賽夏語的子句間關係: 角色與指稱語法的分析

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系博士論文 Doctoral Dissertation Department of English National Taiwan Normal University. 賽夏語的子句間關係: 角色與指稱語法的分析 Interclausal Relations in Tungho Saisiyat: A Role and Reference Grammar Approach. 指導教授: 吳靜蘭博士 Advisor: Dr. Jing-lan Joy Wu 研究生：王建邦 Student: Chien-pang Wang. 中華民國一零七年二月 February, 2018.

(2) Abstract This dissertation investigates juxtaposed verbs in Saisiyat, an Austronesian language of Taiwan. This language exhibits a pervasive phenomenon whereby multiple verbs, which share core arguments, are aligned in a sentence without explicit marking of clausal or phrasal boundary. Such a linguistic pattern gives rise to two questions. First, what is the syntactic status of these juxtaposed verbs? Second, which grammatical constructions do these juxtaposed verbs belong to? To solve these two questions, we want to reach the following goals. The first is to clarify interclausal relations of juxtaposed verbs based on Van Valin & LaPolla (1997), Van Valin (2005) and Van Valin (2007). Three components of interclausal relations are examined, including semantic relations, juncture-nexus combinations and the interface between these two linguistic components, that is the interface between semantics and syntactic structures. The second goal is to classify these juxtaposed verbs into specific grammatical constructions on the basis of their interclausal relations and grammatical properties. Saisiyat exhibits two linguistic idiosyncrasies in terms of (i) the semanticsyntactic interface and (ii) the correspondence between juncture-nexus combinations and grammatical constructions. First, the majority of juxtaposed verbs examined in this dissertation represent the clausal and core junctures, and a minority to the nuclear juncture. Most of juxtaposed verbs display subordination and cosubordination, and none of them exhibits coordination. Second, juxtaposed verbs in the core juncture exhibit more types of constructions than the juxtaposed verbs in the other two junctures. Saisiyat cannot be viewed as a serializing language in a strict sense. Only a small number of semantic relations are expressed through serial verb constructions, while a large number of them are manifested in other types of complex constructions e.g., construction of verbal modifiers and complementation. That is to say, serial verb constructions are not a dominating feature of the complex constructions investigated in this study. Keywords: Saisiyat, Formosan, juxtaposed verbs, interclausal relations, juncturenexus combinations, complex sentences, Role and Reference Grammar. i.

(3) 中文摘要本研究調查賽夏語裡面的並存動詞(juxtaposed verbs)。賽夏是台灣南島語裡面的一個分支，此語言有著大量的此種結構。其中，兩個(或以上)動詞共同出現在一個句子裡面，但無子句或詞組分界的標記，因此其句法地位不甚明確。此議題值得詳究。該模糊的語法現象可從兩個研究方向切入。第一，這些並存動詞的句法地位為何？第二，這些動詞應該被分析為何種構式(constructions)？為了解決這兩個問題，本研究訂立了兩個研究目標。在首要研究目標中，本研究使用角色指稱語法 (Role and Reference Grammar in Van Valin & LaPolla 1997, Van Valin 2005 and Van Valin 2007) 中的一個分析架構：並存動詞的子句間關係 (interclausal relations)，來分析並存動詞的結構。這個架構的分析面相包含了三個層次：語意關係 (semantic relations) ，接合單位 -聯繫關係組合 (juncture-nexus combinations)，以及語意和句法之間的介面。在第二研究目標中，本研究要根據子句間關係和語法特徵，來對這些並存動詞的構式(constructions)做出分類。這兩個面向的研究，亦即（一）接合單位-聯繫關係組合和（二）構式的分類，發現賽夏語兩處語法上的特殊點。首先，並存動詞主要出現在子句 (clausal)和大核心接合(core junctures)，但較少出現在小核心結合(nuclear juncture)。而且，大多數的並存動詞為附屬關係(subordination)與並附關係(cosubordination)。相較之下並列關係(coordination)則尚未被證實。第二，本研究更發現在賽夏語裡面，大核心接合層級的並存動詞，比其他兩個接合層級，擁有較多種類的語法構式。嚴格來講，賽夏語並不能被視為連續動詞語言(serializing languges)。主要原因在於，大部分的並存動詞並不能被判定為連續動詞構式 (serial verb constructions)，而只有少數並存動詞被判定為該類構式。因此連續動詞構式在本文所探討的眾多賽夏複雜句構式裡面，並不是一個主要的語法特徵，而是僅只其中一種。關鍵詞：賽夏語，台灣南島語，並存動詞，子句間關係，複雜句結構，角色與指稱語法. ii.

(4) Acknowledgements “Life has its rhythm and we have ours. They’re designed to coexist in harmony, so that when we do what is ours to do and otherwise let life be, we garner acceptance and serenity. (285)” ― Victoria Moran, Younger by the Day: 365 Ways to Rejuvenate Your Body and Revitalize Your Spirit. Studying complex sentences of Saisiyat is a gaiety that I indulge in this dissertation. This linguistic phenomenon does not only involve every detail in syntax, but also the interaction with semantics, morphology, discourse and even prosody. It took me a period of time to realize such an interaction which may even be more complicated than I presumed at the very beginning. And this is one of the reason why language facts are so important to a linguistic investigation (I deeply appreciate Professor Elizabeth Zeitoun for teaching me this notion throughout these years of training). I would like to pay the greatest gratitude dwelling from the bottom of my heart to the following two figures who played crucial roles in the completion of this dissertation. One goes to Joy J. Wu and the other goes to Elizabeth Zeitoun. Without guidance from these two important figures, I could not have carried out this study by myself. They provided constructive comments and solid linguistic training. I admire their vigorous attitudes as scholars and will look up to as the standard that I should conform to in research. My appreciation goes to Joy J. Wu for resolving my questions of RRG, pointing out murky discussion on Saisiyat sentences, and making suggestions for reorganizing problematic expressions. Furthermore, I would like to pay my deepest gratitude to Professor Elizabeth Zeitoun for supervising the progress of this dissertation, despite her tight schedule. She shows enthusiasm in providing profound advice upon the Saisiyat data and puts effort to share her ideas how to present analyses in a logical and concise method. iii.

(5) I am most grateful to my informants for providing reliable language data during these years of fieldtrips. My appreciation goes to kalih a ’oemaw tition, ’ae’aew a taboe: kaybaybaw, waon a boong ba:bai’, and lalo a taheS kaybaybaw. I would also like to thank my Saisiyat friend, Mrs. Tai-hwa Chu (okay a boa tition), a current teacher of Saisiyat, for sharing her knowledge on the Saisiyat language with me. Among these informants, I would like to commemorate Mr. parain a ’aro’ kaybaybaw (Mr. De-sheng Gao), who passed away one year ago. He was my first teacher of Saisiyat language. During fieldwork sessions, he always showed enthusiasm and patience. I really do not know how to repay the hospitality he afforded when we were working in his home. It is a shame that I cannot give him this final version in person as a token of my gratitude for these past years. For other people who provided assistance in the proposing of this dissertation, I give you my thanks. My appreciation goes to the teachers in the Department of English, National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU), who provided professional linguistic training in my Ph.D. program. I would also like to thank Professor Hsiuchuan Liao and Professor Jung-hsing Chang who shared precious comments on complex sentences. Last, it is an honor to have received advice from the committee members during my oral defense that helped me revise an earlier draft. I would like to pay gratitude to my family with sincerity. My parents have supported this work financially and emotionally during these years. My parents-in-law have helped my wife and I taking care of the children when both of us were terribly busy. Finally, I dedicate this work to my wife for keeping faith in me for such a long time (even when we were under a serious financial crisis a couple of years ago) Thanks to her for bringing me two heavenly beloved children: Adonia and Aslan during the writing of this dissertation. She deserves my deepest appreciation.. iv.

(6) Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii Table of contents ............................................................................................................ v List of tables ................................................................................................................... x List of figures ...............................................................................................................xii List of maps................................................................................................................. xiv Abbreviation ............................................................................................................... xv Conventions ...............................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Defining the terminology and the scope of this research ..................................... 1 1.1.1 Defining the terminology ................................................................................ 1 1.1.2 The scope of this research ................................................................................ 3 1.2 The Saisiyat language ........................................................................................... 5 1.3 Literature review .................................................................................................. 9 1.3.1 Previous studies on Saisiyat grammar .............................................................. 9 1.3.1.1 M. L. Yeh (1991) .................................................................................... 11 1.3.1.2 M. L. Yeh (2000a) .................................................................................. 12 1.3.1.3 M. L. Yeh (2003) .................................................................................... 16 1.3.1.4 M. L. Yeh (2016) .................................................................................... 18 1.3.1.5 Zeitoun (2001) ........................................................................................ 22 1.3.1.6 H. Huang (2003) ..................................................................................... 22 1.3.1.7 Hsieh (2007) ........................................................................................... 24 1.3.2 Previous studies on serial verb constructions in Saisiyat ............................... 26 1.3.2.1 L. Huang (1997) ..................................................................................... 26 1.3.2.2 M. L. Yeh (2000a) and (2016) ................................................................ 27 1.3.2.3 M. Y. Yeh & S. Huang (2009) ............................................................... 29 1.4 Motivations and goals of this study .................................................................... 30 1.5 Summary of chapter 1 ............................................................................................ 32 Chapter 2 The framework ............................................................................................ 37 2.1 The syntactic representations ............................................................................. 39 2.2 Semantic representations .................................................................................... 45 2.3 Grammatical relations ........................................................................................ 50 2.4 Interclausal relations .......................................................................................... 54 2.4.1 Juncture ........................................................................................................... 55 2.4.1.1 Nuclear juncture...................................................................................... 55 2.4.1.2 Core juncture .......................................................................................... 57 2.4.1.3 Clausal juncture ...................................................................................... 58 v.

(7) 2.4.2 Nexus ............................................................................................................. 59 2.4.3 Clause-linkage markers (clms) ...................................................................... 64 2.4.4 Interclausal semantic relations ....................................................................... 65 2.4.5 Mappings in interclausal relations hierarchy ................................................. 66 2.4.6 Constructions and juncture-nexus combinations ........................................... 68 2.5 Summary of chapter 2 ........................................................................................ 69 Chapter 3 A Sketch of Saisiyat grammar ..................................................................... 75 3.1 Saisiyat case marking and voice systems ........................................................... 75 3.1.1 Saisiyat case marking .................................................................................... 75 3.1.2 Saisiyat voice system ..................................................................................... 80 3.2 Affirmative simple clauses ................................................................................. 82 3.3 Saisiyat complex sentences ................................................................................ 85 3.3.1 Complement constructions of Saisiyat .......................................................... 85 3.3.2 Serial verb constructions (SVCs)................................................................... 91 3.3.3 Adverbial clauses ........................................................................................... 91 3.3.4 Coordination constructions ............................................................................ 92 3.3.5 Dislocated structures ...................................................................................... 93 3.4 Saisiyat operators ............................................................................................... 95 3.4.1 Saisiyat nuclear operators .............................................................................. 96 3.4.2 Saisiyat core operators ................................................................................... 98 3.4.2.1 Deontic modality .................................................................................. 99 3.4.2.2 Negation of verbal predicates ............................................................... 99 3.4.3 Saisiyat clausal operators ............................................................................. 103 3.4.3.1 The interrogative clitic =ay (illocutionary force) ............................... 103 3.4.3.2 Realis/irrealis (status) ......................................................................... 104 3.5 Clause-linkage markers (CLMs) ...................................................................... 106 3.5.1 The conjunctor =o ‘and’............................................................................... 106 3.5.2 The CLMs kayzaeh ‘and then’ and ’aewhay ‘otherwise’ ............................ 111 3.5.3 The CLM’isa:............................................................................................... 112 3.5.4 The CLM komosha: ..................................................................................... 114 3.6 The ligature ka .................................................................................................. 117 3.7 Overall summary .............................................................................................. 117 Chapter 4 Interclausal relations in the nuclear juncture............................................. 121 4.1 Juxtaposed verbs showing the beginning and continuing phases .................... 121 4.1.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing the beginning and continuing phases .................................................................................. 124 4.1.2 Juncture-nexus combinations of juxtaposed verbs expressing the beginning and continuing phases ................................................................. 130 4.1.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing the beginning and vi.

(8) continuing phases ............................................................................... 131 4.1.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing the beginning and continuing phases ............................................................................... 134 4.1.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 141 4.2 Juxtaposed verbs showing manner relations .................................................... 143 4.2.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing the manner relation ...................................................................................... 143 4.2.2 Juncture-nexus combinations of juxtaposed verbs expressing the manner relation ......................................................................................................... 148 4.2.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing the manner relation .............. 148 4.2.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing the manner relation ................. 149 4.3 Overall summary .............................................................................................. 157 Chapter 5 Interclausal relations in the core juncture ............................................... 161 5.1 Juxtaposed verbs expressing the finishing phase ............................................. 161 5.1.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs the finishing phase ................ 162 5.1.2 Juncture-nexus combinations ....................................................................... 168 5.1.2.1 Junctures of juxtaposed verbs expressing the finishing phase ............. 168 5.1.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing the finishing phase .................. 170 5.1.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 177 5.2 Juxtaposed verbs expressing motion, position and means relations (modifying subevents) ...................................................................................... 178 5.2.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing motion, position and means relations (modifying subevents) ................................... 178 5.2.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 186 5.2.2.1 Junctures of juxtaposed verbs expressing motion, position and means relations (modifying subevents) ....................................... 186 5.2.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing motion, position and means relations (modifying subevents) ......................................................... 191 5.2.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 197 5.3 Juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation .......................................... 201 5.3.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation .................................................................................... 201 5.3.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 207 5.3.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation ......... 207 5.3.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verb expressing psych-action relation .............. 211 5.3.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 217 5.4 Juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation in Saisiyat............................. 218 5.4.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation in Saisiyat ....................................................................... 219 vii.

(9) 5.4.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 224 5.4.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation .............. 224 5.4.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation ................. 227 5.4.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 232 5.5 Juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception relation ...................................... 234 5.5.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception relation ............................................................................. 234 5.5.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 239 5.5.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception ................ 239 5.5.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception ................... 241 5.5.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 245 5.6 Overall summary .............................................................................................. 246 Chapter 6 Interclausal relations in the clausal juncture ............................................. 249 6.1 Juxtaposed verbs showing cognition relation in Saisiyat ................................. 249 6.1.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs showing cognition relation ... 249 6.1.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 252 6.1.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing cognition relation ............... 252 6.1.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing cognition relation .................. 255 6.1.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 258 6.2 Juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ......................................... 259 6.2.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ................................................................................... 260 6.2.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 263 6.2.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ......... 263 6.2.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ............ 265 6.2.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 267 6.3 Juxtaposed verbs expressing sequential relation .............................................. 268 6.3.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing sequential relation ........................................................................................ 269 6.3.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 275 6.3.2.1 Juncture of juxtaposed verbs expressing sequential relation.............. 275 6.3.2.2 Nexus of juxtaposed verb expressing sequential relation .................. 278 6.3.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 281 6.4 Juxtaposed verbs of dislocated structures in clausal juncture .......................... 283 6.4.1 Grammatical properties of dislocated structures ......................................... 284 6.4.2 Juncture-nexus combinations....................................................................... 295 6.4.2.1 Clausal junctures of dislocated structures .......................................... 295 6.4.2.2 Nexus of dislocated structures............................................................ 297 6.4.3 Interim summary .......................................................................................... 302 viii.

(10) 6.5 Overall summary.................................................................................................. 304 Chapter 7 Saisiyat serial verb constructions and related grammatical constructions in interclausal relations hierarchy ..................................... 307 7.1 Previous studies of SVCs ................................................................................. 310 7.2 Three linguistic phenomena that concerns the serial verb-analysis for Saisiyat juxtaposed verbs ................................................................................. 314 7.2.1 The ellipsis of core arguments in juxtaposed verbs ..................................... 314 7.2.2 Voice marking of Saisiyat SVCs ................................................................. 317 7.2.3 Modifying positions of operators ................................................................. 319 7.3 Reexamining the svc-or-not analysis for Saisiyat juxtaposed verbs .................... 320 7.4 The relations between juxtaposed verbs and serial verbs .................................... 322 7.4.1 Nuclear serialization and juxtaposed verbs in nuclear juncture .................. 329 7.4.2 Core serialization and juxtaposed verbs in core juncture ............................ 333 7.4.2.1 Core serialization of same-nominative argument type ....................... 335 7.4.2.2 Core serialization of switch-nominative argument ............................ 340 7.5 Overall summary .................................................................................................. 343 Chapter 8 Verbal coordination and related complex constructions in Saisiyat ......... 345 8.1 Verbal coordination ............................................................................................. 346 8.2 Verbal modifiers .................................................................................................. 355 8.3 Complementation ................................................................................................. 362 8.3.1 Finite complements ...................................................................................... 362 8.3.2 Non-finite complements ............................................................................... 365 8.3.2.1 Control constructions ........................................................................... 365 8.3.2.2 shi-marked complements ..................................................................... 369 8.3.2.3 Gerundive complements ...................................................................... 372 8.4 Overall summary .................................................................................................. 374 Chapter 9 Concluding remarks .................................................................................. 379 9.1 Language specific traits of saisiyat in interclausal relation and complex sentences ........................................................................................................... 379 9.2 Mapping in interclausal relation hierarchy ....................................................... 383 9.3 The correspondence between juncture-nexus combinations and grammatical constructions ................................................................................ 385 9.4 A miscellaneous issue of complex predicates: verbal compound .................... 387 9.5 Two implications .............................................................................................. 390 References .................................................................................................................. 393. ix.

(11) List of Tables Table 1.1 Saisiyat informants of the Tungho dialect ................................................ 8 Table 1.2 Previous studies on Saisiyat ...................................................................... 9 Table 1.3 Simple clauses of Saisiyat ....................................................................... 13 Table 1.4 Saisiyat complementation clauses according to M. L. Yeh (2000a:133-141) ........................................................................... 14 Table 1.5 Saisiyat adverbial clauses according to M. L. Yeh (2000a:146-152) ..... 15 Table 1.6 Saisiyat relative clauses and coordination constructions according to M. L. Yeh (2000a:142-146; 152-154) ...................................... 16 Table 1.7 Saisiyat clausal complements according to M. L. Yeh (2016:191) ........ 21 Table 1.8 The functions of aspectual markers in Saisiyat ....................................... 24 Table 2.1 Layered structure of a clause (LSC)........................................................ 41 Table 2.2 Logical structures .................................................................................... 47 Table 2.3 Restricted neutralization of semantic roles ............................................. 53 Table 2.4 Nootkta nexus-juncture linkage .............................................................. 69 Table 3.1 Saisiyat case marking system .................................................................. 76 Table 3.2 Saisiyat personal pronouns ...................................................................... 79 Table 3.3 The types of affirmative simple clauses in Saisiyat ................................ 83 Table 3.4 The division of Saisiyat operators ......................................................... 106 Table 3.5 Structural concordance of the CLM ’isa: ‘then’ ................................... 113 Table 3.6 Criteria of identifying juncture types in Saisiyat .................................. 121 Table 3.7 Criteria of identifying nexus types in Saisiyat ...................................... 122 Table 4.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs showing phasal relations ............................................................................................ 130 Table 4.2 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs showing manner relation ............................................................................................ 148 Table 4.3 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs in nuclear junctures .................................... 158 Table 5.1. Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs showing the finishing phase ....................................................................................... 167 Table 5.2 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing motion, position and means relations ........................................................................ 186 Table 5.3 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation .................................................................................... 207 Table 5.4 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation ......................................................................................................... 224 Table 5.5 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception relation ............................................................................. 238 Table 5.6 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs in core juncture .......................................... 248 x.

(12) Table 6.1 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing cognition relation ......................................................................................... 252 Table 6.2 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ................................................................................... 263 Table 6.3 Grammatical properties of juxtaposed verbs expressing sequential relation ........................................................................................ 275 Table 6.4 Structural correspondence between juxtaposed verbs and dislocated structures ...................................................................................................... 285 Table 6.5 Juncture-nexus correspondence between juxtaposed verbs and dislocated structures .............................................................................. 302 Table 6.6 Nexus of juxtaposed verbs in clausal juncture ...................................... 304 Table 7.1 SVC conditions and their grammatical manifestation .......................... 329 Table 7.2 Juxtaposed verbs in nuclear juncture and SVC conditions ................... 330 Table 7.3 Juxtaposed verbs in core juncture and SVC conditions ........................ 334 Table 8.1 The division of SVCs and non-SVCs in nuclear junctures ................... 345 Table 8.2 Verbal coordination in interclausal relations ........................................ 349 Table 8.3 Two types of verbal modifier construction ........................................... 361 Table 8.4 Complement types of juxtaposed verbs in Saisiyat ............................... 375 Table 9.1 The distribution of nexus of juxtaposed verbs ...................................... 382 Table 9.2 Correspondence between juncture-nexus combinations and grammatical constructions in Saisiyat .................................................. 386. xi.

(13) List of Figures Figure 1.1 Classification of Saisiyat complex sentences based on M. L. Yeh (2000a)..................................................................................... 13 Figure 1.2 Relations between focus markers and thematic roles ............................. 17 Figure 1.3 The mappings between NAF affixes and thematic roles according to M. L. Yeh (2003:84) ................................................................................. 17 Figure 1.4 Semantic extension of I/BF according to M. L. Yeh (2003:109) ........... 18 Figure 1.5 Classifications of Saisiyat complex sentences in M. L. Yeh (2016) ...... 19 Figure 2.1 General structure of Role and Reference Grammar ............................... 38 Figure 2.2 Universal oppositions underlying clause structure ................................. 40 Figure 2.3 Components of the layered structure of the clause ................................. 40 Figure 2.4 The layered structure and operator projections ...................................... 42 Figure 2.5 The layered structure and operator projections in English ..................... 43 Figure 2.6 Thematic relations continuum in terms of argument positions .............. 48 Figure 2.7 The actor-undergoer hierarchy ............................................................... 50 Figure 2.8 Nexus types ............................................................................................ 59 Figure 2.9 Interclausal relations hierarchy............................................................... 68 Figure 4.1a Nexus types of juxtaposed verb showing the beginning and continuing phases .................................................................................... 134 Figure 4.1b The rationale of the subordination analysis ........................................ 135 Figure 4.2a The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the beginning phase in Saisiyat ...................................................................................... 142 Figure 4.2b The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the continuing phase in Saisiyat ...................................................................................... 143 Figure 4.3a The nexus type of juxtaposed verbs expressing the manner relation . 150 Figure 4.3b The rationale of the subordination analysis ........................................ 150 Figure 4.4 The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing manner relation in Saisiyat ................................................................................... 157 Figure 4.5 The interclausal relation hierarchy of juxtaposed verbs expressing phasal and manner relations .................................................................... 159 Figure 5.1a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs showing the finishing phase........... 171 Figure 5.1b The rationale of subordination analyses ............................................. 172 Figure 5.2 The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the finishing phase ........................................................................................ 177 Figure 5.3a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs showing motion, position and means relations ........................................................................................ 192 Figure 5.3b The rationale of (co)subordination analyses ....................................... 193 xii.

(14) Figure 5.4a The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing motion relation .................................................................................................... 198 Figure 5.4b The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the means relation .................................................................................................... 199 Figure 5.4c The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the position relation .................................................................................................... 200 Figure 5.5a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation.... 211 Figure 5.5b The rationale for the subordination analysis ...................................... 212 Figure 5.6 The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing psych-action relation .................................................................................................... 218 Figure 5.7a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs expressing purposive relation ........ 228 Figure 5.7b The rationale of the cosubordination analysis .................................... 228 Figure 5.8a The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the limited type of purposive relation ....................................................................... 233 Figure 5.8b The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing the unlimited type of purposive relation ................................................. 233 Figure 5.9a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs expressing direction perception relation .................................................................................................... 241 Figure 5.9b The rationale of the subordination analysis ........................................ 246 Figure 5.10 The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing direct perception ................................................................................................ 247 Figure 5.11 The interclausal relation hierarchy of juxtaposed verbs in core juncture.................................................................................................... 245 Figure 6.1a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs expressing cognition relation ......... 255 Figure 6.1b The rationale of the subordination analysis ........................................ 256 Figure 6.2 The layered structure of juxtaposed verbs expressing cognition relation .................................................................................... 259 Figure 6.3a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs expressing simultaneous relation ... 265 Figure 6.3b The rationale of the subordination analysis ........................................ 266 Figure 6.4 Layered structure of juxtaposed verbs showing simultaneous relation .............................................................................. 268 Figure 6.5a Nexus types of juxtaposed verbs showing sequential relation ........... 278 Figure 6.5b The rationale of the cosubordination analysis .................................... 279 Figure 6.6a Layered structure showing the detached type of juxtaposed verbs showing sequential relation ..................................................................... 282 Figure 6.6b Layered structure of the immediate type of juxtaposed verbs showing sequential relation ..................................................................... 283 Figure 6.7a Nexus types of dislocated structures ................................................... 298 xiii.

(15) Figure 6.7b The rationale of the (co)subordination analysis ................................. 298 Figure 6.8a Layered structure of dislocated structures: The argument type of subordination ........................................................................................... 303 Figure 6.8b Layered structure of dislocated structures: Cosubordination ............. 303 Figure 6.9 The interclausal relation hierarchy of juxtaposed verbs and dislocated structures in clausal juncture ................................................................... 305 Figure 9.1 The distribution of juncture-nexus combinations of juxtaposed verbs in Saisiyat ................................................................................................ 380 Figure 9.2 The interclausal relation hierarchy of juxtaposed verbs in Saisiyat ..... 384 Figure 9.3a The template of verbal compound: Nuclear cosubordination ............. 389 Figure 9.3b The template of coordinating predicates: Nuclear coordination ........ 389. List of maps Map 1.1 Geographical distribution of Saisiyat within the Formosan languages ....... 6 Map 1.2 Distribution of the Saisiyat dialects ............................................................. 7. xiv.

(16) Abbreviations A ARG ACC AF ART ASP AV CAUS COM COMP CONJ CONT COORD COS DAT DIR DYN GEN GER EXP HAB I/BF IF IMP INCH INTENS IRR LIG LNK LOC LOCNMLZ MOD. N N. NEG NMLZ NOM. actor argument accusative agent Focus article aspect actor voice causative comitative complementatizer conjunction continuative coordination change of state dative directional dynamic genitive gerundive experiencer habitual instrument/Beneficiary Focus instrument Focus imperative inchoative intensifier irrealis ligature linker location locative nominalization modal noun a number of negation nominalization nominative xv.

(17) NP. noun Phrase. OPT. optative perfective perfect patient Focus plural personal noun possessive predicate progressive past. PERF PFT PF PL PN POSS PRED PROG PST Q R REAL RED. RRG SA SF SG STAT TA TR. U UV UVL UVP UVC. V VP 1 2 3. interrogative marker pemote realis reduplication Role and Reference Grammar same actor singular feminine singular stative tense-aspect marker transitive undergoer undergoer voice undergoer voice—locative undergoer voice—patient undergoer voice—circumstance verb verb phrases first person second person third per. xvi.

(18) Conventions : (in gloss) indivisible morpheme boundary . (in gloss) promentaue morpheme <> (in gloss) infixation (in transcription & gloss) morpheme boundary = (in transcription & gloss) clitic boundary (*) (in transcription) a unit in parenthesis that should not occur *() (in transcription) a unit in parenthesis that should not be deleted *‘English translation’ ungrammatical sentence ?‘English translation’ barely acceptable sentence (for pragmatic V1 V2 , . ≈. +. oddness or cultural inappropriateness) the firstly occurred verb in a sentence the secondly occurred verb in a sentence intonation break end of a sentence being paraphrased into two linguistic constituents/events are combined. xvii.

(19) Chapter 1 Introduction This dissertation investigates the semantics and syntax of complex constructions in Saisiyat, with a focus on its juxtaposed verbs. Saisiyat is one of the Formosan languages which belong to the Austronesian family. The language data is based on the Tungho dialect. The analysis proposed in this dissertation is based on Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), as presented in Van Valin & LaPolla (1997), Van Valin (2005) and Van Valin (2007). Section 1.1 presents the definitions regarding the terminology used in this dissertation as well as the scope of this research. I then turn to the literature review, and state my research motivations and goals in the subsequent sections.. 1.1 Defining the terminology and the scope of this research Section 1.1.1 introduces definitions. In section 1.1.2, I outline the scope of this research by illustrating the phenomena investigated with a number of examples.. 1.1.1 Defining the terminology The definitions of the following terms are based on Payne (1997), Zeitoun et al. (2015).

(20) and Kroeger (2005) and apply specifically to Saisiyat. 1 They are given in terms of the relevance to the present discussion.. Juxtaposed verbs: Verbs or verb phrases that co-occur together in a single sentence without linking elements such as ligatures or coordinators that are not obiligatorily present. Mono-clausal structure: A mono-clause that stands for a syntactic unit consisting of a predicating element and its arguments (cf. Payne 1997:71). It represents the smallest syntactic unit that expresses a complete proposition (Kroeger 2005:342). Core arguments of a mono-clause may be elided under pragmatic influence but they can be realized for emphasis. Bi-clausal structure: A syntactic constituent that is composed of two or more monoclauses. Each clause has its own nominative argument which may be elided in non-initial clauses under pragmatic influence. Complement: A dependent unit which is selected by a matrix unit. A complement may be a finite syntactic unit (such as a full-fledged clause) or non-finite syntactic unit (such as a verb without voice marking). It may be a subject (e.g., That John won the game surprises everyone) or an object (e.g., Lisa 1. This study also adopts certain terms of Role and Reference Grammar (Van Valin & LaPolla 1997, Van Valin 2005 and Van Valin 2007). The rest of the terminology relies on Role and Reference Grammar will be presented in chapter 2. 2.

(21) persuaded me to buy the ring). Finite verb: A verb which can be individually marked by functional categories such as aspect and mood. In most of conditions, these verbs exhibit explicit voice marking.2 Non-finite verb: A verb which cannot be marked by functional categories (as in negative or imperative clauses). It appears in its base form. Gerund: A constituent which exhibits certain noun-like properties such as taking place in argument position in a mono-clause (cf. Zeitoun et al. 2015:489-492).. 1.1.2 The scope of this present research In Saisiyat, juxtaposed verbs can be pervasively observed occurring in single sentences. They display a bundle of grammatical features that suggest they may not belong to a linguistically homogeneous type. For example, such verbs express a wide range of semantic relations e.g., phasal relation, a modifying subevent, psych-action and sequential relation as shown in (1.1a-d) respectively.. 2. In Saisiyat, verbs that exhibit AV zero marking do not fit into this definition. For instance, the verb kishkaat ‘to study, to read’ appears in a AV construction in its bare form. It does not exhibit the AV form *komishkaat or *ma-kishkaat (intended for *‘AV.study’). 3.

(22) (1.1) Juxtaposed verbs that express various semantic relations a. aro’. pil-’al’alay t<om>alek PN cook-start <AV>cook ‘Aro starts to cook rice.’ (phasal relation). ka ACC. pazay. rice. b. korkoring miririi’ k<om>ita’ ka kinaat. child AV:stand <AV>see ACC book ‘The child is reading books standing.’ (modifying subevents) c. yako ma-ngoip r<om>a’oe: 1SG.NOM AV-forget <AV>drink ‘I forgot to take (my) medicine.’. ka. ’io’. ACC medicine (psych-action). d. ma’an korkoring min’itol, s<om>i’ael ka 1SG.GEN child AV:wake.up <AV>eat ACC ‘My child woke up and ate candies.’ (sequential relation). walo’. candy. Moreover, the use of an intonation break between the two juxtaposed verbal units is not consistent across juxtaposed verbs. Some juxtaposed verbs are uttered with a pause in (1.2a), but some of them are not as in (1.2b).. (1.2) Examples of juxtaposed verbs with or without a pause a. yako k<om>ahoes ka ralom, sh<om>iboeh. 1SG.NOM <AV>ladle ACC water <AV>pour ‘I ladled water and poured it (in a container).’ b. korkoring ’aemoeh manraan. child quick AV.walk ‘The child walked quickly.’. Furthermore, some juxtaposed verbs allow the insertion of the conjunctor =o ‘and’ as in (1.3a), but others do not as in (1.3b).. 4.

(23) (1.3) Examples of juxtaposed verbs in Saisiyat with or without the insertion of the conjunctor =o a. sia [min’itol](=o) [s<om>i’ael 3SG.NOM AV:wake.up(=CONJ) <AV>eat ‘He/She woke up and ate candies.’ b. ’aro’. [ma-ngoip](*=o) [r<om>a’oe: PN AV-forget(*=CONJ) <AV>drink=CONJ ‘Aro forgot to take (the) medicine.’. ka ACC. ka ACC. walo’]. candy ’io’]. medicine. These juxtaposed verbs do not simply represent the combination of two verbal units in their surface forms. Instead, they involve a problem of unclear borderline between mono-clauses and bi-/multiple clauses. They also raise the importance of discussing the semantics of these complex constructions, together with the interface between syntax and semantics. Before describing the research motivations and specifying the goals of this study, I will first introduce some background on the Saisiyat population, my fieldwork and informants in section 1.2. I will further summarize previous studies that are related to this study in section 1.3.. 1.2 The Saisiyat language Saisiyat is spoken in North-western Taiwan. Map 1.1 illustrates the location of the Saisiyat speech community and the distribution of Formosan languages. The Saisiyat population is estimated at 6,500 as of March 20173 but the number of fluent speakers. 3. Based on the census provided by the Council of Indigenous People (https://www.apc.gov.tw). 5.

(24) of Saisiyat is much below. The actual amount of fluent speakers is hard to be precisely apprehended but it might not exceed 1000. They do not only speak Saisiyat but also speaks Mandarin and Hakka.. Map 1.1. Geographical distribution of Saisiyat within the Formosan languages (Zeitoun et al. 2015:3). Saisiyat includes two dialects (P. Li 1978): the Taai dialect is spoken in Wufeng Township, Hsinchu County, and is known as the dialect of the northern area. The Tungho dialect is spoken in Nanchuang and Shitan Townships, Miaoli County and referred to as the dialect of the southern area. Map 1.2 illustrates the distribution of these two dialects.. 6.

(25) Map 1.2. Distribution of the Saisiyat dialects (Zeitoun et al. 2015:5). According to P. Li (1978), the main difference between these two dialects resides in phonology and lexicon. With respect to phonology, the two dialects differ in the apical fricatives and the loss of the flap. The apical fricatives are pronounced as /θ/ and /ð/ in the Tungho dialect and /s/ and /z/ in the Taai dialect. The flap /ɾ/ was kept in the Taai dialect4 until the 1980’s but has long been lost in the Tungho dialect. The two dialects also display semantic differences in some lexical words. For example, the word rarahoe’ refers to one’s eyes as big in the Taai dialect but not in the Tungho dialect. Rather it means a tremendous quantity of things such as a huge pile of fruit (M. L. Yeh 2003). The Taai community lives among the Squliq Atayal. Therefore 4. Note that the flap is not heard anymore in the Taai dialect nowadays (E. Zeitoun p.c.).. 7.

(26) speakers of this dialect have been deeply affected by Atayal and learn to speak Atayal rather than Saisiyat. Unless specified otherwise, all the Saisiyat examples were collected by myself through fieldwork. Table 1.1 lists the basic information of my informants. Three of them belong to the elder generation (over 80 years old), who use Tungho Saisiyat as their mother tongue as well as advanced Mandarin (with proficient listening ability, together with less-proficient speaking ability regarding higher level of vocabulary and accurate pronunciation of tones).. Table 1.1 Saisiyat informants of the Tungho dialect Saisiyat Name Chinese Name. Gender. Age. Community. kalih a ’oemaw tition A-liang Zhu. Male. 1928-2015. Tungho (Xiangtianhu). parain a ’aro’ kaybaybaw De-sheng Gao. Male. 1928-2017. Tungho. 5. ’ae’aew a taboe: kaybaybaw Yang-zhao Gao. Female. 1932-. Tungho (has been residing in Taoyuan county in recent years). waon a boong ba:bai’ Yu-yun Feng. Female. 1943-. Penglai. lalo a taheS kaybaybaw. Female. 1967-. Tungho. 5. Language proficiency Saisiyat: fluent Mandarin: advanced Hakka: advanced Japanese: fluent Saisiyat: fluent Mandarin: advanced Hakka: advanced Japanese: fluent Saisiyat: fluent Mandarin: advanced Hakka: basic Japanese: advanced Saisiyat: fluent Mandarin: advanced Hakka: advanced Japanese: none Saisiyat: fluent Mandarin: fluent Hakka: fluent Japanese: none. This study collects Saisiyat data since 2012. The first two of my informants kalih a ’oemaw tition (Mr. A-liang Zhu) and parain a ’aro’ kaybaybaw (Mr. De-sheng Gao) have passed away in 2015 and 2017, respectively. Starting from 2014, the latter informant had no longer worked with me in field works due to his ill health. My informants are the other three persons from 2015 to present. 8.

(27) 1.3 Literature review Section 1.3 introduces previous research on the morphosyntax of Saisiyat. This section is divided into two subsections. The studies which are directly related to this dissertation are further summarized in sections 1.3.1.1-1.3.1.7. Section 1.3.2 introduces previous studies that are related to serial verb constructions of Saisiyat.. 1.3.1 Previous studies on Saisiyat grammar This section introduces previous research on the morphosyntax of Saisiyat. Early studies on Saisiyat grammar focused on phonology, vocabulary, and transcription of folktales. Later studies concerns morphosyntactic issues. Table 1.2 lists previous studies on Saisiyat grammar in the order of their published year.. Table 1.2 Previous studies on Saisiyat Author, year Ogawa and Asai, 1935 Chao et al., 1954 Tsuchida, 1964 P. Li, 1978 M. L. Yeh, 1991 M. L. Yeh, 1995a M. L. Yeh, 1995b Zeitoun et al., 1996. Description This is a monograph which presents a collection of Saisiyat folktales and a brief sketch of the grammar. This is a phonological study of Saisiyat. The authors report their investigation of Saisiyat vowels, consonants systems together with syllable structures. They also present a collection of lexical items. This is a phonological study of Saisiyat. The author examines the phonological inventory of Saisiyat and discusses phonological rules in Saisiyat. P. Li (1978) transcribes vocabulary from Taai and Tungho dialect and discusses the case marking system and other related issues such as basic phonological division between two dialects. This is a MA thesis which deals with the phonology and syntax of Saisiyat. Details regarding some these issues are given in Section 1.3.1.1 Yeh presents the research findings on the focus and case marking system in Saisiyat based on Yeh (1991) as well as her further fieldnotes. Yeh (1995b) presents research findings on tense and aspect marking and several temporal expressions in Saisiyat. Zeitoun et al. (1996) investigate the temporal, aspect and modal systems (TAM henceforth) of Formosan languages. The authors claim that in Saisiyat, there is no distinction between past and present. Moreover Saisiyat exhibits a mixed system of both modal auxiliary and affixation to 9.

(28) L. Huang, 1997 L. Huang et al., 1998. M. L. Yeh, 2000a M. L. Yeh, 2000b. M. L. Yeh, 2000c M. L. Yeh, 2000d M. L. Yeh, 2003 M. L. Yeh, 2016 Zeitoun, 2001. H. Huang, 2003 Chiang and Chiang, 2005 Zeitoun and Wu, 2005. Hsieh, 2007. Hsieh and S. Huang, 2006. Zeitoun et al., 2011. denote future events. This is a conference paper. The author introduces the typological features of SVCs in Formosan language. Her analysis will be introduced in Chapter 7. The authors present a typological analysis of the nominal case marking systems of Formosan languages. Saisiyat is considered as a language with a rich case marking system. The fact that nominative and accusative case markers are identical is said to have lead to the SVO order in AF clauses. Yeh (2000a) is one of monographs of the series on Formosan grammars. It provides a sketch of Saisiyat grammar. A detailed summary is given in Section 1.3.1.2. Yeh (2000b) shows that nominalization in Saisiyat represents different degrees of decategorization between nouns and verbs. Syntactic nominalization is used as background information and can be treated as a neutral category between verbs and nouns. Lexical nominalization can be treated as the noun category for deriving nouns and introduce an argument into the clause. Yeh (2000c) discusses Saisiyat negators. The author recognizes six negators: ’oka’, ’okay, ’okik, ’amkay, ’amkik, ’izi’,’i’ini, and kayni’ 6 according to their functions and syntactic distributions. Yeh (2000d) discusses four types of reduplication. The author argues that a reduplicant remains invariant in the reduplicating process, and is independent of the hierarchical structure of the copied morpheme. In this dissertation, the author addresses two main issues: (i) forms and meanings of focus affixes in Saisiyat and (ii) the division of non-actor focus (NAF). Section 1.3.1.3 summarizes this study. M. L. Yeh (2016) is a sketch grammar of Saisiyat. The author provides new findings. An overview of this work is given in Section 1.3.1.4. This squib revisits Yeh’s (2000c) analysis. The author (2001) claims that a negation marker in Saisiyat is composed of a negator with a ligature followed or not by the consonant -k. The use of the ligature (and the (non-)occurrence of the consonant) is triggered by verb classes (either dynamic or stative). This study is further discussed in Section 1.3.1.5. This thesis addresses the notions of tense, aspect and reality of Saisiyat and Tsou. The analyses on Saisiyat are summarized in Section 1.3.1.6. This journal paper is on Saisiyat pitch accent. The authors observe that Saisiyat lexical words exhibit an acoustic pattern whereby the accented syllable in a lexical word shows the greatest pitch range from other nonaccented syllables. In this journal paper, the authors provide an alternative analysis from M. L. Yeh (2000d, 2003) on Saisiyat reduplication. The authors show that in Saisiyat there is a mismatch between a prosodic copying unit and its corresponding semantic meaning. This is a dissertation that deals with the language of emotion in Kavalan and Saisiyat. The author investigates the shi-construction, i.e., referential focus sentences as well as thinking verbs in Saisiyat. Her findings are further summarized in Section 1.3.1.7. In this journal paper, the authors explain zero marking in the nominative from a pragmatic perspective. They claim that the absence of nominative case markers is ascribed to ongoing word order change from a V-initial to a subject-initial, the main function of this change being to introduce a new referent into discourse. Moreover, they also account for the coding of the recipients in ditransitive sentences in which the recipient is marked as either dative or accusative. This dual marking is determined by the spatial or psychological distance between the agent and the recipient. In this journal paper, the authors claim that the connector ki, which also. 6. Whenever necessary, I have changed transcriptions in certain words to conform to my own transcriptions 10.

(29) Cheng, 2011 Chao, 2013 Zeitoun et al., 2015. Chou, 2016. functions as a comitative case marker, contrasts with the connector =o. The major piece of evidence is that ki can be pluralized i.e. ki-l while =o cannot. Moreover, ki cannot connect two non-nominal elements such as *VP ki VP but =o can. Other tests like word order, negation and verbal classification also support this analysis. This thesis discusses transitivity and ergativity of Saisiyat. Cheng observes that Saisiyat exhibits both ergative and accusative patterns in case marking but only displays ergative pattern in conjunction reduction. This is a thesis that discusses the grammaticalization of the utterance verb kosha: ‘say’ of Saisiyat. This verb is worthy investigating for its multiple discourse functions. This study will be discussed in Section 3.5.4. This is a monograph which extensively presents the morphology of Saisiyat. Several topics are addressed in this book, including morphological processes, word classes, nominal morphology, verbal morphology, negation and composite verbs. Chapter 3, a basic sketch of Saisiyat, will introduce Zeitoun et al.’s (2015) discussion of Saisiyat morphosyntax that involves complex sentences in Saisiyat. This journal paper discusses object control (OC) constructions in Saisiyat from the perspective of formal syntactic theory. The author considers that an OC construction is atemporal as its temporal frame is dependent on the matrix clause. The author proposes two types of canonical and noncanonical types. This structure will be discussed in section 8.3.. Below, I summarize the books or papers that are related to this research. These works were first introduced in Table 1.2 and were cross-referenced if selected for a longer summary.. 1.3.1.1 M. L. Yeh (1991) M. L. Yeh (1991) reports that Saisiyat is not an absolute verb-initial language. Nonactor focus (NAF) sentences exhibit free order. In actor focus (AF)7 sentences, word order is strictly aligned as ActorVerbObject. She ascribes the divergent word orders to case syncretism in the nominative and accusative sets. Actors do not require any case. 7. As explained in Starosta (2002), Austronesian ‘focus’ is commonly assumed to be a kind of subjectverb agreement whereby the predicate agrees with the subject in theta-role. His paper shows that Austronesian focus is not voice inflection but rather lexical derivation. Following Starosta (2002), in this dissertation, I will use the term ‘voice’ to refer to subject-verb agreement instead. of ‘focus’ as used in M. L. Yeh (2000a) (cf. Table 1.4). Whenever the term ‘focus’ is used, it retains the original usage of a particular author. 11.

(30) marker in most AF sentences and if they do, they are marked by ka, which also marks patient arguments in AF sentences. Consequently it is difficult to discern grammatical relations in AF sentences under such conditions. Therefore the word order is essentially used to signal grammatical relations in AF sentences.. 1.3.1.2 M. L. Yeh (2000a) M. L. Yeh (2000a) elaborates on Saisiyat morphology and syntax based on M. L. Yeh’s (1991) findings. This section focuses on her revised analyses of the case marking and voice marking. For case marking, she identifies the semantic roles that cases designate. The nominative case encodes actor, experiencer, instrument, patient, theme, location, and reason. The accusative case encodes patient and theme. The genitive case is used for possessor, actor, experiencer, and instrument. The dative case encodes a beneficiary. The locative case encodes location and source arguments. M. L. Yeh (2000a) also introduces structures of simple clauses. Her introduction includes a discussion on existential, possessive, locative, imperative and negative clauses. Table 1.3 summarizes this part.. 12.

(31) Table 1.3 Simple clauses of Saisiyat (from M. L. Yeh 2000a:105-109) Types. Descriptions. Existential clauses. Introducing a theme. Possessive clauses. Introducing possession. Locative clauses. Locative phrases as predicates. Imperative clauses. Predicates occurring in infinite forms. Example hayza: ’aehae’ kaehoey ray taew’an have one tree LOC house ‘There is a tree beside a house. ’ yako hayza: too’ korkoring. 1SG.NOM have three child ‘I have three children.’ korkoring ray taew’an. child LOC house ‘The child is at home.’ shebet ka korkoring! beat ACC child ‘Beat the child!’. rangi’. beside. She classifies complex sentences into four categories: clausal complementation, relative clauses, adverbial constructions and coordination constructions. Figure 1.1 schematizes this classification.. Complex sentences. clausal complementation. relative clauses. stat. dyn. adverbial constructions. coordination constructions. reason, reason …etc.. verbal nominal. SVCs pivotal cognition utterance constructions constructions constructions. Figure 1.1 Classification of Saisiyat complex sentences based on M. L. Yeh (2000a). 13.

(32) Complementation includes serial verb constructions (SVCs), pivotal , cognition and utterance constructions. Relative clauses are divided into two types: stative and dynamic types. Adverbial sentences contain reason, concessive, conditional, purposive and temporal constructions. Coordination includes verbal and nominal types. Table 1.4 summarizes complementation described in M. L. Yeh (2000a).. Table 1.4 Saisiyat complementation clauses according to M. L. Yeh (2000a:133-141) Type Serial verb constructions (SVCs). Pivotal constructions. Cognition constructions. Utterance constructions. Description Verbs are serialized without conjunctors, and share arguments. They usually denote a sequential meaning The patient of the 1st verb is the actor of the 2nd verb. Example baki’ ’am=m-wai’ kanman s<om>i’ael grandfather IRR=AF-come 1SG.LOC <AF>eat ka pazay. ACC rice ‘Grandfather will come to my house to have a meal. ’ baki’ sh<om>iwa: shi-’osha’ nisia. grandfather <AF>promise I/BF-go 3SG.GEN ‘Grandfather permitted him to leave.’. The complement clause is introduced by cognition verbs e.g., komoha: ‘say (AV)’ It introduces a protagonist’s point of view. yako bazae’ k<om>osha: baki’ 1SG.NOM hear <AF>say grandfather ‘I heard that grandfather will come (here).’. ’am=m-wai’. IRR=AF-come. baki’ ma’yakai’ (komosha:) ’am=m-wai’. grandfather AV:tell (COMP) IRR=AV-come ‘Grandfather said that he will come (here).’. Table 1.5 provides a description of adverbial clauses in Saisiyat, on the basis of Yeh’s classification (2000a).. 14.

(33) Table 1.5 Saisiyat adverbial clauses according to M. L Yeh (2000a:146-152) Type Reason clauses. Concessive clauses. Description The order of the two clauses is not fixed. Conjunctors, such as kano’ are not obligatory. Conjunctors such as ma’ ‘still’ are used to introduce main clauses. Conditional clauses. Expressing counter factual or possible future events. Purposive clauses. A purposive clause is manifested as a nominalized clause.8. Example ’aewhay ka kawash baki’ (kano’/ma-’isa:) bad NOM sky grandfather what/also-then ’okay ’osha’ ’<oem>alop. NEG:LIG go <AF>hunt ‘Grandfather didn’t go hunting because the weather is bad.’ ’isahini’ (’ana) ’<oem>oral yako now even <AF>rain 1SG.NOM ma’ ’am=rima’=ila. still IRR=go=COS ‘I will go out even if it was raining now’ yako naw (komosha:) kabkabahae: 1SG.NOM if COMP bird ’am=mayap=ila hita. IRR=fly=COS there ‘I would fly there if I was a bird.’ ’oya’ t<om>alek no korkoring ka-si’ael-en mother <AF>cook DAT child NMLZ-eat-PF ‘Mother cooked for the child to eat.’. Table 1.6 presents a description on relative clauses and the construction of coordination in Saisiyat. As reported in M. L. Yeh (2000a), nominal coordinates are linked by what she calls the coordinator kir,9 and the verbal coordinands are connected by the clause-linkage markers (CLMs, which will be further discussed in chapter 2) =o and =a. Relative clauses are introduced by what M. L. Yeh (2000a) calls the relativizers ’ima= and kama=; the former co-occurs with stative verbs and the latter with dynamic verbs. A verb infixed by <in> also forms a relative clause. The modifier clause can occur in pre- or post-modifiee noun phrase positions. 8 9. This analysis is formally proposed in M. L. Yeh (2003). Zeitoun et al. (2015) report that nominal coordinands are also connected by the CLMs =o and =a. As for kir, it is not found in Tungho Saisiyat. By contrast, Tungho Saisiyat has ki ‘comitative (singular)’ and kil ‘comitative (plural)’. According to Zeitoun et al. (2011), ki has two functions. One is the comitative case and the other is coordinator. In M. L. Yeh (2016), she also reports that ki acts as the comitative case in Saisiyat. 15.

(34) Table 1.6 Saisiyat relative clauses and coordination constructions in M. L. Yeh (2000a:142-146;152-154) Type. Description. Example. Stative relative clauses. Introduced by ’ima=, occurring before or after the modified NP. [’ima=shekla’ hi ’obay] ka NMLZ=recognize ACC PN NOM ma’iaeh m-wai’=ila. person AF-come=COS ‘The person who knows Obay has come.’. Dynamic relative clauses. Introducing by kama=, occurring before or after the modified NP. tatini’ sharara’ ka [kama=ra’oe: old.(wo)man like ACC NMLZ=drink pinobaeaeh] kabinao:. wine young.woman The old (wo)man likes the young woman who drinks.’. Verbal coordination. Using coordinators =o and =a, or simply juxtaposing verbal coordinands. sia sh<om>bet ka ma’iaeh=o 3SG.NOM <AF>beat ACC person=CONJ ’<om>angang naehan ka ma’iaeh <AF>scold still ACC person ‘He beat and scolded people.’. Nominal coordination. Using coordinators =o, =a, or simply juxtaposing nominal coordinands. ’ataw=o kalih sharara’ s<om>i’ael PN=CONJ PN like <AF>eat ka tawmo’. ACC banana ‘Ataw and Kalih like to eat bananas.’. 1.3.1.3 M. L. Yeh (2003) As mentioned above, M. L. Yeh (2003) discusses two issues: (i) forms and meanings of focus affixes in Saisiyat, and (ii) the division of non-actor focus (NAF), regarding the relations between focus affixes and thematic roles. She follows the conventional dichotomy between actor focus (AF) and non-actor focus (NAF). NAF markers are further. divided. as. patient. focus. (PF),. locative. focus. (LF),. instrumental/benefactive focus (I/BF). Figure 1.2 schematizes this relation.. 16. and.

(35) actor focus. non-actor focus. AF <om>, m-, ma-, Ø. PF -en. LF -an. I/BF shi-. Actor. patient. location, source, goal, recipient. instrument, benefactive, reason, patient. Figure 1.2 Relations between focus markers and thematic roles (from M. L. Yeh 2003:50). AF encodes the actor as the nominative argument. PF -en assigns one thematic role to the nominative argument and displays a one-to-one correspondence. According to M. L. Yeh (2003), the LF suffix -an selects source or goal arguments as subjects.10 However M. L. Yeh (2003) observes that LF encodes patient-like arguments of twoargument verbs as subjects. The I/BF shi- designates four thematic roles as nominative. Figure 1.3 illustrates the mapping between NAF markers and thematic roles.. LF. I/BF. Location (location, source, goal) Patient. Benefactive, Instrument, Reason, Transported theme. PF. Patient. Figure 1.3 The mappings between NAF affixes and thematic roles (According to M. L. Yeh 2003:84). 10. M. L. Yeh (2003) and Hsieh (2007) claim that the function of -an is to mark locative nominalization, instead of focus. However, Zeitoun et al. (2015) show that -an is still used as a voice marker in Modern Saisiyat. This issue will be discussed in chapter 3. 17.

(36) Another contribution is the analysis of semantic extensions of I/BF shi- marking in M. L. Yeh (2003). As Figure 1.4 illustrates, the beneficiary meaning rendered by the shi-marking is the prototypical usage. This usage is extended to malefactive, reason and instrument. Furthermore, the malefactive usage is extended to the patient usage on the basis of affectedness given by its nominative argument. The transported patient and reason are extended usages from the instrument meaning of shi- ‘I/BF’.. Beneficiary. Malefactive. Reason. Instrument. Patient. Transported patient Figure 1.4 Semantic extension of I/BF According to M. L Yeh (2003:109). 1.3.1.4 M. L. Yeh (2016) M. L. Yeh (2016) is a sketch grammar of Saisiyat. On the basis of M. L. Yeh (2000a), the author presents new findings. First, she briefly introduces Saisiyat morphology including affixation, reduplication, compounding, onomatopoeias, loan words and word classes. Second, she elaborates on hortative constructions 11 and causative constructions. Last, she provides a new classification of complex sentences, which is 11. M. L. Yeh (2016:115) uses the Chinese term guiquanshi (規勸式) to refer to hortative constructions in her book. 18.

(37) directly related to this dissertation. In contrast to M. L. Yeh (2000a), schematized in Figure 1.1, M. L. Yeh (2016) proposes four types of complex sentences: serial verb constructions, clausal complementation, modifying constructions and coordination. Figure 1.5 schematizes this classification. Based on a comparison between this figure and Figure 1.1, we know that pivotal, utterance and cognition constructions proposed in M. L. Yeh (2000a), are classified as clausal complements in M. L. Yeh (2016). As for serial verb constructions (SVCs), they are not treated as a subtype of clausal complementation but as an independent category of complex sentences in M. L. Yeh (2016). Complex sentences. SVCs. clausal complementation. finite. nonfinite. AF. IF. modifying constructions. relative clause. coordination constructions. adverbial clause. perfective. Figure 1.5 Classification of Saisiyat complex sentences in M. L. Yeh (2016). M. L. Yeh (2016) divides clausal complementation into two main categories: finite and non-finite clauses. 12. 12. Finite clausal complements are able to have. The term finite clause refers to M. L. Yeh’s (2016) Mandarin term wanzheng ziju literally meaning ‘complete clause’, and the term non-finite clause refers to her fei-wanzheng ziju literally meaning ‘incomplete clause’. 19.

(38) independent temporal frame from the matrix clauses. In (1.4a), the complement is independently marked by the perfect <in> and change of state =ila. In (1.4b), the complement has null aspectual marking.. (1.4) Aspectual marking and modification of temporal adverbs a. baki’ grandfather. ma’yakai’ AV:tell. ’iakin 1SG.ACC. [’aro’ PN. s<om><in>i’ael=ila]. <AV><PERF>eat=COS. ‘Grandfather told me that Aro had eaten (a meal).’ b. yaba’ father. raam know. (komosha:) [yako s<om>i’ael (COMP) 1SG.NOM <AV>drink. ka. walo’]. ACC candy. ‘Father knows that I ate the candy.’. In (1.5), the temporal adverb can either occur in the clausal complement or not.. (1.5) Modification of temporal adverb baki’ grandfather. ma’yakai’ AV:tell. ’iakin 1SG.ACC. sia (kahia’) r<om>kep 3SG.NOM yesterday <AV>catch. ka. ’aelaw. ACC fish ‘Grandfather told me that he caught a fish (yesterday).’. In M. L. Yeh (2016), non-finite clausal complements are divided into clauses in which (i) verbs are marked as AF as in (1.6a), (ii) those which are marked as IF as in (1.6b), and (iii) finally those which are marked by the perfective <in> in (1.6c).. 20.