台灣美食外交-國家道地美味與推廣策略 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際事務學院 College of International Affairs, National Chengchi University 國際研究英語碩士學位學程程士學位論文研究 International Master‘s Program in International studies, Master’s Thesis. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwan’s Gastrodiplomacy: 政治大 Strategies of Culinary 立 Nation-Branding and Outreach. n. al. Ch. engchi. sit. io. 廣策略. er. Nat. y. ‧. 台灣美食外交—國家道地美味與推 i n U. v. 研究生: 藍小米 Camille Defrancq 指導教授:林永芳博士 Advisor: Yung-Fang Lin. Ph.D.. June 2018 DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(2) Abstract This research was done to understand the mechanism of Soft Power and focused on its cultural aspect. It gives an in-depth analysis of a recent field of public diplomacy, gastrodiplomacy, the positive attraction of the foreign audience by fulfilling their stomachs with good food. This field is pretty new in the academic sphere and does not have yet a complete case study as I intended to give by using the case study of a middle power: Taiwan. The choice of Taiwan is not thoughtless. The Republic of China has increasingly been diplomatically isolated and therefore the use of public diplomacy may be one of its only options to keep a positive place in the 21st century.. 政治大. With this study I try to show the potential benefit that gastrodiplomacy can have on people perception on how it can help to identify a country culture through its culinary culture. Through. 立. comparative study, perception analysis and policy analysis, I try to show that not only does. ‧ 國. 學. gastrodiplomacy is an effective strategy for increasing awareness and attracting the foreign audiences, it could be also used to enhance relationship between two countries.. ‧. 這個研究的重點，是軟實力的機制與它的文化層面。我首先深入了解軟實力的機制，再來. sit. y. Nat. 聚焦於公共外交及美食公共外交，還有它對群眾產生的正面影響力。目前，這個主題還算新穎，學術領域還沒有很多學者做比較深入的研究，也還沒有全面的案例分析，或比較分. io. n. al. er. 析。所以我打算採台灣的案例分析，實現這個方面的不足。選台灣這個國家也不是沒道理. Ch. i n U. v. 的。第一，因為台灣在國際關係方面，算是一個中等權力體，也因為最近中華民國的外交. engchi. 日俱孤立。因而公共外交，可能是台灣持續為自己在 21 世纪爭取國際地位的唯一辦法。因為一個國家的道地美食，也會反映這個國家的文化與歷史，所以也展現了每個國家的特色。我的研究，分析了國家美食對國家形象的影響，也評估了潛在益處。我採取比較分析，感知分析及政策分析，並打算呈現美食公共外交，不僅對國際能見度的提升，也對促進國家雙邊關係，都是一個非常有效的策略。. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(3) Acknowledgments I decided to work on the topic of gastrodiplomacy after spending nearly four year in Taiwan and encountering people that had very little knowledge about Taiwanese food which I personally very like. I would like to thank my advisor for supporting me in this project and offer continuous patience, understanding and great help on my research. His guidance allowed me not only to finish my thesis but also to be proud of my own work.. 立. 政治大. I would also like to thank my committee members Prof. Lu and Prof. Tsai for their previous. ‧ 國. 學. insightful comments and encouragement in pursuing my research proposal to another level that is the work that I hereby present.. ‧. Besides, I am also very grateful of NCCU and the IMPIS program to have accepted me among. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. degree.. sit. their students in 2016 and have allowed me to learn so much throughout my two years master. i n U. v. Furthermore, I need to thanks Taiwan Rotary and my host family that welcomed me in 2011 for. Ch. engchi. the first time in Taiwan and made me discover their family tradition and culture. Without their friendliness, I would probably not have been back in Taiwan for such a long time. On the other hand, I would never have done that without the help of my family that even so far away, have continued to support my project. Last but not least, I would like to thanks my international friends, Manuel, Filip, Jan and many other that helped me relax and were always here when I needed them.. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(4) Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………..……………………………………………...1 1. Research Motivation and purposes….………………………………………………..…….1 1.1. Research Question………………………………………………………………...1 1.2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………3 1.3. Methods and Cases………………………………………………………………15 1.4 Outline of Thesis…………………………………………………………………19 Chapter 2: Comparative perspective gastrodiplomacy……………………………..………...22. 政治大. 2.1 Gastrodiplomacy as a way to increase understanding between nation?.................23 2.2 Gastrodiplomacy Comparative Analysis…..……………………………..………25. 立. 2.3. Case Study of Taiwan Taiwan cuisine and gastrodiplomacy................................33. ‧ 國. 學. Chapter 3: Measuring the Impact of Taiwan Soft Power and Gastrodiplomacy Strategy…….44 3.1 Measuring public diplomacy……………………..………………………………44 3.2Measuring gastrodiplomacy………………………………………………….…...47. ‧. 3.3 Taiwan public diplomacy/ gastrodiplomacy……………………………………..49. y. Nat. Chapter 4: Analysis of Taiwan gastrodiplomacy strategy…………………………………...59. sit. 4.1 Gourmet Taiwan introduction and motives………………………………………59. er. io. 4.2 Strategy for Gourmet Taiwan……………………..………………………...........61. al. n. iv n C 4.4 Strategy Main Drawbacks………………………..………………………………75 hengchi U Chapter 5: Conclusion………………………………………………………..……………....76. 4.3 Achievement……………………………………..………………………….……70. Bibliography……………………………………………………………………...…..………84 Appendix1:Interview Questions……………………………………………………………..93 Appendix2:List of Respondents……………………………………………………………...96 . 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(5) Figures. Figure 2.1 Chart of visitors arrivals in Taiwan from (2009 to 2017) )………………………38 Figure 3.1 Foreigners perception of Taiwanese food in term of appreciation……………….53 Figures 3.2: Foreigners perception of Taiwan in term of taste………………………………54 Figures 3.3: Foreigners awareness of Taiwanese food………………………………………56 Figures 4.1: Yearly budget for the program Budget Taiwan………………………………...63. 治政 Figures 4.3 Taiwan Food Service Revenues…………………………………………………72 大立regarding sales breakdown by region………………….74 Figures 4.4 Implementation of 85C. Figures 4.2. Agriculture export in Taiwan since 2004……………………………………….71. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 5. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(6) Tables Table 1.1 Pyramid of Communication…………………………………………….………..…...8 Table 2.1 Comparative strategy of Thailand Gastrodiplomacy………..……………..………...27 Table 2.2 Comparative strategy of South Korea Gastrodiplomacy……….…...……………....28 Table 2.3 Comparative strategy of India gastrodiplomacy…………………...……....…….….29 Table 2.4 Comparative strategy of Malaysia gastrodiplomacy……………...……..….…….....29 Table 2.5 Comparative strategy of Japan Gastrodiplomacy………………...……….….….….30 Table 2.6 Taiwan diplomatic allies in May 2018………………………...………….………...33. 政治大 Table 2.8 Comparative strategy 立 of Taiwan gastrodiplomacy………………...…..…….….…..42. Table 2.7 List of Taiwan food categorized for Tourist…………………...……….……….…..41. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4.1 Taiwan ministry cooperation………………………………………….………….…70. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 6. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(7) Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Research Motivation and Purpose Nowadays, it has never been easier to communicate, not only in terms of transportation that has surged with the increase of trans-states trade but also with regard to the information traveling from one country to another which became almost free and available for the masses. Moreover, the quantity of information available has also increased. From an American TV-show, pictures of. 政治大 accessible and so vast. Consequently, it has never been so easy to reach another regional culture 立 Macaron in Paris or a Bollywood movie, the variety of information have never been so easily. ‧ 國. 學. or have knowledge about what is happening at the opposite side of the world. Along with this new trend also came the growing importance of non-state actors that now actively participate in the. ‧. international order hence the growing concern of states to shape the opinion of the foreign audience.. sit. y. Nat. The ability of states to shape the foreign audience preference allows them to use their power not. io. er. using violent or coercive means but instead to create acceptance and sometimes cooperation with. al. iv n C used their resources to broadcast their voice U mutual understanding and more h e nabroad, g c hto iinitiate n. foreign states. This is what Joseph Nye defined as soft power. To achieve this goal, States have. generally to explain to the foreign audience who they are. Indeed, main states have been trying to use the way their messages are sent abroad. Various tools can be used in order to reach people abroad. The United States Information Agency is the tool the US used to export their culture during the Cold War. The same as Frances’ Alliance Française or the U.K British Council. If propaganda was the way states tried to control the foreign audience opinion before, nowadays, they use a subtler way called public diplomacy which uses soft power resources in order to shape the foreign audience preferences and help to create a positive opinion abroad. The main purpose of this. 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(8) research is to understand how states use public diplomacy abroad and its efficiency. I chose to focus on gastrodiplomacy, a sub-field of cultural diplomacy, in order to understand how food culture can be exported abroad and affect the foreign audience. Gastrodiplomacy and food culture have been growing topics as possible public diplomacy resources. As people become more aware of other states’ culture such as art, music, literature, cuisine can also be used as an effective tool. Food is part of basic human needs and every person on the planet, coming from any country, needs to eat. This assumption makes the impact of. 治政 Gastrodiplomacy and its potential influence. Only recently,大 Paul Rockower started to identify 立. gastrodiplomacy potentially increased. Not a lot of works have been done in the field of. gastrodiplomacy as a useful tool for public diplomacy and a possible source of soft power.. ‧ 國. 學. Firstly, I choose to give a close review of public diplomacy and the use of soft power. ‧. strategy. In order to enter the sub-field of gastrodiplomacy, I will review the literature regarding gastrodiplomacy and its modern practicality and challenges and differentiate culinary diplomacy. y. Nat. er. io. sit. and gastrodiplomacy. Working with public diplomacy strategy raises the problem of measurement. Measuring the impact of public diplomacy on a foreign public had been a growing concern. I. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. should, therefore, identify possible measurement tools in order to measure a country’s soft power. engchi. impact and the accountability of public diplomacy. I then argue what method I should use to calculate the impact of gastrodiplomacy on the foreign audience perception. The main research goal of this study is to understand if gastrodiplomacy matters in the public diplomacy area and how does this impact nation branding. More generally, I analyze different gastrodiplomacy strategies worldwide as a tool of public diplomacy and I hypothesize that it could be used as an effective strategy to attract people from other countries. Thereafter, I observe the case study of Taiwan in order to measure the impact of such strategy.. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(9) 1.2 Literature Review 1.2.1 Soft Power In 2016, the Obama doctrine was published by the Atlantic Magazine. While analyzing the hard work of leaders in their foreign policy, the interview with Barack Obama allows us to observe the role of power in international relation. “Real power means you can get what you want without having to exert violence” quoted Barack Obama, giving an endorsement of the definition of soft. 政治大. power (Goldberg, 2016). The Obama doctrine was far from being only focusing on soft power but it definitely plays a role.. 立. In order for us to understand why the concept of soft power in the field of power matters, it is. ‧ 國. 學. important to understand the value of soft power. Firstly quoted by Joseph Nye in 2003 and. ‧. officially published in 2004, soft power differentiates itself from hard power by the type of capability used. While hard power is the capability of acting or influencing other state behavior by. y. Nat. er. io. sit. using a coercive or commanding way, soft power tries to attract and move opinion to create positive outcomes. Lacking soft power or ignoring the importance of soft power may have negative. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. impacts on one’s society. Accordingly, the increase of Islamist terrorism worldwide but especially. engchi. in the Western world may be linked with the failure of the Western society to create a positive image in the Middle East. As a matter of fact, the American government abusing its hard power during the Iraq War, created a strongly negative perception of the United States in the Muslim community and have been seen as unilateral moves by the international community (Leonard, 2002). Some may argue that soft power doesn’t solve every problem and states should rely instead on hard power (Gilpin, 1983; Lukes, 2005). Military resources have a lot more influence in order to fight wars against another country and even Nye recognizes the importance of hard power. Hard. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(10) power resources should not be forgotten in the board of power. However, the cost of using military power has increased. The United States foreign policy is a perfect example of how hard power cannot solve everything. Their influence has taken a hit with their unilateral uses of military resources in Iraq, leading eventually to the rise of terrorism in the Middle East. Smart power gathers soft and hard power and can be used as a strategy to attract people as well as coerce them (Nye, 2011). With the global information age, soft power tends to become even more important. People-. 治政大1998). Legitimacy and credibility of information and communication channels increased (Simon, 立 to-people connection has become easier and the world is now transformed, shrunk as the quantity. of state actors need to be considered on both the national and the international stage. Policies,. ‧ 國. 學. therefore, need to be crafted in a direction that would attract rather than threaten.. ‧. Concerning foreign policy, the national interest is still the main focus of states. However, the use of the attraction behavior in order to achieve political goals has, according to the soft power. y. Nat. er. io. sit. argument, a better chance of success in terms of mobilizing cooperation than the coercive behavior. Ideas, cultural values, policies and institution can be used as currencies to attract (Nye, 2004).. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. The twenty-first century has indeed seen the emergence of low-cost communication means,. engchi. which should make policymakers increasingly concern with soft power. Non-state actors have also gained in importance. National goals are difficult to achieve by a state on its own (Nye, 2011). The rise of influence of non-state actors means that states now need to cooperate in order to achieve the desired outcome. Foreign states but also non-states actor must act to support foreign policies. In this sense, soft power helps to create positive understanding and increase the possibility of having a positive outcome or at least support from other actors (Ross, 2003). Joseph Nye (2008) defined Public diplomacy as “an instrument that government uses to mobilize these resources to. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(11) communicate with and attract the people of their country rather than merely their government.”. Public diplomacy is one of the strategies that allow governments to use soft power (Nye, 2011). In order to better understand the use of public diplomacy nowadays, it is necessary to first review the different definitions given and then give a quick historical background of public diplomacy improvement since the cold war to understand its practices nowadays.. 1.2.2 Public diplomacy The term public diplomacy was first defined in 1966 by Edmund Guillion, the dean of the. 政治大. Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University and the creator of the Edward R.. 立. Murrow Center for Public Diplomacy. At the time, the Murrow Center brochure stated that:. ‧ 國. 學. “Public diplomacy deals with the influence of public attitudes on the formation and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations. ‧. beyond traditional diplomacy . . . [including] the cultivation by governments of public opinion in other countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in. Nat. sit. io. er. ideas.”. y. one country with those of another . . . (and) the transnational flow of information and. According to the United States Department of states dictionary of international relation,. n. al. public diplomacy is defined as:. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. “Governmental sponsored programs intended to inform or influence public opinion in other countries. The chief instruments of public diplomacy are publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges, and radio and television” (1987) In order to give a full definition of what public diplomacy is, we should define the borders of public diplomacy. Public diplomacy differentiates itself from traditional or official diplomacy that targets government officials. Instead, public diplomacy focuses on foreign audiences. Public diplomacy is transmitted from one government to another country public. It focuses on the attitudes and the behavior of these foreign publics toward. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(12) the transmitter government (Wolf Jr & Rosen, 2004). The way information is carried to the foreign audience is also a matter of great importance. The border between propaganda and public diplomacy is really thin (Leonard, 2002). Public diplomacy and propaganda have a similar goal: to help to improve the image of the advocate or transmitter country in the targeted country. The difference between public diplomacy and propaganda lays on the way to achieve this goal. The main distinction is the method that public diplomacy wield to reach and communicate with the foreign audiences is less aggressive and more comprehensive compared with propaganda. 政治大 propaganda was used instead until it gained a too negative connotation during the Cold War (Cull, 立 (McClellan, 2004). However, as said earlier, the term public diplomacy is pretty recent, the term. ‧ 國. 學. 2008). A quick history check reveals that communication with the foreign public was carried out for a long time. During the Cold War, for example, the USIA (United States Information Agency). ‧. broadcasted major events at a global scale through newspaper, books, magazine and movies, which. sit. y. Nat. could have served to forge the opinion of the foreign audience (Cull, 2008b). The USIA is an. io. er. example of a public diplomacy strategy. Through times, different strategies have been used by. al. zadvocate countries in order to reach the foreign audience. The elections of Barack Obama in. n. iv n C 2008 brought back the topic of soft power diplomacy and the role of traditional h e nandg public chi U diplomats has evolved to become more adapted in order to spread information to the foreign audience (Copeland, 2009). Culture is one of the potential resources that can be used to create positive outcome for the foreign audience. If public diplomacy focuses on other resources such as their foreign intervention or their political values, the term: cultural diplomacy, focuses on transmitting the culture abroad. Alliances française, the British Council or Italian Dante Alighieri are examples of cultural diplomacy office. Those governmental organizations are established abroad in order to be the cultural representative. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(13) of their country and enhance the understanding of their culture abroad. Hollywood blockbuster or BBC also play their role in order to shape the cultural landscape around the world (Paschalidis, 2009). The next section focuses on the different strategies of soft power, instead of hard power, to respond to the modern demand, and improve the way public diplomacy can be implemented and reach foreign audiences.. 1.2.3 Public Diplomacy Strategy. 政治大. When it comes to organizing a public diplomacy strategy, it is important to understand how. 立. soft power works. Firstly, the government should identify its resources. Nye firstly identified three. ‧ 國. 學. sources of soft power based on three major resources:. • Culture (set of practice creating meaning for the society such as high culture or mass . ‧. entertainment);. Nat. n. al. er. io. • Foreign policy (the rightfulness of commitment abroad).. sit. y. • Political values (laws and institutions that impact the perception abroad); and. i n U. v. In order to have an efficient public diplomacy strategy, McClory (2015), in Soft Power 30. Ch. engchi. Global Ranking, asserts that it is essential to picture soft power resources efficiently. However, soft power resources are not easily computed for practitioners of public diplomacy. Each state will have different and multiple resources and in order to have an efficient strategy, the public diplomacy first mission is to define its resources and then to think about possible implementation for those resources to attract or create a positive outreach on the foreign audience. Secondly, in order to create a positive image out of the soft power outcome, the government should have a coherent public diplomacy strategy with a clear message (Wimbush, 2009). Thirdly, the government should focus on targeting the right target in order to create a positive response.. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(14) Strategic communication can help public diplomacy to choose “the right target with the right message” (ibid, p.4). In the matters of strategic communication, McClellan (2004) gives a major contribution to explain the audience targeting. Table 1.1 Pyramid of Communication. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Source: McClellan, Public Diplomacy in the context of public diplomacy Public diplomacy has to deal with the present image of the country by the targeted audience. The communication pyramid represents the possible public certain strategy can target by dividing them into different categories. Public diplomacy will use different strategic communication to target this difference in the public. At the bottom, a large amount of public can be reached but as we go upward into action strategies, the amount of member in each category is becoming smaller as we move to the top and the cost of communication will increase as the amount of public member. 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(15) decreases. The most basic communication happens in the awareness level. This communication is using mass or traditional media to reach the biggest public as possible. After becoming aware, a part of foreign public will show some interest toward the advocate country and is expected to look for more information about it. This audience will start to look for language classes, cultural events and centers, in order to gain more knowledge about this country. Eventually, some of the interested audience will look for more knowledge about the history, culture, economics and deeper knowledge on the advocate country. A part of this foreign audience will then look to actively. 治政 The higher level of communication is action. The member of大 this category will be a diplomat or 立. support the advocate country in think-thank or publishing articles related to the advocate country.. government members. The action level of communication is closer to what traditional diplomacy. ‧ 國. 學. is while the lower level is more related to public diplomacy. Awareness, Interest and Knowledge. ‧. may therefore be created through a public diplomacy short-term strategy. Identifying the need of. sit. y. Nat. each group in terms of resources must be understood in order to create an efficient strategy. . io. er. In sum, using the right resources to create an efficient policies and targeting the public to. al. create a positive outcome is the hard mission that public diplomacy carries. It is thereafter essential. n. iv n C for the government that conducted public diplomacy strategies to analyze the potential outcome he ngchi U which is described in the methodology.. 1.2.4 Communication Strategy In order to understand the impact of such strategy, much focus must be taken on what story a state want to tell, on what narratives must this states focus. Therefore, public diplomacy cannot be conducted without focusing on communication strategy. McClelland’s pyramid of communication helps to understand which group to target. However, it does not indicates efficient narratives. Strategic narratives, the means for political actors to construct a shared story that domestic and. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(16) international actors can understand, must be taken into consideration when creating a public diplomacy strategy. The construction of a strategic narrative involves the focus on both the domestic story and the state relation to international actors. It is an identity claim of the past and the present both at the domestic and international level. Three steps are describing strategic narratives: the formation, the projection, and the reception. The formation of the narratives includes concern on the current situation of the actor in term of political goals, domestic politics, constraints of history and relation to the world current events. The projection of the narratives. 治政大 the reception of the strategic new technology resources and dissemination network. Finally, 立. includes the analysis of access to the audience in term of communication resources and strategies,. narratives focuses on the credibility of the message to the audience, the types of reception and the. ‧ 國. 學. factors that may have affected the reception (Miskimmon, O'Loughlin, & Roselle, 2017). With. ‧. borrowing the strategic narrative of the communication field, states may be able to shape a sustainable image to the foreign audience.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. According to Melissen, nation-branding and public diplomacy are complementary. They both try to influence the foreign audience and have an important domestic dimension. Nation-. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. branding and public diplomacy have a similar long-term approach on how to be successful rather. engchi. than traditional diplomacy that is more based on current events and relations. The difference between public diplomacy and nation-branding is the goal of those strategies. If nation-branding deals with the promotion of the country comparative advantages, public diplomacy aims at maintaining good relation with other states (2005). In term of communication, however, same communication strategy may be used by both public diplomacy and nation-branding. However, it would be wrong to compare nation-branding and public diplomacy as marketing strategies. As Anholt, the father of nation-branding, quoted, it is states intention that changes people perception. 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(17) and rarely advertisements. Nation-branding and public diplomacy may therefore take some insight on branding such as: the importance of a clear and coordinated communication with the foreign audiences, the notion of reputation as an external phenomenon that isn’t under the control of the actors (brand image), the notion of measurement of this reputation (brand equity), the notion of internal management of brand (brand purpose) and finally the importance of innovation for this brand (Anholt, 2008). States must, therefore, focus on their policy and the possible distribution of those policies abroad in order to reach the foreign audience. Moreover, an important similitude. 治政 international actors, states now have to compete to make 大 their image a global influence (De 立. between brand and nation-branding is the importance of brand competition. With the multitude of. Chernatony, 2008).. ‧ 國. 學. 1.2.5 Middlepowership. ‧. In the perspective of middle power states, soft power strategy is even more coherent than for. Nat. sit. y. stronger states. Nowadays, only one country, the USA, is considered as a true superpower, and. n. al. er. io. therefore middle powers must be adaptive in order to find their place in this multipolar world.. i n U. v. Middle powers, in this anarchic international system are more likely to be good neighbors (Neack,. Ch. engchi. 2000) and, therefore, they will be more tempted to use a soft power strategy. A middle power is defined as “neither a great power nor a small power.” Instead, middle powers should be considered somewhere in the middle. The definition of a middle power can therefore be criticized as being too vague. When considering middle power, we take into account the great relativity and possible hierarchy of state powers. Some may consider the structural approach and compare the middle powers in terms of GDP, military might, population; others may consider middle powers in respect of their behavior: being good neighbors that are involved into human rights, environment or educational improvement (Heine, 2009). To be a middle power in a. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(18) behavioral way, which is the closest to the soft power definition, a state must exercise international leadership but only on certain issues, work through international agencies or organization and participate in the promotion of peacekeeping (Gilboa, 2009). According to this definition, we can analyze that middle powers may not have the necessary hard power resources but instead use its soft resources to become a relevant actor in the international system. Moreover, as they are less resourceful than other great power, they “have to distinguish themselves in some attractive area” (Gilboa, 2009). Middle powers still use the same resources (political values, foreign policies,. 治政大2009). According to the Public great powers and other emerging non-states actors (Potter, 立 culture) as great powers, but they need to be adaptive and compete not only in the shadow of those. Diplomacy Magazine of 2009, “middle powers” such as Brazil, South Africa, Canada or Mexico. ‧ 國. 學. are more tempted to use public diplomacy in order to break out and differentiate themselves from. ‧. the other countries.. sit. y. Nat. 1.2.6 Gastrodiplomacy. n. al. er. io. If gastrodiplomacy is a new term in the field of public diplomacy, food, however, has been. i n U. v. influencing our life forever (Pollan, 2014). Food anthropology has been studied as an important. Ch. engchi. subject for human life not only because food is a living necessity but also because it bounds with the nation identity. Back to the Greek literature, Aristotle discussed the importance of sharing a meal to create bound even with your enemies (Constantinou, 1996). In 1825, a famous food philosopher, Brillat-Savarin, was saying, “The destiny of nations depends on how they nourish themselves.” (Brillat-Savarin, 1825). Food being such an important part of our life, in her book, You Eat What You Are: A Study of Ethnic Food Traditions, Thelma Barer-Stein (1979) stated:. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(19) “Without food we cannot survive. But food is much more than a tool of survival. Food is a source of pleasure, comfort, security. Food is also a symbol of hospitality, social status, and has ritual significance. What we select to eat, how we prepare it, serve it, and even how we eat it, are all factors deeply touched by our individual cultural inheritance.” Accordingly, food can potentially be used as a vehicle for Soft Power. However, it is often badly conceptualized on how to achieve that. Indeed, food itself, as a sterile, necessary product, may not be appealing to the general public. Instead, it is the cultural-symbolism behind food that allows it to transport norms and ideas as food travels. Food represents more than just of its. 政治大. necessity for living but also a different lifestyle, values or norms.. 立. Therefore, It is normal to consider its role in international relations (Reynolds, 2012).. ‧ 國. 學. In the Public Diplomacy magazine of Winter 2014 about Gastrodiplomacy, the editor Shannon Haugh (2014) defines Gastrodiplomacy as a new tool of public diplomacy that brings an. ‧. opportunity to reach the target audience through food. It’s an edible nation branding.. y. Nat. io. sit. The term Gastrodiplomacy is relatively recent in the field of public diplomacy. Therefore,. n. al. er. there is sometimes confusion on how it should be called: food diplomacy, culinary diplomacy or. i n U. v. diplomatic cuisines are every so often used without differentiation. For the purpose of this research,. Ch. engchi. we shall define clearly what we call gastrodiplomacy, and what gastrodiplomacy is not. Gastrodiplomacy is not the use of food donation from a country to a devastated or poorer area in order to improve the image of this country for the local population that receives food. This instead will fall in the term of food diplomacy. Food aid can be a part of a public diplomacy strategy but it doesn’t fall into the category of cultural diplomacy or nation- branding strategy like gastrodiplomacy does. Instead, food diplomacy is the uses of foreign engagement as a resource of soft power.. 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(20) Gastrodiplomacy is not a government-to-government approach where food is used as a tool during conventional and formal diplomatic dinner in order to create a positive emotion during negotiation. Although this approach is relevant in traditional diplomacy, it doesn’t fall under the definition of gastrodiplomacy but will rather fall in the definition of culinary diplomacy (ChappleSokol, 2013). Instead, Rockower (2012) defined Gastrodiplomacy as a public diplomacy strategy, and more specifically a cultural diplomacy attempt to communicate culinary culture to foreign publics.. 治政大 can also be seen as a culinary connection with the audiences (Rockower, 2014). Gastrodiplomacy 立. It is a people-to-people engagement that uses food as a tool for creating a positive emotional. public diplomacy (Chapple-Sokol, 2013). The strategy behind gastrodiplomacy differs from. ‧ 國. 學. public diplomacy in terms of how information is communicated. Instead of using tangible. ‧. information, gastrodiplomacy is linked with the emotional connection, intangible information in order to create a positive perception (Constantinou, 1996). Instead of winning minds and hearts. y. Nat. er. io. sit. with ideas like traditional public diplomacy, you win in with stomachs. In this sense, gastrodiplomacy is particularly innovative. Another variation of gastrodiplomacy compared with. al. n. iv n C culture diplomacy is the strategic communication h e n g candh the i Upossible audience that it can target.. Creating awareness through food may be a common strategy (McClellan, 2004), but cuisine may also incorporate a high cuisine implication (Carême, 1842) and can be closely linked with culture, geography, history and national identity (Osipova, 2014). Therefore, not only can gastrodiplomacy be used to create awareness, but it can also continue to be efficient in both the interest and knowledge stages of communication. In the case of gastrodiplomacy, chefs become -publicdiplomats as they can bridge the difference and foster the understanding of the history and culture of their country.. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(21) Cuisine from another country can be used as a particular brand in order to attract and create positive emotions on the audience. Through this particular emotional connection, it helps to create awareness or increase the interest of the foreign audiences. Programs such as the Diplomatic Culinary Partnership from the US, Global Kitchen or “Malaysian Kitchen to the world”, “All in good tastes: savor the flavors of Taiwan” are only a few examples of gastrodiplomacy campaigns that were launched recently. Most of those culinary nation-branding strategy are commonly launched by East and Southeast Asia countries (Rockower, 2012).. 政治大. Two trends of Gastrodiplomacy may be observed along with traditional state-based diplomacy: . 立. ‧ 國. actors in the realm of public diplomacy (Wiseman, 1999).. 學. - Gastrodiplomacy “polylateralism” which is the interaction between states and non-state. ‧. - Gastrodiplomacy “paradiplomacy” which is sub-state actors engaging their own. sit. y. Nat. international diplomatic engagement (Wolff, 2007). . io. er. Gastrodiplomacy has gained importance in the literature and some authors use. al. iv n C Forman & Chapple-Sokol, 2014; Osipova, For the purpose of my thesis, I consider h e n2014). gchi U n. gastrodiplomacy and the Contact Hypothesis as a possible conflict resolution tool (Mendelson-. gastrodiplomacy as a possible subtle tool for middle powers, like Taiwan, to gain recognition and differentiate themselves from other great powers.. 1.3 Methods and Cases Measuring the efficiency of public diplomacy has been a growing concern as public diplomacy strategy acquired importance (Pahlavi, 2007). The positive impact of public diplomacy is however difficult and more subtle to calculate (Gyan, 2009). Unlike hard power, which can be measured through calculation of military forces, population, economic power; soft power is more. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(22) subjective to measure. The attractiveness of political institution, foreign policy or culture, less often lies on computable quantitative variables. Soft Power 30 published yearly brings a big contribution in measuring countries soft power resources. In the review, McClory (2015) built a framework to help to measure the efficiency of countries soft power strategy by ranking them according to both objective and subjective data. Objective data are measured through indices: governmental efficiency, individual freedom, cultural penetration abroad, attractiveness of education in term of foreign students, universal values etc.... Subjective data are evaluated with. 治政大its foreign policy, its technological perception of the foreign country, its cuisine, its luxury goods, 立 the use of international pooling that surveyed the favorability toward a country through the. product, its contribution to global affairs and the desire to visit this foreign country (McClory,. ‧ 國. 學. 2016).. ‧. With regard to gastrodiplomacy, subjective data collected through surveys is one of the way used in order to compute the impact of this strategy, as shown by Ruddy's quantitative analysis. y. Nat. er. io. sit. of gastrodiplomacy (Ruddy, 2014). Policy analysis regarding budget expenditure and campaign prospect can also be used to measure the objective data and observe the impact of some of those. n. al. strategies.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In this section, I explain my own framework on gastrodiplomacy measurement regarding subjective data and objective data. The purpose of this research is to find the relevance of gastrodiplomacy in the field of public diplomacy. Through the literature review, we have seen a growing interest for the subject in this field. However, I choose to go further and to see if food as a tool of public diplomacy has been used by countries in the recent years. Therefore, I will go over some major international events and statements that could relate the growing importance of food as a cultural ambassador and nation-branding.. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(23) I would like to first confirm that gastrodiplomacy or food as a tool for reaching foreign audience matters and can be used as a strategy. I will review how food has become a tool for public diplomacy. Examples of the growing importance of food include: the acceptance of some traditional cuisine in the UNESCO lists of cultural heritage and food being the center topic of some major, global reaching, events such as the Milan Expo of 2015. In addition, with a list of the major change of focus toward gastrodiplomacy, the literature review will also support my view on the importance of food heritage and culture and its possible use as a cultural ambassador.. 政治大 H1: Gastrodiplomacy can be used as a useful tool to reach a foreign audience. 立 Therefore, my first hypothesis is:. And the counter hypothesis is:. ‧ 國. 學. H0: Gastrodiplomacy is not relevant in the field of public diplomacy.. ‧. For the purpose of this thesis, I am also looking forward to analyzing the impact of. sit. y. Nat. gastrodiplomacy as part of the soft power resources of one middle-power. However, some. io. er. problems with research design come with this research question. I choose to focus on one middle. al. power because they tend to be less resourceful than other great powers and therefore need to be. n. iv n C more innovative in their public diplomacy The choice of a middlepower’s soft power h estrategy. ngchi U policy regarding gastrodiplomacy is made for practicability of the research but also because it was used as an example in Rockwell’s paper. Therefore, I choose Taiwan in order to enhance the understanding of Taiwan public diplomacy and also go further on what Rockwell has done in the field of Taiwan gastrodiplomacy. Moreover, the case of Taiwan is particularly interesting for it has many middle power competitors in the region. The examples of Korea and Japan as Taiwan gastrodiplomacy competitors are often cited.. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(24) For the purpose of this research, I would like to analyze the public diplomacy strategy and the culinary nation branding of Taiwan. To relate it to gastrodiplomacy, I would focus on nation branding campaign related to the Taiwanese food culture and analyze their impact through survey. Due to the relative novelty of gastrodiplomacy in the field of public diplomacy, it is troublesome to find an extensive literature or many studies on the subject and even harder to find a case study about one specific country. Moreover, as said earlier, the tools to measure the impact of public diplomacy are limited. In order to analyze Taiwan public diplomacy, I would focus on the impact. 治政 in Taiwan and evaluate their perception on Taiwanese food. 大立. of Taiwan campaign related to food in Taiwan and evaluate its efficiency through survey foreigner. Two possible actors can be clearly identified for gastrodiplomacy:. ‧ 國. 學. •. The Taiwanese government that will create cultural forum related to food to. y. Nat. In order to evaluate the outcomes, I first observe if the strategy is still used after a couple. io. er. . Taiwanese food or beverage companies that exported Taiwanese “traditional” food.. sit. •. ‧. enhance its culture abroad.. of years. My expected result is that if the strategy wasn’t working, the funding for the campaign. al. n. iv n C would have stopped. Moreover, in the case brands related to food, such as 85C or Coco, h ofeexported ngchi U. if those companies would not break even or made a profit in the foreign county, it is expected that they leave the country where they imported their brands meaning an ineffective outreach of the foreign audience. The main Taiwanese “food” companies that I would like to use include, for example, Din Tai Fun, Chef Hung Taiwanese Beef Noodle, CoCo and some others. My second hypothesis is that: H2: If the gastrodiplomacy strategy is working, we can observe a continuation of this strategy by the government or the companies for several years. . 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(25) The counter hypothesis is: H0: If the gastrodiplomacy strategy is not working, we can observe that the government or the companies that exported its cuisine stopped after several years. To give the complete landscape of Taiwanese gastrodiplomacy strategy, I would also like to analyze the Taiwanese policy on Taiwan gastrodiplomacy with an in depth review and comments on its achievements and drawback. Moreover I complete the analyses with interview or feedback through email of some Taiwanese elites and Taiwanese chef on Taiwan gastrodiplomacy strategy.. 立. The first outcome expected. 政治大 is that gastrodiplomacy,. however not widely used. ‧ 國. 學. internationally, has been used as an intangible public diplomacy tool. The national cuisine has been exported abroad in order to create a people-to-people bound. Interestingly, we noted that not. ‧. only great gastronomic countries have used this technique such as France, Italy or Japan but also. sit. y. Nat. less developed “gastronomic countries” such as middle powers and this especially in Asia. The. io. al. er. second outcome expected, through analyzes of Taiwan gastrodiplomacy is the assessment results. n. and the possible outreach of gastrodiplomacy.. Ch 1.4 Outline of the Thesis. engchi. i n U. v. The thesis will be divided into five chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction to the topic. It outlines the research background, the purpose of research and gives the research questions. The second part of the first chapter is the literature review. It defines more precisely the terms used and go through the existing literature regarding the topic. The literature review is divided into several parts. Firstly, I shortly define soft power focusing on the founding father of Soft power: Joseph Nye and his definition of soft power. Secondly, I examine the literature concerning public diplomacy strategy and its link with cultural. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(26) diplomacy. I then narrow down my topic by explaining the role of middle power and why it matters in public diplomacy strategy. Finally, I review the literature on Gastrodiplomacy. Gastrodiplomacy is a new research field, I complete the literature on food anthropology and try to underline the importance of food in a nation’s culture. Lastly, I introduce my research method and analyze the possible methods that have been used regarding public diplomacy measurement. The second chapter focuses on the use of gastrodiplomacy around the world. This chapter firstly gives a comparison of different gastrodiplomacy events that were organized across the world. 政治大 such as the Mobile Turkish Coffee, the UNESCO Intangible heritage in 2010, but also the Korean 立. in the recent years. Relevant gastrodiplomacy strategies include the Milan 2015 Expo or initiative. ‧ 國. 學. Cuisine to the world, the Global Thai program and eventually the All in Good Taste: Savor the flavor of Taiwan campaign. A second part will focus essentially on Taiwan cuisine resources and. ‧. how they were used as tools to create positive attitudes in the foreign audience.. sit. y. Nat. The third chapter analyzes and evaluates the results of the interviews and measure the. io. er. effectiveness of Taiwan’s gastrodiplomacy with objective and subjective variables to calculate the efficient and capture people’s perception on Taiwan gastrodiplomacy.. al. n. iv n C The fourth chapter researcheshthe outreach of Taiwan gastrodiplomacy strategy. engchi U. It. analyzes in depth the policy regarding Taiwan gastrodiplomacy strategy and looks upon the achievement of this policy and the different activities that have been used to reach the foreign audience. It also analyzes the drawbacks of this policy and through interview and policy analyzes identify the main problem regarding Taiwan gastrodiplomacy strategy. The fifth chapter summarizes the research finding and proposes recommendations for further research and for improving further public diplomacy strategy.. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(27) Chapter 2: Comparative Perspective of Gastrodiplomacy In this chapter, I sum up and compare some of the main events and strategy that focused on food, as the main tool, to create awareness. I first choose to focus on different events that were organized to create a positive perception and involved cuisine as one of the main tools. Those events were mainly organized in order to increase the understanding of not only one nation but of. 政治大 issue. This part will enable. several. Those events do not try to raise awareness of one particular country but instead include. 立. different countries or focus on an. ‧ 國. 學. gastrodiplomacy can create an impact.. us to understand how. Secondly, I compare different campaigns on nation-branding that countries have used on. ‧. gastrodiplomacy. Most of the initiative I am focusing on in this part are initiated by the public. sit. y. Nat. sectors, however, it is noteworthy that many private actors may have initiated their own strategy. io. er. incorporating local food culture as a tool of soft power campaign. I believe that both attempts. al. iv n C U agents, either private or public foreign audience perception. In order toh have e nangeffective c h i impact, n. either through occasional events or greater nation-branding campaign may have affected the. ones, must pay attention to a number of issues on strategic communication. I will use a nationbranding marketing design to compare the different countries initiatives. The third part focus on Taiwan. It analyzes Taiwan Soft power strategy and regards the difficulty of Taiwan diplomatic situation and bureaucratic situation. I then go through Taiwan public diplomacy and nation branding strategy to understand how The Office of Tourism and MOFA created an adaptive strategy to showcase Taiwan. Lastly, I focus on Taiwan. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(28) gastrodiplomacy strategy by using the Nation-branding marketing design and analyze Taiwan cuisine potential.. 2.1 Gastrodiplomacy as a way to increase understanding between nations? In 2010 UNESCO designated Gastronomic meal of the French and Traditional Mexican cuisine as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Human, assessing on the same way the. 治政大 of Human within 2013: on cuisine have been elevated as an Intangible Cultural Heritage 立. cultural importance of cuisine and food sharing around the world. Recently, more countries culture. • The Japanese traditional meal (Washoku). ‧ 國. 學. • The Mediterranean diet for Cyprus, Croatia, Spain, Greece, Italy, Morocco and Portugal. ‧. • The traditional making and sharing of fermented vegetable in The Republic of Korea (Kimjiang) In 2015, the Tradition of kimchi-making was inscribed but this time for the Democratic. y. Nat. er. io. sit. People's Republic of Korea. In 2016 UNESCO inscribed beer culture in Belgium as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Human. The most recent addition was Nsima, culinary tradition of Malawi in. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 2017. By focusing and inscribe food culture as an important part of human history, UNESCO. engchi. shows that there are a growing interest and concern for the food culture and how it represents a country history. Starting in early 2010, growing concern on the academic field focused on gastrodiplomacy and its potential impact. Soon after, events and meeting were organized to understand the place of food in our society and academic scholars, think tanks and government offices of foreign affairs started to take a step to increase the knowledge of worldwide cuisine and understand food diversity.. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(29) Academically speaking, we cannot omit the creation of The International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts, and Tourism (IGCAT). Established in 2012, this non-governmental organization empowers local communities, support and promote local cuisines. Alongside, the IGCAT supports and publishes experts aiming at the identification of the best practices of gastronomy and analyze them to make food culture a larger trend. Although not entirely focuses on gastrodiplomacy, The IGCAT allowed more research to be done in term of food and culture sharing and nation-branding.. 治政大 more understanding of culture. taken to emphasize the importance that cuisine could have to create 立. If the academic field around gastrodiplomacy is still underdeveloped, some auctions were. Some of those events even went as far as trying to prone peace (Mendelson-Forman & Chapple-. ‧ 國. 學. Sokol, 2014). Indeed, according to the contact hypothesis theory, food could create a great. ‧. opportunity and help to decrease violence. Food, as a basic human needs, can create the right condition to foster understanding between nation the lack the necessary knowledge about each. y. Nat. er. io. sit. other (Osipova, 2014). The case of the Conflict Kitchen course, aiming at teaching a country culture while teaching its local cuisine to the participants, is an example of how food can foster. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. understanding and may, to some extent, foster peace. Moreover, the influence of Global Kitchen. engchi. does focus only on the increase of understanding about other nation but in particular case, food was used to promote a brighter future for the world. The biggest and often cited event that promoted global food at the largest scale is the Expo Milan of 2015. From May 1st to October 31, more than 140 participants showcase developed ideas on local food and food sustainability. Along with the theme of food, the theme of proenvironmental food was a major debate of the Expo Milan. To this extent, gastrodiplomacy can. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(30) promote countries culture but also promoted a brighter global idea: healthy food and food sustainability (Garibaldi, 2015).. 2.2 Gastrodiplomacy comparative analysis 2.2.1 Gastrodiplomacy strategic communication Gastrodiplomacy is a subfield of cultural diplomacy and therefore uses the same tools to narrates its story: strategic communication. The strategy can be summarized in three different step in order. 治政大 that have already used those field of gastrodiplomacy. They must analyze the events and strategy 立. to create an effective strategy. Firstly, the diplomats must understand their current output in the. output and try to measure the impacted it created. Secondly, diplomats must target a goal in term. ‧ 國. 學. of outreach and outcome. Finally, they must design a policy to successfully reach these goals.. ‧. To this extent, the gastrodiplomacy strategy is similar to nation branding strategy. Just like any promotional campaign, public diplomats need to summarize the strength, weakness, opportunity,. y. Nat. er. io. sit. and threat to efficiently translate their national cuisine into successful actions and reach its goal: creating awareness, interest and knowledge. The audience reception also has a particular. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. importance as it can impact the effectiveness of one policy. Much attention must, therefore, be. engchi. taken by practitioners to translate national cuisine as an efficient campaign of gastrodiplomacy. In its analysis of comparative gastrodiplomacy strategy, Zhuang takes a communication point of view on gastrodiplomacy and uses a marketing analyzes. He observes that states actors use different marketing strategy to promote national cuisine (2015): • product marketing strategy: to promote one’s cuisine through establishing restaurant chains, developing food chains and trade with food business.. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(31) • food events strategy: the participation or organization of food festivals to reach directly the target audiences. • coalition building strategy: The partnership with an organization to reach the public through an extended network. • use of opinion leaders strategy: Using strategically or locally important celebrities and organization to raise awareness of the audience. • media relation strategy: The use of traditional or social media to broadcast a message to the. 治政 education strategy: Increase the awareness of the public 大 through educative and participatory 立 targeted audience.. •. programs. ‧ 國. 學. I analyze different countries strategies through Zhuang strategic communication framework to. ‧. compare the different gastrodiplomacy strategy design.. sit. y. Nat. 2.2.2 Asia: the Pioneers of Gastrodiplomacy. n. al. er. io. Gastrodiplomacy emerged in Asia as an attempt by Asian country to differentiate their. i n U. v. unique flavor that is often mistaken for the neighboring country (de Melo, 2015; Strugar, 2015).. Ch. engchi. Both privates and public actors can play a role in gastrodiplomacy and create a positive perception abroad through the specific cuisine and taste, therefore when comparing gastrodiplomacy campaigns from different states, some events or strategies may not be reported, I, however, try to compare as many strategies as I could using both private and public reports (Strugar, 2015). In 2002, Thailand launched the pioneer of gastrodiplomacy strategy with two programs: “Global Thai” or “Thailand kitchen of the world”. Those two joint strategies aimed at opening Thai restaurants around the world ("Thailand’s Gastro Diplomacy," 2002). Following this initiative, the number of tourists visiting Thailand has risen significantly.. 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(32) Table 2.1 Comparative strategy of Thailand Gastrodiplomacy Strategy product marketing strategy. Achievement • Promotion of Thai restaurant around the world. • Increasing the export of Thai food product. • Thai select, to certify that so-called Thai restaurant have at least 60% of their menu being real Thai dishes food events strategy • Organization of food festival in Thailand such as Thaifex world of Asia festivals. Coalition strategy • Thai food cooking competition held each year in Australian Drysdale campus in partnership with Thai Airways International that offered the winner a round trip to Thailand. use of opinion leader strategy • The inaugural in 2018 of the Michelin guide in Bangkok rewarded 17 restaurants. media relation strategy • Street food App launched for Bangkok, Chiang Mai and Phuket. • CNN short video clips: The “40 Thai foods we can’t live without” • "Thai food to the world” websites • YouTube videos on Thai street food and Thai food • TV series “somebody feed Phil” in Bangkok education strategy • Cooking class given in the “Guilford Young College” in Australia over summer. • Oriental Hotel Apprenticeship Program offered Oriental Professional Thai Chef Program and the Oriental Thai Cooking School to train those who want to work as chefs in overseas restaurants. • Professional cooking program in Thailand This gastrodiplomacy initiative was followed by many other in Asian countries at different. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. degrees and with different communication strategies. In South Korea, the “kimchi diplomacy” started in 2009 and embodied an attempt to make the Korean cuisine one of the top five in the world (Moskin, 2009). In 2009, the Ministry of agriculture, food, and rural affairs created the Korea Food Promotion Institute to strengthen the competitiveness of Korean food and food industry internationally. Moreover, with the Winter. 26. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(33) Olympic game being held in PyeongChang in 2018, South Korea was in the spotlight and took advantage of this great occasion to showcase its cuisine (Sojung, 2018). Table 2.2 Comparative strategy of South Korea Gastrodiplomacy Strategy product marketing strategy. Achievement • Establishment a Global Korean Food Network. • Establishment of Korean Food culture. food events strategy • Bimbipap backpacker food truck travels the world to sell tradition Korean mixed bowl. • K-food plaza during the Olympic Game of PyeongChang opened for the tourists. • World Korean Food Festival starting in 2016 • Join Madrid Fusion festival • Special events in Paris and London for promotion of Korean food. coalition building strategy • Sponsored TV shows on Korean and international channels on Korean food. • Link with K-pop stars to promote Korean food. • Coalition with the French cooking school “Le cordon Bleu” to create a Korean cooking book. use of opinion leader strategy • Unesco Intangible Cultural heritage for the art of doing and sharing Kimchi (Kimjang) • Korean Restaurants listed in the Michelin Guide for fine dining. media relation strategy • Website korea.net translate in several languages including information on Korean traditional food making and famous Korean dishes. • Sponsored KBS World’s TV show ‘Delicious Korea’ education strategy • Creation of the K-food academy that teaches Korean cuisine in Los Angeles and does missions in other gastronomy school. • K-lecture series organized each year in Los Angeles. The strategy used in India, the” Samosa diplomacy”, was less pushed by the government,. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. however, there were some attempts to create an understanding of culture through food. In each of those case, the cultural narratives are used as cohesive tools and create pride among the population.. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(34) Table 2.3 Comparative strategy of India gastrodiplomacy Strategy product marketing strategy. Achievement • P.J exports Indian food over the world • Indian food restaurant opened abroad by Indian immigrant food events strategy • Indian food events in Los Angeles • Students organizing ‘Vindaloo Against Violence’ to promote Indian culture and decrease violence. use of opinion leader strategy • United Nations banquet of Indian independence celebration. • Indian delicacy served at the White House. media relation strategy • YouTube videos In Malaysia, the Malaysian External Trade Development Corporation launched in 2010 the. 政治大 campaign “Malaysia kitchen to the world” to promote Malaysian restaurant and cuisine around the 立. ‧ 國. 學. world starting with New York and then going further to London, Australia and China (Rockower, 2011b). However, the program officially ended in 2015 (MATRADE, 2016).. ‧. Table 2.4 Comparative strategy of Malaysia gastrodiplomacy. Achievement • Provided expertise for franchises to developed outside Malaysia. food events strategy • London Malaysian night market • Good Food & Wine Show in Australia with Alvin Quah winner of MasterChef. • Malaysia Makan Fest in Japan • Malaysia food festival in New York. coalition building strategy • Partnership with “MasterChef” Australia media relation strategy • “The Malaysian Kitchen” TV show • Facebook page “Malaysia Kitchen Global” • CNN travel highlighted “top 40 Malaysian food.” education strategy • Cooking class in Kuala Lumpur, in the UK, In Australia and the US. In Japan, fostering a rich food and culture is part of their nation-branding strategy. The. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Strategy product marketing strategy. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. program to promote Japanese food started in 2007 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery and was supposed to continue until 2013 but is still active even today with the creation for example of. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(35) the Japan Food Product Overseas Promotion Center aiming at “building a strong brand identity for Japanese food and culture” which was established in 2017. Moreover, according to the director of this center Japanese food has been considered as an enjoyable cuisine for a long time (Kobayashi, 2017). The Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery established the Japanese Promotion Organization to promote Japanese food and through food Japanese culture abroad. Table 2.5 Comparative strategy of Japan Gastrodiplomacy Strategy product marketing strategy. Achievement • Creation of the Japan Food product overseas promotion center that analyzes Japanese restaurant abroad. • Numerous Japanese restaurant around the world. food events strategy • Foodex Japanese Festival in Japan. • Japanese culture festival around the world that features food, manga or art. • Rakuten Global Market. coalition building strategy • Research by the Japan Food Research Laboratories. use of opinion leader strategy • Addition of traditional Japanese cuisine to the list of Intangible Cultural heritage list by UNESCO. • Eight best restaurant in Asia are in Tokyo according to the 2017 list of the world best restaurant. media relation strategy and education strategy • Online Japanese Magazine on Food. • Various YouTube video and Facebook recipe pages. • Netflix series about Japan foods.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2.2.3 Other gastrodiplomacy strategy Following the success of Thailand and other Asian countries, gastrodiplomacy strategy, other countries have organized events in order to increase awareness of their country through food. Peru was the first non-Asian country that started to design public diplomacy strategy based on their traditional cuisine to create positive awareness about their country and its culture. Just like Asian country, the government created a strategy to raise the public awareness of Peruvian cuisine.. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(36) Several organizations such as the Peruvian Society of Gastronomy (APEGA) or the Ministries of Culture and of Foreign Relations, were created to research strategy on gastrodiplomacy. In term of using opinion leader, the strategy “Cocina para el Mundo” used stars and various celebrities, from supermodel Eva Mendez to US vice president Al Gore, to testify the quality of Peruvian cuisine. Moreover, one of the main goals the Peruvian government is trying to achieve is the designation of Peruvian cuisine in the UNESCO “Intangible cultural heritage of humanity.” (Wilson, 2011) Moreover, APEGA also put an important emphasis on events strategy with the. 治政大 visitors in 2017 that came to gather food professionals, restaurants and welcome over 400,000 立 Mistura yearly event in Lima. Mistura is the most important food fair in Latin America’s that. discover Peruvian cuisine and culture.. ‧ 國. 學. France was a latecomer in the field of gastrodiplomacy although French cuisine was. ‧. considered by UNESCO as “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” in 2010. In 2014, the Ministry of foreign affairs started to launch a gastrodiplomacy campaign allocating €300’000 to. y. Nat. er. io. sit. promote French food through the use of opinion leader strategy, such as appointing famous French chef as Culinary Ambassadors or the use of product marketing with for example the. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. approval stamp of “True French restaurant” (Litzler, 2014). Moreover, in term of education,. engchi. French have a few step ahead of other nation with French cooking schools created at the end of the 19th century. The school “Cordon Bleu” for example, is located in 5 continents and promote cooking proficiency globally. Last but not least, France also promoted regional food as part of its strategy, a technique to increase the variety of food promoted abroad. The Brittany region of France, for example positions itself with a hint of hyperbole as ‘an Olympus for the gods of food and drink’ (Dinnie, 2015).. 30. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(37) Similarly to France, the United States is also a latecomer in term of gastrodiplomacy strategy. Hilary Clinton stated the importance that food have in international relations in culinary diplomacy term and increased the showcase of American fine food in the White House. In 2011 they started their culinary diplomacy by sending “culinary ambassadors” around the world and have partnership with Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (Chapple-Sokol, 2013). However, in term of gastrodiplomacy, the US, like many other countries, fell behind considering the Asian strategy on gastrodiplomacy.. 2.3 The Case Study of Taiwan/ 治 Taiwan cuisine and. 立. gastrodiplomacy. 政. 大. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwan diplomatic situation has been shifting since the 1950. From the 1950 to 1971, called. ‧. the Golden Era. Under the Eisenhower period administration, the United States of American was helping Taiwan in order to restrain Chinese influence in the region. However, between the 1971. y. Nat. er. io. sit. and the 1988, diplomatic isolation force Taiwan to yield its seat of International Monetary Fund and World Bank and other major administration to the People Republic of China, Only since. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. president Lee in 1988 did Taiwan started a more pragmatic view of diplomacy and slowly trying. engchi. to return to the world major institutions, thus strengthen Taiwan’s international status, through good neighborliness and establishing relations with numerous countries that also have diplomatic ties with China (Hickey, 2006). Nevertheless, the diplomatic situation of the ROC is not at is best, with a very limited amount of twenty diplomatic allies and no support from great power.. 31. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.

(38) Table 2.6 Taiwan diplomatic allies in May 2018 East Asia and pacific Kiribati. Africa. Latin America. Kingdom of Swaziland. Europe. Belize. Nauru. El Salvador. Solomon Islands Republic of the Marshall Island Republic of Palau Tuvalu. Haiti Nicaragua. Holy See (Vatican). St Kitts and Nevis St Vincent and the Grenadines The Republic of Guatemala The Republic of Honduras The Republic of Paraguay Saint Lucia. 政治大. 學. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 立. sit. Source: ROC Ministry of Foreign Affairs https://www.mofa.gov.tw in May 2018. n. al. er. io. Nevertheless, Taiwan still maintains formal diplomatic relations through 96 official and unofficial. i n U. v. representative or branch office around the world in 58. Moreover the involvement with Non-states. Ch. engchi. actors such as Non-governmental Organization also plays an important role in shaping Taiwan foreign policy with important commitment in post-disaster relief, disease prevention and response to climate change mitigation efforts (Executive Yuan, 2016).. 2.3.1 Taiwan soft power Being so diplomatically isolated, Taiwan relies mostly on its soft power resources to communicate and represent its values in the international community. The goal of Taiwan foreign policy is to reach and attract the great power that it cannot attract using formal diplomacy by. 32. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMPIS.002.2018.A06.