideration of teachers’ stress. What are the effects of teacher’s stress? Valerie (2002) pointed out that teachers’ stress may have an impact on teachers as individuals, on the schools in which they work and on the pupils they teach. It is also estimated to have an economic impact on the education system in terms of lost teaching time and additional 18.

(19) costs of replacement teachers. Unfortunately, it is difficult to quantify these costs because reported effects may actually be strategies to help teachers cope and it would be unsafe to assume that those who report no symptoms are necessarily “stress free”. Many researchers argue that the effects of stress in teaching fall largely on individual teachers and result in illness and absences. The stress/illness connection is, however, disputed by some researchers. Although claims have been made of connections between stress in life and illness, it has been suggested that people remain quite healthy under high levels of stress in their lives (Holahan & Moos, 1985). Troman (2001) describes the cost which he thinks some teachers pay by continuing to work with increased stress levels. The consequence is chronic strain on their personal lives. In a small-scale study of 24 teachers, he found that teachers reporting chronic stress were often involved in break-up of marital or personal relationships, caring for a dependent relative who was chronically ill, or had experienced the death of a close relationship. In these circumstances it is impossible to establish which situation (work or personal life) was causing the most stress to the individual teacher. The effects of stress in other than the personal sense are difficult to estimate (Valerie 2003, p. 9).. Signals of teachers’ stress in the workplace Babcock (2003) pointed out that Swanson (1999) argues that stress was a hard topic to get your arms around and come up with solutions. According to Swanson (1999), Job stress is a harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when job requirements do not match the capabilities or needs of the workers. Workplace stress has a negative impact on the business as well as on the individual employee. The increase in job stress creates emotional, financial, and safety concerns for employers and managers. Stress is a normal occurrence. However, with increasing demands of work and home life, stress on the job is a problem causing physical, mental, and financial consequences for employers as well as employees. Studies show that stressful working conditions are associated with increased absenteeism, tardiness, and intentions by workers to quit their job. All of which have a negative effect on a school or a company’s success. Babcock (Dec 2003) precised a set of causes stress in the workplace and some warning signs of job stress like headache, sleep disturbances, fatigue, irritability, difficulty in 19.

(20) concentrating, short temper, upset stomach, low morale and lack of job satisfaction”. Those warning signs have been discovered by “The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health” (NIOSH). There is evidence in those researches. Most of time teachers’ decrease in productivity is because of those problems. Thus, the help is best way to lead secondary school teachers.. Teacher burnout Burnout is a term used to describe people who are physically and psychologically burnt out. Weisberg and Sagie (1997) defined burnout as feeling of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from a chronic state of cumulative pressure at work. According to Embich (2001), burnout is a three-dimensional psychological syndrome encompassing emotion exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of accomplishment. People experiencing these criteria usually feel as though they were unable to assist their students, and even more negative attitudes toward students, parents, and colleagues. The teachers also felt as though they were unable to accomplish any goals. There are two types of variables that effect burnout: personality and organizational. The first factors we will examine come from the organizational category. Role conflict, the first variable, involves the quantity of work that teachers are expected to get done and the quality of work that could be achieved in that time (a large discrepancy exists here). Another conflict is when teachers try to meet the demands of each individual student, in a large diverse class of different ability levels. Finally, teachers are stuck in conflict over discipline problems, where support is limited from parents and principals. Role conflict is one of the key factors of job stress and burnout in teachers. A second organizational factor associated with burnout is role ambiguity. Teachers who constantly struggle with this feel as though there are inconsistent school policies in regards to student behavior, there are constantly changing curriculum and teaching methodologies, and they feel as though no one cares about the work they are doing. When teachers are unsure of their roles it brings on emotional exhaustion and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment.. 20.

(21) A third organizational factor associated with burnout is work overload. Teachers experience excessive paper work, oversized classes filled with students of different academic abilities and the need for teachers to complete tasks beyond their knowledge base. Classroom climate is a fourth organizational factor. When the working environment is less than ideal stress occurs. Teachers, who have student discipline problems, student apathy, low student achievement, and face verbal and physical abuse from students, become overwhelmed. "Another major stressor for teachers is their lack of involvement in decisions that bear directly on their quality of work life" (Byrne, 1994, p. 649). Teachers who are involved in the decision making process are said to have higher morale, motivation, and self-esteem. Nevertheless, in general, teachers are minimally involved in the decisions of their school. They feel a declining sense of morale, lack of job satisfaction, and loss of control and self-esteem. These factors form a cumulative relationship with stress and burnout. The final organizational factor that leads to burnout is lack of social support. Teachers who constantly feel as though their administrators are judging their work are not confident in themselves. They feel as though anything new that they try to do will not be supported by their administration, so why bother to try. Other factors associated with burnout fit into the category of personality. The first factor is locus of control. Teachers who are experiencing burnout tend to feel as though all the events in their classroom are beyond their control, due to fate, luck or other people. In other words they see their teaching as completely out of their control. The second factor is self-esteem. Teachers low in self-esteem are more threatened by rejection, and therefore more vulnerable to stress and burnout. Researchers have discussed all of these factors in association with burn out. A study by Byrne (1994) investigated the impact of organizational variables on individual teachers in reference to burnout. Furthermore, Sheesley (2001) suggested that stress, distress, and burnout are on a continuum starting with feeling of well-being, moving to a sense of imbalance corrected through the use of effective coping strategies. Next on the continuum is the loss of physical and mental resources resulting from the use of inappropriate coping strategies, spiraling downward to a feeling of loss of control, and ending in burnout. 21.

(22) In general terms, the warning signs of burn out may include feelings of frustration, withdrawal, health problems, alienation, and increases drug and alcohol use (Roper, 1998). Burnout resulting in physical exhaustion may manifest itself through frequent headaches, nausea, and body pain, changes in eating habits, and weight gain or loss. Burnout resulting in emotional exhaustion may be exhibited by feeling of depression, hopelessness, and a feeling of being trapped (Roper, 1998). Moreover, the presence of burnout in the field of education may be inherent. According to Embich (2001) burnout has been approached as a specific occupational hazard for human service providers including teachers. Burnout is a result of the demand of the relationship between any service provider and recipient. Studies have found that burnout affects high school teachers more than any other public service professionals (Adams, Heath-Camp, 1999). The causes of stress and burnout in educators are the same, as burnout in the culmination of prolonged stress. The implications of stress and burnout in educators are significant. Burnout results in a significant decrease in the quality of teaching, frequent absenteeism, and, ultimately, teachers moving into other careers (Weisberg & Sagie, 1997) Parent Involvement One of the main causes for stress in teachers is insufficient support from parents, fellow teachers, and administrators (Cockburn, 1996). The teachers feel as though their views on the decision making process are no longer considered important or valuable. Add on to this stresswork overload, role conflicts, and ambiguity and it becomes clear why many teachers feel as if they have lost control of their ability to be good teachers. This is a fact that occurs in secondary school teachers in Haiti. Consequently, we need to examine the role of parents in teacher stress. Studies show that when a constructive home school relationship is developed children are most successful. In order to attain this environment parents and teachers must be collaborating. In a study done by Abebe and Shaughnessy (1997) in which they examined stress factors and perceived remedies for cooperating teachers and student teachers, parent involvement was one factor that was seen as a remedy for reducing stress. Teachers face a diverse population in their classrooms with a variety of needs, and it is clear that parent involvement can have a positive effect on teachers and students. 22.

(23) In one study done by Houghton (2001), the author speaks about the positive effects of parents and teachers joining forces. She discusses how feeling alone as a teacher can be a source of stress. Working together in a team (with parents) setting can also make the job easier and less stressful and help students to do better. In another study done by Friedman (2000) the author examined the discrepancy between expected and observed levels of professional self efficacy and how this impacts teacher stress. The study found that teachers must not dwell on failures, maintain a good sense of humor and keep expectations realistic. Results also suggested that to improve the classroom environment parents should supervise children between classes and undertake some of the educational tasks required of teachers. The point of this activity would be to give parents a new perspective on what it is like to be a teacher. This change would have a positive effect on teachers perceptions of parents.. Theories Related to Stress The following theories that the researcher explained are useful to help teachers to deal with stress in the workplace. These theories are used by psychologists to help clients when they face a difficult situation that they can not deal with. The researcher focused on some ways that administrator of schools; the Ministry of Education could use to help secondary school teachers in Haiti to reduce their stress. Here are some:. exercise, relaxation training, biofeedback,. cognitive-behavioral training, psychoanalytic training, reality therapy training, person-centered theory,. Ways to reduce teachers’ stress For years, teachers have been left to their own avail to figure out how to reduce stress. They’ve had to learn on the job. It is becoming clear however, that interventions need to be developed at the school level to help with teacher stress. One stress reduction strategy that many 23.

(24) teachers may invest in is aerobic exercise for an hour or more each week. Staying fit has emerged as a key ingredient for staying healthy. Consequently, when you are in good physical shape, you are less tired by the emotional and physical stresses of the day (Imm, 1990). Exercise is able to reenergize you and helps teachers be able to conquer their daily pressures. Their mind is also better able to deal with the problems that will occur during the school day. A number of studies have demonstrated the benefits of aerobic exercise in non-teaching occupations. Another study done by Gill and Overdorf (1994) looked into exercise programs and the incentives for women teachers. The authors stated that exercise has been related to reductions in depression, and the stress emotions of anxiety and tension, increases in life satisfaction, and selfconfidence, and improved mood states (p. 88). The author accentuates the fact that exercise has a beneficial effect on stress reduction, and job satisfaction. Considering that stress attacks a persons physical and mental well being it is important to combat stress by keeping the body in good physical shape. Long (1988) has done several studies on the importance of exercise and stress inoculation training in worksite stress reduction programs. Long and Haney (1988) found that exercise and relaxation training worked well for stressed working women teachers. Consequently, the authors carried these ideas into the teaching profession. Through this strategy teachers could learn how to handle their emotions and behaviors, how to deal with irrational beliefs and utilize imagery, as well as role play a variety of conflicts. A second stress reduction technique is relaxation training. This involves individuals applying certain strategies at home and at work. Relaxation training includes breathing exercises, muscle relaxation, meditation, and mental relaxation strategies. Friedman (2000) stated that the benefits of this strategy for teachers included reduced levels of perceived stress, and anxiety. A third stress reduction technique is biofeedback. "This involves the voluntary control of physiological mechanisms: brain waves, heart rate, muscle tension, stomach acidity, and blood pressure" (Friedman, 2000, p. 605). A fourth stress reduction technique is cognitive-behavioral training. The hyphenated term cognitive-behavioral reflects the importance of both behavioral and cognitive approaches to understanding and helping human beings. Cognitive-behavioral is the hybrid of behavioral strategies and cognitive process, with the goal of achieving behavioral and cognitive change 24.

(25) (Dobson & Dozois, 2001). More recently, Arthur (2000) has concluded that Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) have a role to play in supporting psychologically stressed employees but do not, in themselves, suffice to ameliorate the effects of stress. He concludes that they must be only part of a strategy requiring active involvement of management and adaptation of work practices, a strategy like the cognitive-behavioral theory. Based on Dobson and Dozois (2001) there are three major types of cognitive-therapies: cognitive restructuring, coping skills, and problems solving. Beck’s cognitive therapy is an example of a cognitive restructuring technique. Meichenbaum’s stress inoculation training (1985) and self instruction training (1977) are examples of coping skills therapies. Problemsolving therapy is, as its name implied, an example of the problem solving type of CBT. Although there are differences among cognitive-behavioral approaches, all of these theorists value the role cognitions play in the development and maintenance of psychological problems. Based on Dobson & Shaw (1988) the essence of cognitive-behavioral therapies is the union of behavioral and cognitive strategies to help people. Often cognitive-behavioral strategies include the use of treatment manuals or guidelines for the implementation of interventions, with counseling and psychotherapy strategies clearly describes and evaluated. In an interview with Weinrach (1988), Beck described cognitive theory as” based on the view of psychopathology that stipulates that people’s excessive affect and dysfunctional behavior are due to excessive or inappropriate ways of interpreting their experiences” (p. 160). First developed to treat other psychological problems such as panic disorder, agoraphobia, drug abuse, and eating disorders. Kendall and Hollon (1979) said “Cognitive-behavioral interventions include various combinations of cognitive and behavioral techniques and are aimed at changing either cognitions, behavior or both. Cognitive-behavioral interventions directives, structured, goal directed, and time-limited treatment, and most types involve teacher in collaborative relationship with the counselor or therapist.” The cognitive model of disturbance asserts that cognitions play a central role in human emotional problems. In cognitive therapy (CT), there is an emphasis on internal thoughts, feelings, and attitudes rather than on behavior, although behavioral techniques are used in conjunction with cognitive therapy to help clients test their maladaptive cognitions and assumptions. We conclude that cognitive therapy is a structured and directive approach to counseling. It is clear that CT is problem-oriented, which means that the focus is on solving 25.

(26) present problems. CT is based on an educational; because it assumes that people learn inappropriate ways of coping with life, the process of change involves developing new ways of learning and thinking. The idea behind this technique is to allow individuals to restructure stressful events so that they are no longer stressful to them.. They do this by avoiding. generalizations, or magnifying events. This technique involves assertiveness training. The idea behind this strategy is to put the teacher back in control of her life events.. When the teacher. believes he/she can control the classroom, stress is clearly reduced. A fifth stress reduction technique is psychoanalytic training which place emphasis on the resolution of teacher’s problems so as to enhance teacher’s personal adjustment, their working through unresolved developmental stages, and their ability to cope more effectively with the demands of the society within which they live (Capuzzi & Gross, 2003). Moreover, Capuzzi and Gross (2003) notes that psychoanalytic theory stress changing the personality and character structure of the individual through resolving unconscious conflicts and developing more effective ways of dealing with problems, particularly in relationships. Psychoanalytic theory and practice originated in the late nineteenth century in the work of Freud (1956). It offers a distinctive way of thinking about the human mind and of responding to psychological distress. Psychoanalysis has travelled widely from its central European origins, and has evolved into a complex, multi-facetted and internally fractured body of knowledge situated at the interface between the human and natural sciences, and between clinical practice and academic theory. Along with the more general rise of psychological thinking, psychoanalytic ideas have had a pervasive influence on such arenas of life as child-rearing, education and popular culture. For Freud (1979) only a small proportion of the human mind is knowable through rational thought. It makes its presence felt in a variety of ways including dreams, slips of the tongue, the clinical method of “free association”, and other actions the motivations for which are not discernible by, and are often contrary to, conscious intent. The psychoanalytic unconscious acts as the repository for experiences, thoughts and feelings that are unacceptable to, and are repressed by, the conscious mind. Freud (1979) founded an approach taken up by many others, who have variously extended, challenged, supplemented and reworked his ideas. One of the most influential lines of differentiation within the psychoanalytic tradition lies between those theorists who attach 26.

(27) primary importance to the psychic life generated by the instinctual drives of the human organism, including especially drives towards pleasure and towards death or annihilation, and those theorists who attach primary importance to the psychic life generated by a different kind of drive or condition of existence, namely the drive to relate to others. A sixth stress reduction technique is reality therapy which goal is to help teachers make more effective choices to meet their needs more efficiently and effectively. Therefore, assisting teachers to make more effective and responsible choices related to their wants and their needs is the aim of the counselor or therapist. Reality therapy provides a comprehensive explanation of human behavior as well as a methodology for addressing the vicissitudes of the human condition. Choice theory explains why and how human being function; and the WDEP system (Wubbolding, 2000) provides a delivery system for helping oneself and others to remediate deficiencies, make better choices, and become more fully self-actualized. ‘W’ implies that the counselor or therapist help teachers explore their wants. ‘D’ means that teachers describe the direction of their lives as well as what they are currently doing or how they spend their time. ‘E’ indicates that the counselor or therapist helps in the client’s selfevaluation. Teachers are then helped to make simple and attainable action plans, as implied by ‘P’. The WDEP formulation provides a pedagogical tool for learning and practicing the process of reality therapy. Human being, Glasser (2001) stated act on the world around them for a purpose: to satisfy their needs and wants. The author speaks of total behavior, which is comprised of action, thinking, feeling, and physiology. All behaviors contain these four elements, although one element or another is more obvious at a given moment. Such behaviors, negative or positive, are the output generated from within a person in order to gain a sense of control or to satisfy needs. Wubbolding (2000) had provided a summary of Glasser’s choice theory as it applies to counseling and psychotherapy. 1. Human beings are born with five needs. These needs are belonging, power (competence, achievement, recognition, self-esteem, and so on), fun or enjoyment, freedom or independence (autonomy), and survival. These needs are general and universal. Along with wants, which are specific and unique for each person, needs serve as the motivators or sources of all behavior. 27.

(28) 2. The difference between what a person wants and what one perceives one is getting (input) is the immediate source of specific behaviors at any given moment. Thus, reality therapy rests on the principle that human behavior springs from internal motivation, which drives the behavior from moment to moment ( Glasser, 1972; Wubbolding, 2001). 3. All human behaviors are composed of doing (acting), thinking, feeling, and physiology. Behaviors are identified by the most obvious aspect of this total behavior. People are labeled “psychotic” because the primary and most obvious aspect of their total behavior is dysfunctional thinking. Depression, anger, resentment, and fear are most obvious in other persons, so their behavior is called a feeling behavior. 4. Because behavior originates from within, human beings are responsible for their behavior. In other words, we are all capable of change. This change is brought about by choosing more effective behaviors. The aspect of human behavior over which we have the most direct control is that of acting, and secondarily, that of thinking. 5. Human beings see the world through a perceptual system that functions as a set of lenses. At a low level of perception, the person simply recognizes the world, giving names to objects and events, but does not make judgments about them. At a high level of perception, the person puts a positive or negative value on the perception. Exploring the various level of perception and their helpfulness is part of the counseling or psychotherapy process. In summary, choice theory is a psychology built on principles that emphasize current motivation for human choices. It stands in opposition to both psychological determinism and what Glasser (1998) called external control psychology. Human beings are free to make choices; thus, although the past has propelled us to the present, it need not determine our future. Similarly, our external world limits our choices but does not remove them. A seventh stress reduction technique is person-centered theory which is offered a new way to look at individuals, their development, and how they can be helped to change. From this frame of reference, teachers were viewed as fully in charge of their lives and inherently motivated to improve themselves. The responsibility for personal behaviors and the ability to choose to change them was also seen as belonging fully to the individual (Capuzzi. & Gross 2003). Rogers (1976) stated that practice, theory and research make it clear that the person28.

(29) centered approach is built on a basic trust in the person. Also, it depends on the actualizing tendency present in every living organism’s tendency to grow, to develop, to realize its full potential. This way of being trusts the constructive directional flow of the human being toward a more complex and complete development. It is this directional flow that we aim to release (Rogers, 1986, p. 198). In Rogers’ theory, "Man is an actualizing process" (Van Belle, 1980, p. 70). Actualization is the motivational construct in organismic theory and, thus, is embedded in the organismic growth process and is the motive for change. The organism/person is the basic unit of inquiry in Rogers’ conceptualizations. Although Rogers focused on the self-concept in earlier writings and brings in the concept of the formative tendency of the universe in later writings, the construct of the actualizing tendency for the human being is the clear foundation block in individual therapy. Roger (1988) theorized all individuals as having inherent qualities that made nurturing possible; attempting to change basic personality characteristics or behaviors was not necessary. He believed people saw the world from their own unique perspective, which is referred to as a phenomenological perspective. No matter what the phenomenological view of the world was, it was further assumed that all people are continually attempting to actualize their best and most productive selves. The person-centered therapist, said Roger (1988), operates on a number of assumptions associated with the actualizing tendency. These assumptions include the orientation that emphasizes the world of the whole person wherein the therapist eschews knowledge ‘about’ the client, relates as an equal to the client, and trusts and respects the client’s perceptions as the authority about him/herself. Rogers (1963) stated that the basic person-centered value is that the authority of the person rests in the person rather than in an outside expert. This value emphasizes the internal (i.e. the client’s) rather than the external (i.e. the therapist’s) view. Clients are viewed as going in their own ways, allowed to go at their own pace, and to pursue their growth in their unique ways. The external view is meaningless in the therapy process since the only function of the therapist is to facilitate the client’s actualizing process. This process is a directional, growth directed process that includes movement towards realization, fulfillment and perfection of inherent capabilities and potentialities of the individual. It is a selective process in that it is directional and constructive. It tends to enhance and maintain the whole organism/person. A summary of the theory can be stated as follows: 29.

(30) 1. There is one motivating force in a client; i.e., the actualizing tendency. 2. There is one directive to the therapist; i.e. to embody the attitudinal quality of genuineness and to experience empathic understanding from the client’s internal frame of reference and to experience unconditional positive regard towards the client. 3. When the client perceives the therapist’s empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard, the actualizing tendency of the client is promoted. Rogers believed that everyone has the motivation and ability to change in order to become a better, more "self-actualized" person. Rogers (1957; 1959) point out that therapist experiences and manifests three basic attitudes in the relationship. These attitudes are labeled as congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference. Congruent persons are the individuals who trust their view of the world and their ability to act on their basic positive nature. Rogers’ most explicit statements about these attitudes were in his 1957 statement that hypothesized the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change in all therapies and constructive interpersonal relationships that have constructive personality change as a goal. These conditions are also presented with a slightly different slant in his 1959 theoretical statement on psychotherapy, personality theory and interpersonal relations from the Client-Centered frame of reference. In the integration statement of 1957, he stated (p. 96): 1. Two persons are in psychological contact. 2. The first, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious. 3. The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent or integrated in the relationship. 4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client. 5. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference and endeavors to communicate this experience to the client.. 30.

(31) 6. The communication to the client of the therapist’s empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved. There are slight but perhaps important differences between the 1957 and 1959 statements. In the 1959 statement, Rogers does not mention that the therapist should endeavor to communicate the experiences of empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard to the client. He continued to emphasize the importance of the client perceiving these two attitudinal experiences of the therapist. Also, the 1959 theory statement refers to the first condition (the pre-condition) simply as contact between the client and therapist rather than ‘psychological’ contact. Roger (1957) pointed out three attitudinal conditions are the following: 1. Congruency (or genuineness): Within the relationship (the therapist) is freely and deeply himself, with his actual experience accurately represented by his awareness of himself and he is what he actually is in this moment of time. 2.. Unconditional. Positive. Regard: The. extent. that. the. therapist. finds. himself. experiencing a warm acceptance of each aspect of the client’s experience as being a part of that client. 3. Empathic Understanding: ‘To sense the client’s private world as if it were your own, but without ever losing the ‘as if’ quality” The particular manifestations or implementation of these attitudes are variable, within limits, depending upon the personal characteristics of both the therapist and the client. Rogers, in his classic delineation of a theory of psychotherapy, personality and interpersonal relationships in 1959, hypothesized that in the psychotherapeutic relationship that the more fully and consistently the therapeutic attitudes are provided by the therapist and perceived by the client, the greater the constructive movement that will occur in the client. Rogers’ hypothesis can be generally stated in the following way: When the therapist can consistently be a certain way (i.e., embodying the attitudinal qualities) towards the client while trusting the client’s natural growth process, the forward growth tendency (the actualizing tendency) of the client will be promoted. The natural growth process of the individual is promoted when the therapist can be a certain way by embodying certain attitudinal qualities. The therapist strives to be congruent, to experience unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding toward the client. It is interesting to note that Rogers’ message is that the therapist experience empathic understanding of the client’s 31.

(32) frame of reference and experience unconditional positive regard towards the client. He adds that the client must perceive these two conditions, at least, to a minimal degree. In therapy, the foundation block of the theory is the actualizing tendency; i.e., the tendency of the organism to grow in a positive and constructive direction; for the person to become all of his/her potentialities. From the review of this chapter we can see secondary school teachers face so many problems and the need for helping them is really important so that they can deal with stress in the workplace. There are theories and therapies that can assist teachers just like any other professionals that are given help in the workplace. Hence, counseling would be the only best way to help them to cope with their situation life in Haiti. As Cormier and Hackney (1993) stated in their conclusion that if one examines the variety of counseling interventions that have been described in the professional literature, they tend to fall into four broad categories which are interventions that produce affective change; interventions that produce cognitive change; interventions that produce behavioral change; interventions that produce social system change. We believe if principals of school or administrator of school and the Ministry of Education helped secondary school teachers in Haiti express feelings or feeling states; to identify or discriminate between feelings or feeling states; or to alter or accept feelings or feeling states they would make more progress while they are teaching in classroom. In addition if they helped teachers develop adaptive and supportive behaviors to multifaceted situations. Developing adaptive behavior often means helping the teachers weaken or eliminate behaviors that work against the desired outcome. Moreover, if they helped secondary school teachers to change the individual' s social environment or system, thus changing the patterns of interrelationship that elicited or supported these responses, they would increase more their productivity. It is obvious that secondary school teachers in Haiti have never learned to identify teachers’ problems and let them to express their feelings. Throughout this review we have looked at how teacher stress leads to physical and emotional exhaustion. To combat this problem we have also examined exercise and parent involvement in the classroom as mechanisms for coping with stress for teachers. The studies cited above demonstrate the effectiveness of aerobic exercise as a stress reduction technique among teachers and the positive effects of parent involvement while students doing works at home.. 32.

(33) CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the method employed in this study concerning research framework, research methods, research procedures, population and sample, instrumentation, and data analysis. In accordance with the purpose of the study, the chapter provides some explanations about the factors that affect secondary school teachers’ stress in Haiti which are student behavior, teacher burnout, parent involvement, salary, work conditions and communication problems with co-workers, administrators of school, students and parents. In addition, it gives details about the framework which indicates the way the six variables were tested, and also explains the procedure, the instrumentation and the method used to prove the validity and reliability of the present study.. Research Framework According to the review of the literature, this research framework was formulated to discover the factors of stress of secondary school teachers in Haiti. From the review, it was explained that secondary school teachers faced so many problems at school in different levels, such as stress which factors were mentioned above. Besides, the researcher includes other variables like gender, age, education level, subjects that teachers teaching and the tenure. Those variables will be tested whether they are affected stress level of secondary school teacher in Haiti. In this study, the researcher uses different categories of theories of stress that could help secondary school teachers to handle with negative impact of stress in the workplace. The research framework provides the variables and outlooks the research. The researcher hopes to provide evidence to the proper authorities that there is a real need to help secondary school teachers to deal with stress in the classroom.. 33.

(34) Demographics Data Gender. Education Level. Student behavior. Subjects Taught. Salary. Age. Tenure. Figure 3.1. Research Framework. 34. Teacher Burnout. Parent Involvement. Work Condition. Communication.

(35) Research Procedure The survey was applied to teachers that employ in secondary school in Haiti. Because the researcher is in Taiwan and the teachers are living in Haiti, the survey was sent to the researcher assistant whose responsibility is to make the distribution of the survey in different Haitian secondary school with the consent letter of teachers in which the researcher will ask each participant if participating in this study is important or not. A confidential note and contact information also was sent to Administrator of school. The letter emphasized the explanation of the research purpose, and also an explanation of the research. After having permission from the administrator, a second letter was sent to secondary school teachers in which the researcher requested their participation. It was explained the specific purpose of the survey and the anonymity was a great guaranty for their participation. The researcher assistant was in charge to send all the questionnaire responses to the researcher after collecting them. Then, all the responses were translated into English for coding the data. The coding allowed the researcher to enter the data in the SPSS 15 and run the information. The researcher administered a pilot test by choosing twenty secondary school teachers in Haiti which purpose was to assess reliability of the measures for the present study. The questionnaires contained 29 questions which were categorized by six different variables: student behavior, teacher burnout, parent involvement, salary, work conditions and communication. The research procedure was conducted by the researcher step by step as shown in Fig 3.2 below.. 35.

(36) Identification of the Research Subject. Discussion of the Literature Review. Establishment of Research Questions & Hypotheses. Development the Framework of the Study. Research Design and Method of the study. Sample Selection and Development of the survey. Conduct and Analyze a Pilot Test. Administration of questionnaire. Statistical data analysis. Conclusions & Suggestions. Figure 3.2. The research process. 36.

(37) Research Method In this present study, quantitative method was adopted for fulfilling the purpose and proofing the framework. A questionnaire was developed for survey. All the data which were collected was analyzed. It was designed to investigate whether those main factors (Students behavior, teacher burnout, parent involvement, salary, work conditions, communication) might cause stress in secondary school teachers in Haiti. According to Johnson and Christensen (2004), quantitative research attempts to operate under the assumption of objectivity whereby all observers in the world will look at the same phenomena and basically agree on its existence and characteristics”. In this study the researcher, therefore, had collected data from secondary teacher school to investigate the effect of the demographic variables and the stress factors of secondary school teacher in Haiti who were employed. The test used a Likert’s Scale: and the responses were based on a five point Likert’s Scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly Agree. Teachers were instructed to refer to their stress level while they are teaching in classroom. All respondents supplied their demographic data of gender, age, education level, subjects taught, and tenure. These determined whether they affected or not secondary school teachers stress level. Population and sample The population for this study is only teachers in secondary school in Haiti. The researcher used a non random technique known as convenient sampling. There are 450 secondary schools in Haiti with a population about 9,000 teachers. However, for the purpose and time of the study, the researcher used 20 schools from the Department of West in Haiti. This gives a sample about 400 teachers, all of which was used as the sample population. In the Department of West only 225 secondary school teachers answered the questionnaire. Demographic items results The total of participants who answered the teacher stress survey is two hundred and twenty five (225) which are represented 99% of the total target population. It is important to mention that because the researcher was supported by Principals of school and teachers in secondary school in Haiti almost one hundred percent of the questionnaire were answered. Of the total number, there were one hundred seventy four (174) male who responded. This number 37.

(38) represented 77.3% and fifty one (51) female responded which is represented 22.7% respondents. The data results show that whereas the percentage of teachers who are undergraduate education level is 64% with a total of participants one hundred forty four (144), the percentage of teachers who are graduate or doctorate education level is 36% with the total respondents eighty one (81). In the column of subject teaching “languages”, there were seventy two (72) secondary school teachers represented 32%. For the subject science, ninety one (91) teachers responded; this number represented 40%. For the subject “Humanities”, sixty two (62) answered with a percentage 27%. The table 3.3 below provides a view of the sample population with their demographic, education level, and subjects taught.. 38.

(39) Table 3.1. Demographics items percentages of responses Demographic items. Frequency of response. (N=225) Percentage. Gender Male. 174. 77.3. 51. 22.7. 20 -29 years. 16. 7.1. 30 -39 years. 97. 43.1. 40 -49 years. 96. 42.7. 50 years and up. 16. 7.1. Single. 28. 12.4. Married. 126. 56.0. Divorce. 37. 16.4. Widowed. 28. 12.4. Separated. 6. 2.7. 1 -5 years. 37. 16.4. 6 -10 years. 85. 37.8. 11 -15 years. 82. 36.4. 16 -20 years. 21. 9.3. Female Age. Marital Status. Tenure. Education Level Undergraduate. 144. 64. Graduate. 81. 36. Languages. 72. 32. Science. 91. 40. Humanities. 62. 27. Subjects. 39.

參考文獻

相關文件

Reading Task 6: Genre Structure and Language Features. • Now let’s look at how language features (e.g. sentence patterns) are connected to the structure

Robinson Crusoe is an Englishman from the 1) t_______ of York in the seventeenth century, the youngest son of a merchant of German origin. This trip is financially successful,

fostering independent application of reading strategies Strategy 7: Provide opportunities for students to track, reflect on, and share their learning progress (destination). •

Strategy 3: Offer descriptive feedback during the learning process (enabling strategy). Where the

Hope theory: A member of the positive psychology family. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive

5.1.1 This chapter presents the views of businesses collected from the business survey, 12 including on the number of staff currently recruited or relocated or planned to recruit

There are existing learning resources that cater for different learning abilities, styles and interests. Teachers can easily create differentiated learning resources/tasks for CLD and

• developing coherent short-term and long-term school development plan that aligns the school aims, the needs, interests and abilities of students in accordance with the