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Learning34.3(Fa1l2010): 1-50
The Development and Validation
of a Listening Practice Strategy Questionnaire
Hui-Ming Lucy Lee
Mong-Na Lo Huang
NationalPingtung University ofEducation National Sun Yat-senUniversi可
hmllee@mail.npue.edu.tw lomn@math.nsysu.edu.tw
Wan-Ping Hung
National Sun Yat-sen University hungwp@math.nsysu.edu.tw
Abstract
Listening comprehension is a critical first step toward communicative
competence and language acquisition. Nevertheless, second/foreign
language listening comprehension is probably the least explicit and the most difficult skill to learn among the four language skills
(Vandergrift, 2004). Although the most general language learning
strategy is‘'practicing" (Bialystok, 1981),it remains unclear exactly
how English as a foreign language (EFL) learners practice listening
and how often they do it.The two main purposes of the present study
were to develop a valid and reliable questionnaire to assess EFL students' listening practice strategies and to examine practice frequency. A total of 306 Taiwanese English majors from nine universities participated in this study. An exploratory factor analysis
yielded five valid factors: problem-solving, d:主liberate practice,
language processing, aural immersion, and English-comprehension
practice. The analysis showed high reliability with a Cronbach' s alpha of .92. The five practice factors received moderately low to
medium usage. Aural immersion practice was used most often,while
English-comprehension practice was used the least. The findings
suggest that 由is scale is a useful tool for both listening strategy
training and future research on the relationship between practice strategies and listening proficiency.
Key Words: EFL/L2 listening comprehension, language learning
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great deal of conscious effort. In fact,deliberate practice appears to be
more like Bialystok's formal practice, which is concerned with the
language code and involves drills and exercises so as to automatize
explicit knowledge to implicit knowledge. Formal practice, however,
failed to have any significant effect on all tasks in Bialystok's study.
In EFL environments like Taiwan, Bialystok's functional
practice has been further challenged in terms of effort constraint. One
of the major sources of authentic and interesting aural input is English
media such as films or shows on TV, DVD, VCD, video, or in a
movie theater. However, owing to the preference for entertainment
rather than serious learning, the convenience of reading Chinese
captions, and the difficulty in comprehending authentic oral English,
aspects of learners' efforts in watching films or shows remain unknown.
With these problems in mind, this exploratory study aims to
design a valid and reliable listening practice strategy questionnaire and identify EFL listener practice strategies used in outside-of-class learning situations. The two major research questions are as follows:
1. What are the factor categories of listening practice strategies of Taiwanese university English majors?
2. How often do these EFL listeners use the listening practice strategies?
Lee,Lo Huang,Hung: Listening Practice Strategy Questionnaire
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Foundations of Listening Comprehension
Lundsteen (1971) defined listening as
“
the process by whichspoken language is converted to meaning in the mind" (Lundsteen,
1971,p. 297). Similar to one prevalent view of L 1 reading,listening
comprehension might also be identified as a meaning-construction
process served by lower-level linguistic processing, such as sound
discrimination and word decoding, and by higher-level
knowledge-based processing in a given context (Lee & Schallert,
1997; McLaughlin & Heredia, 1996).
Many have acknowledged that L2 listening comprehension
involves active and complex problem-solving processes (Byrnes,
1984; Clark, 1978). The most influential model appears to be
Anderson' s(1995) three interrelated and recursive stages of language
comprehension: perceptual processing, parsing, and utilization. In
perceptual processing, the acoustic message in echoic memory is
initially encoded. In the parsing process,the words in the message are
transformed into meaningful mental representations in short-term
memory. There are three characteristics at this stage. First, to
understand a language,listeners need to recognize various phrases and
then concatenate the phrase meanings into a meaningful
representation of a full sentence. Second,using syntactic cues,such as
word order and function words,the meanings of individual words can
be combined to arrive at the meaning of the full sentence. Third,
listeners integrate both syntactic and semantic cues to interpret
sentences. At the utilization stage, listeners relate mental
representations of text meanings to prior knowledge,actually use the
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英語教學 C£ngus丘 'Teacfiingrtf,Learning
34.3(Fa1l2010)
METHOD
Subjects
The participants in this study consisted of 306 university students in Taiwan (244 females and 62 males) ranging in age from eighteen to twenty-six. Cluster sampling was employed with the
classroom as the unit of sampling. As shown in Tables 1 and 2
,
elevenclasses were selected from nine universities. The eleven listening classes were taught by eleven different English teachers employed at the nine universities. There were two missing cells: no private university of science and technology (UST) for freshmen and no national UST for sophomores. The subjects included 128 freshmen from three schools and 178 sophomores from six schools. Of the total
number of subjects, 176 students came from six regular universities
and 130 hailed from three USTs. Furthermore, 141 students
represented five national universities while 165 represented four
private universities. Geographical旬， universities U#l, 2, and 3 are
located in northern Taiwan, university U#6 is in central Taiwan,
university UST#l is in south-central Taiwan, and universities U#4
and 5,as well as UST#2 and 3 are in southern Taiwan.
Table 1
Division of Freshmen by University Type
Technical Univ. (UST)
UST#1
=
2 classesRegular Univ.
National Univ. U#1
=
1 class(n
=
22)Private Univ. U#2
=
1 class(n= 57) Subtotal n
=
79 (n=
49) Nil Subtotal n=
49 Subtotal n=
71 Subtotal n=
57 Total N= 128Lee,Lo Huang,Hung: ListeningPraιtice Strategy Questionnaire Table 2
Division of Sophomore by University Type Technical Univ. (UST) Nil Regular Univ. U#3 = 2 classes (n=33) U#4= 1 class (n
=
18) U#5=
1 class (n= 19) U#6= 1 class (n=
27) National Univ.Private Univ. UST#2
=
1 class(n= 37) UST#3
=
1 class (n=
44) Subtotal n=
97 Subtotal n=
81 Subtotal n=
70 Subtotal n=
108 Total N= 178Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures
The instruments for the study included the Listening Practice
Strategy Questionnaire (LPSQ) (see Appendix A) and the
Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (M-CSDS) (Reynolds,
1982; Yang,1992). The LPSQ was developed and then translated into
Chinese by the researcher (see Appendix B). Regarding the data
collection of this study, the researcher administered both of these
surveys in the subjects' regular listening classes for pilot and formal studies.
The LPSQ aims to assess the frequency with which students use
various listening practice strategies. The development of the
questionnaire involved three phases of a pilot study before being used
in the formal study. During the first phase of the pilot study, eight
successful and eight less successful English majors from three
葵語教學笠πrg(is丘 'Teachil矽己tLeaming 34.3 (Fall 201 0)
colleges in southern Taiwan were recruited for exploratory interviews.
The audio-taped interviews were transcribed and analyzed to
fonnulate the items to be used in the LPSQ. Moreover, the listening
comprehension items were also derived from the Listening
Comprehension Strategy Questionnaire in the researcher' s thesis (Lee,
1996, 1997). The initial English and Chinese questionnaires of the
LPSQ were examined and verified by three translation professionals.
First, an associate professor teaching at a national university in
southern Taiwan and a lecturer teaching at a national university of technology and science in northern Taiwan examined the English and Chinese questionnaire items independently for readability. Revisions
were made based on their suggestions. Second,the lecturer in the first
stage and an associate professor teaching at a graduate institute of
translation and interpretation in northern Tai wan verified
the compatibility of the two language versions through
back translation from Chinese into English. Their results indicated the accuracy of translation.
The original questionnaire was comprised of fifty-one items categorized into five main types of practice strategies. According to
Bialystok (1978), practice, the most general strategy, refers to
learners' attempt to increase their exposure to the target language.
Thus, the feature
“
exposure to language" characterized the followingtypes of practice. First, there were two main sources of
exposure-media and human interaction. Media,the primary focus of
this study, was further classified into replayable and
non-replayable/on-line exposure according to the controllability of the
oral input. From the perspective of cognitive processing,practice was
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Data Analysis
Pilot data. All the quantitative data analyses were computed using version 16.0 of SPSS to address the second and third stages of
the pilot study. First, an intraclass correlation was employed to
examine the relationships between the English and Chinese versions
of the questionnaires. Specifically, a
“
single measure" test was usedbecause only one language was used for the rating scores. In addition,
the “absolute agreement" was chosen to resolve any systematic
differences between the two languages. Second,to assess the validity
of the LPSQ, the Pearson product-moment correlation was employed
to explore the correlations between the LPSQ items and the M-CSDS.
Third, Cronbach's alpha was used to examine the LPSQ's internal
consistency reliability.
The results of the pilot study showed that there seemed to be
adequate cl旺ity and compatibility between the English and Chinese
versions of the LPSQ. The LPSQ tended to be valid and reliable in
examining the students' listening practice behaviors. Finally, the
findings of the pilot study and discussions with the first two translation professionals and the subjects were used to modify the LPSQ for the formal study.
Formal study. Exploratory factor analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) with oblique Promax rotation with Kaiser Normalization was performed using SPSS to identify underlying constructs for the fifty-one practice strategy items on the LPSQ.
According to Stevens (1996), the absolute values of the loadings
should be greater than 2(.149)
=
.298 for a sample size of 300 subjects.Factor scores were computed by selecting items that had at least a 0.1 difference in factor loading on multiple factors. Regarding how to
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The rotated pattern matrix is presented in Table 3. As can be
seen,the five-factor solution accounted for 46.9% of the total variance.
Broken down by factor, this translated into 25.8% of the variance
from factor 1, 8.1%, from factor 2, 5.0% from factor 3, 4.3% from
factor 4, and 3.8% from factor 5. Furthermore, as shown in Table 4,
except for the relationship between deliberate practice and aural
immersion practice, the other factors correlated significantly among
each other at the .01 and .001 levels, varying between .17 (deliberate
practice and English-comprehension) and .46 (problem-solving and
language processing). Cronbach' s alphas of internal consistency reliability were high for the total forty items (.92) as well as for the
problem-solving (.88) and deliberate practice (.84) factors, and
respectable for the language processing (.73), aural immersion (.7日，
and English-comprehension (.74) factors.
As can be seen in Table 3,except for two individual items,the
first factor (problem-solving) included two main clusters of items. The first cluster involved five compensation strategies for dealing
with unknown vocabulary,grammar,etc. When encountering unclear
segments,learners infer meaning from context or intonation (Item 28),
listen closely to the following text to try to understand what was
previously missed (Item 23),listen to unclear segments a couple more
times (Item 24),refer to scripts only when they still fail to understand
(Item 21), and ask speakers to repeat or paraphrase (Item 30). The
second cluster included seven items concerned with cognitive
processing for comprehending aural input. Cognitive strategies
consisted of elaborating or relating new information to personal
experience or one's prior knowledge (Item 18), imagining pictures in
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47 Listening to English and reading -0.07 0.26 0.10 0.47 -0.28
Chinese captions almost simultaneously
43 Watching English movies or TV 0.18 -0.09 0.09 0.42 0.19
programs
Factor 5: English-Comprehension Practice
46 Listening to English without reading 0.13 0.19 -0.07 0.07 0.70
Chinese captions
48 Primarily listening to English first and 0.21 0.03 -0.07 0.01 0.70
referring to Chinese captions only for unknown items
45 Reading English captions -0.09 0.08 0.08 0.01 。.57
Eigenvalues 10.33 3.23 1.99 1.70 1.51
%of variance 25.80 8.10 5.00 4.30 3.80
Cumulative% 25.80 33.90 38.80 43.10 46.90
Table4
LPSQ Factor Correlations for the Exploratory Factor Analysis and Cronbach's Alphas (on Diagonal)
Factors Factors 2 3 4 5 1.Problem-Solving Practice .88 2. Deliberate Practice .37*** .84 3. Language Processing .46*** .35*** .73 Practice 4. Aural Immersion .32*** .05 .22*** .75 Practice 5. English-Comprehension .38*** .17** .29*** .31 *** .74 Practice Note. 料 p < .01 ***p < .001
The second factor (deliberate practice) tended to capture a
motivational construct,which centered around seriousness,rehearsal,
regularity, and effort. Seriousness involved listening carefully to
replayable materials (Item 36),on-line(Item 35) English instructional
其語教學 'Eng[isli 'Teacliirψ etlLearning
34.3 (Fall 2010)
radio programs, and textbook-based materials (Item 33). Seriousness
also included practicing all listening tasks assigned by the teacher
(Item 34) and practicing until the tasks were completed, even when
the materials were dull or uninteresting (Item 39). Rehearsal
concerned listening to or watching replayable texts, especially those
with difficult segments, over and over again (Item 37). Regularity
referred to practicing listening according to a self-regulated schedule
(Item 42). Finally, effort was demonstrated when students tried their
best to solve comprehension problems (Item 40), spelled out possible
or similar words and looked them up in the dictionary if they still
could not understand after listening several times (Item 26),and wrote
down what they could comprehend, and checked or supplemented
their comprehension with classmates(Item 32).
The third factor (language processing) concerned bottom-up
processing for comprehending the meaning of texts and acquiring the L2 through oral input and included four items of bottom-up
processing and four items of the language learning component.
Bottom-up processing involved writing down each word or what one
could understand word by word for future review (Item 5) and getting
the main ideas of the text (Item 13), understanding sentence by
sentence and paragraph by paragraph to get the main ideas of the
whole text (Item 9), and repeating words or phrases quietly or
mentally (Item 15). In addition to comprehension, L2 learning
through listening materials involved repeating after native speakers in
the media to imitate their pronunciation,intonation,or accent (Item 3),
reading the text out loud segment by segment, sentence by sentence,
or paragraph by paragraph (Item 4), learning vocabulary words or
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the five practice factors,English-comprehension practice was used the
least.
To have a better understanding of the indicators for the factors,
the use of forty individual items was examined. The results showed
that two of the items were characterized by moderately high usage,
nineteen items by medium usage, eighteen items by moderately low
usage, and only one item by low usage. Table 7 shows the top ten
practice strategies (all with means above 6.00), while Table 8 shows
the bottom six items (with means below 4.00).
Table 7
Factors
,
Ranks,
Means,
and Standard Deviations。fthe Top Ten Practice Strategies
FactorsItem# Content Rank 此f SD
Al 49 Listening to English songs 7.08 2.56
PS 23 Listening closely to the following text to 2 7.05 1.98
understand what I missed
PS 14 Listening attentively 3 6.78 2.32
PS 24 Repeatedly listening to unknown segments 4 6.64 2.26
Al 47 Listening to English and reading Chinese 5 6.48 2.48
captions almost simultaneously
Al 43 Watching English movies orTVprograms 6 6.28 2.75
PS 28 Guessing 7 6.22 2.54
PS 30 Asking speakers to repeat or paraphrase 8 6.21 2.51
Al 50 Playing English songs continuously 9 6.18 2.88
PS 10 Chunking 10 6.16 2.30
Note. AI
=
Aural Immersion PS=
Problem-SolvingAs indicated in Table 7, the top ten practice strategies included
six items from the problem-solving factor and four items from the
aural immersion factor. Items 49 and 23,with moderately high usage,
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university English majors. The results of the analyses suggest that students' listening practice strategies can be validly and reliably assessed by the forty items on the LPSQ (see Appendix B for the
validated version). In Lee's (2007) study,the LPSQ was also used to
explore the listening practice strategies of 206 non-English major
freshmen at a regular national university in southern Taiwan. In fact,
Lee used a different extraction method (i.e., maximum likelihood) to
identify underlying constructs of the original fifty-one items. Except
for the problem可avoidancefactor,which was replaced by the language
processing factor in the current study,the results of Lee's exploratory
factor analysis validated the four robust factors of the present
study-problem-solving, deliberate practice, aural immersion, and
English-comprehension. The Cronbach' s alpha index of internal consistency reliability for the reduced thirty-five items in Lee's
research yielded .88 and .92 in this study, suggesting the
questionnaire's high reliability.
Problem-solving practice primarily· involved the use of
compensation and cognitive strategies in solving comprehension
problems.First,the findings support the hypothetical problem-solving
construct of practice strategies. In fact, Clark (1978) claims that
“comprehension, in short, calls on people's general capacity to
think-to use information and solve problems" (p. 320). Byrnes (1984)
contends that the conceptualization of listening comprehension as a highly complex problem-solving activity is a challenge to the
traditional concept of listening as a passive, mechanical skill in
language learning. In addition, the problem-solving factor is in line
with the cognitive (e.g., using one's experience and knowledge for
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environment, listeners played English songs (Item 50) and audio
English texts (Item 51)continuously while doing other tasks,listened
to English songs (Item 49), watched English films or TV programs
(Item 43), and listened to English while reading Chinese captions at
about the same time (Item 4日. In contrast to deliberate practice, this
kind of practice is likely to be viewed as being easy, effortless, and
time-saving, and might therefore be one of the reasons why the
students used these strategies more frequently than the others.
Specifically, listening to English songs (M
=
7.08) with moderatelyhigh usage was usually employed and was the most frequently used
among the forty items. Similarly, in Lee' s (1997) study of junior
college English majors, one of the main findings from the subjects'
responses to open-ended question items was that listening to English
songs was also the most frequently used strategy. Moreover, this
supports Lee' s (200 I) findings regarding time spent on listening practice in that the subjects in her study tended to spend most of their
time listening to English songs on CDs, radio programs, or MTV.
This strategy seems to be intrinsically interesting and enjoyable to most learners and may at least partially account for these findings.
Hypothetical social practice was replaced by another cluster
dealing with the amount of exposure received (i.e.,
English-comprehension practice). This factor represents the priority of comprehending English aural and written input from English films
and TV programs. Regarding the use of captions,learners listened to
English without reading Chinese captions (Item 46), read Chinese
captions only for unclear parts (Item 48), and read English captions
車主語教學 r£ng[is丘哎呀chilψ r::lLearning 34.3 (Fall 2010)
(Item 45). In fact, according to the researcher's personal teaching
experience,most students really enjoy watching English films and TV
programs (e.g.,the sitcom Friends). The learning challenge,however,
is whether students can resist the“temptation" of just reading Chinese
captions and instead focus on English listening and reading
comprehension. For the English majors participating in this study,this
factor with moderately low usage was generally not employed and ranked last among the five factors. For non-English majors in Lee's
(2007) study,this kind of practice was also generally not used.
Except for the weak relationship between deliberate practice
and aural immersion practice, the other practice factors were
significant!y inter-correlated. Anderson' s (1995) three interrelated
stages of language comprehension involving perceptual processing,
parsing,and utilization might help to explain such interconnectedness
in the present study. Strategy application is not a serial process,but
rather a parallel and simultaneous process with multiple levels of
strategy interconnection. This is described by Vandergrift (2003) 的
“orchestration." In particular, problem-solving practice (primarily
including compensation and cognitive strategies) were correlated with language processing practice and the affective domain of strategy
application (i.e., deliberate practice). The results suggest the
overlapping of comprehending input and L2 learning processes, and a
parallel distribution between top-down and bottom-up processing.
Moreover,McCombs (1988) claimed that one of the most important
pu中oses of training in learning strategy use is to facilitate
self-controlled or self-directed learning, and that being
“
centrallyinvolved in the self-control of learning is the motivation to learn" (p. 141). Because strategic deployment of practice behaviors involves
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